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Why Does Father Involvement Promote Why Does Father Involvement Promote Child & Adolescent Development? Child & Adolescent Development?

Addressing an Under-Theorized IssueAddressing an Under-Theorized Issue

Joseph H. PleckJoseph H. PleckUniversity of IllinoisUniversity of Illinois

Father Involvement Research 2008 Father Involvement Research 2008 ConferenceConference

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Growing evidence that father Growing evidence that father involvement has positive effectsinvolvement has positive effects

but, why?but, why? why why askask “why?” “why?”

important to have theory underlying important to have theory underlying practicepractice

one task in program evaluation: one task in program evaluation: “surface” the underlying program theory“surface” the underlying program theory

analysis of theory is a rarely-used lens analysis of theory is a rarely-used lens through which to understand fathering through which to understand fathering and fathering researchand fathering research

objective: toward a theory of father objective: toward a theory of father influencesinfluences

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Father involvementFather involvement

concept’s evolution since Lamb & concept’s evolution since Lamb & Pleck (1985)Pleck (1985)

reshaping of the “engagement” reshaping of the “engagement” component component

addition of elements from authoritative addition of elements from authoritative parental styleparental style

father involvement, c. 2008father involvement, c. 20081.1. engagement in positive activities and engagement in positive activities and

interactioninteraction2.2. warmth & responsivenesswarmth & responsiveness3.3. monitoring & controlmonitoring & control

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Effects of father involvement: Effects of father involvement: A recent research exampleA recent research example

Ryan, Martin, & Brooks-Gunn (2006)Ryan, Martin, & Brooks-Gunn (2006) data: the Early Head Start studydata: the Early Head Start study observational measures observational measures parental parental

“supportiveness”“supportiveness” shows effect of father involvement shows effect of father involvement

controlling for mother involvementcontrolling for mother involvement outcome studied: Bayley Mental outcome studied: Bayley Mental

Development Index (BDMI) @ 24 & 36 Development Index (BDMI) @ 24 & 36 mos.mos.

F

F3

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F3

the “5 point difference”

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4 possible sources for a theory of 4 possible sources for a theory of father influencesfather influences

1.1. attachment theoryattachment theory

2.2. ““essential father” theoryessential father” theory

3.3. ecological theoryecological theory

4.4. social capital theorysocial capital theory

I. Attachment theory

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Attachment: A “big idea” in Attachment: A “big idea” in human developmenthuman development

secure attachment: affectional tie secure attachment: affectional tie between infant & caregiver such between infant & caregiver such that: that: 1. presence of attachment figure 1. presence of attachment figure

promotes toddler's exploration (“secure promotes toddler's exploration (“secure base”) base”)

2. presence of attachment figure is 2. presence of attachment figure is comforting when infant is distressedcomforting when infant is distressed

first major outcome/milestone in first major outcome/milestone in social developmentsocial development

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first study of infant-father attachment: Kotelchuk (1967)

% of infants with varying patterns of father % of infants with varying patterns of father & mother attachment& mother attachment

nono yesyes

nono 25%25%AA

23%23%BB

yesyes 25%25%CC

27%27%DD

secure att. to mother?

source: Main & Weston (1985)

secure attach.to father?

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

insecure withboth

insecure Mosecure Fa

secure Moinsecure Fa

secure withboth

social responsiveness @ 36 monthssocial responsiveness @ 36 months

A B C D

source: Main & Weston (1985)

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CritiqueCritique

implication: father involvement is implication: father involvement is important only in the earliest yearsimportant only in the earliest years ““early determinism”early determinism”

the theory is controversial in the theory is controversial in developmental sciencedevelopmental science theory’s adherents are devoted, but theory’s adherents are devoted, but

small in numbersmall in number just too narrow in: age period of just too narrow in: age period of

effects, acceptance within human effects, acceptance within human developmentdevelopment

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II. “Essential father” theory

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Essential Father TheoryEssential Father Theory

““surfaced” by Silverstein & Auerbach surfaced” by Silverstein & Auerbach (1999), “Deconstructing the essential (1999), “Deconstructing the essential father”father”

fathers make a contribution to child fathers make a contribution to child development that is development that is essentialessential unique unique uniquely maleuniquely male

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1. Essential contribution?1. Essential contribution?

one counter-example is sufficient to one counter-example is sufficient to invalidateinvalidate

USA TodayUSA Today, Aug. 28, 2008, Aug. 28, 2008

““Single Mom’s Sons Can Single Mom’s Sons Can Succeed, New Research Shows”Succeed, New Research Shows”

((!!!!!!))

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1. Essential contribution?1. Essential contribution?

one counter-example is sufficient to one counter-example is sufficient to invalidateinvalidate

USA TodayUSA Today, Aug. 28, 2008, Aug. 28, 2008

““Single Mom’s Sons Can Single Mom’s Sons Can Succeed, New Research Shows”Succeed, New Research Shows”

((!!!!!!))

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2. Unique contribution?2. Unique contribution?

evidence most often cited: evidence most often cited: comparison of child outcomes in comparison of child outcomes in families with/without resident fathers families with/without resident fathers

limitations of this comparisonlimitations of this comparison

A. the two kinds of families differ in A. the two kinds of families differ in many many other respects besides father other respects besides father residenceresidence

when these are taken into account, when these are taken into account, differences in child outcomes reduced, differences in child outcomes reduced, if not eliminatedif not eliminated

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B. The father presence/absence B. The father presence/absence comparison confoundscomparison confounds

absence of a resident fatherabsence of a resident father numbernumber of resident parents of resident parents

to isolate effect of presence/absence to isolate effect of presence/absence of a male parent, need to compareof a male parent, need to compare single father & single mother familiessingle father & single mother families better: 2-parent heterosexual families & better: 2-parent heterosexual families &

2-parent lesbian families2-parent lesbian families resultsresults

Wainright, Russell, & Patterson (2004, Wainright, Russell, & Patterson (2004, 2006, 2007) 2006, 2007)

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C. Broader shift in developmental C. Broader shift in developmental thinkingthinking

rather than view a particular rather than view a particular influence as an influence as an all-determiningall-determining factor factor

instead view it as a instead view it as a risk/supportrisk/support factorfactor

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Fathering as risk/support,Fathering as risk/support, rather than as all-determinative rather than as all-determinative

a more realistic and accurate viewa more realistic and accurate view does does notnot diminish the importance of diminish the importance of

fathering fathering analogous to how other influences on analogous to how other influences on

health and development operatehealth and development operate

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3. Uniquely 3. Uniquely malemale contribution? contribution?

on the one hand, we know that many on the one hand, we know that many fathers have found this idea to be fathers have found this idea to be inspirationalinspirational

on the other hand…on the other hand… assumes complete non-overlap in assumes complete non-overlap in

fathers’ and mothers’ behaviorfathers’ and mothers’ behavior

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1997 Child Development Supplement:1997 Child Development Supplement:Engagement time, children aged 3-5Engagement time, children aged 3-5

Activity Activity Fathers' Fathers' time time (hrs/day)(hrs/day)

abs. abs. engage.engage.

Mothers' Mothers' time time (hrs/day)(hrs/day)

Fath/moth Fath/moth (%)(%) relrel. engage.. engage.

caregivingcaregiving .41.41 .58.58 71%71%

play/play/comp.*comp.*

.69.69 .79.79 87%87%

teachingteaching .07.07 .17.17 40%40%

total**total** 1.961.96 2.682.68 73%73%*companionship**also includes household & social activities

Pleck calculation from Yeung et al. (2001)

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In addition to assuming complete In addition to assuming complete non-overlap…non-overlap…

ignores heterogeneity among fathersignores heterogeneity among fathers entails entails manymany other assumptions about who other assumptions about who

fathers are (and who fathers are fathers are (and who fathers are notnot)) simple test: “we should support ______ to be simple test: “we should support ______ to be

more involved because they make a more involved because they make a uniquely male contribution to development”uniquely male contribution to development” gay/bi/trans fathersgay/bi/trans fathers fathers who do not engage in rough & tumble fathers who do not engage in rough & tumble

playplay fathers who are not good at sportsfathers who are not good at sports etc.etc.

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Essential, unique, male contribution?Essential, unique, male contribution?

an idea many believe, & and have an idea many believe, & and have found inspirationalfound inspirational

but, not supported by the evidencebut, not supported by the evidence sounds good in the abstract, but falls sounds good in the abstract, but falls

down when we “plug in” the diversity down when we “plug in” the diversity of fathersof fathers

can be harmfulcan be harmful

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The alternativeThe alternative

instead of “essential,” “unique,” instead of “essential,” “unique,” “male”…“male”…

fathers make a fathers make a vitally important vitally important contributioncontribution, in varying forms, in varying forms

theoretical basistheoretical basis Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of

human developmenthuman development social capital theorysocial capital theory

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III. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological III. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, & “proximal process”theory, & “proximal process”

Urie Bronfenbrenner, Urie Bronfenbrenner, The Ecology of The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Designby Nature and Design (1979) (1979)

textbook presentations emphasize textbook presentations emphasize multiple ecological levels, nested multiple ecological levels, nested within each otherwithin each other microsystemmicrosystem mesosystemmesosystem exosystemexosystem macrosystemmacrosystem chronosystemchronosystem

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Equally or more important:Equally or more important:“Proximal process”“Proximal process”

Human development…takes place Human development…takes place through a process of through a process of progressively progressively more complexmore complex, , reciprocalreciprocal interactions interactions between an between an active, evolving,active, evolving, biopsychologicalbiopsychological human organism and human organism and the persons in his or her the persons in his or her microsystems…Such enduring forms of microsystems…Such enduring forms of interaction…are referred to as interaction…are referred to as ‘‘proximal processesproximal processes.’” .’” (Bronfenbrenner, (Bronfenbrenner,

1994, p. 1641)1994, p. 1641)

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Provides a basis for understanding Provides a basis for understanding paternal influencespaternal influences

positive activity engagementpositive activity engagement progressively more complex, reciprocal progressively more complex, reciprocal

interactioninteraction warmth & responsivenesswarmth & responsiveness

responsive = reciprocalresponsive = reciprocal warmth: basis for control being effectivewarmth: basis for control being effective

monitoring & controlmonitoring & control reciprocal interaction herereciprocal interaction here

model also provides basis for model also provides basis for understanding how ecological factors understanding how ecological factors influence fatheringinfluence fathering

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Negative forms ofNegative forms offather involvementfather involvement

our work: not just promoting positive our work: not just promoting positive involvementinvolvement

also reducing/preventing negative also reducing/preventing negative forms of involvementforms of involvement harsh, punitive fatheringharsh, punitive fathering child abuse and neglect by fatherschild abuse and neglect by fathers

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IV. Social capital theoryIV. Social capital theory

James Coleman: parents provideJames Coleman: parents provide financial capitalfinancial capital social capitalsocial capital

familyfamily social capital social capital: : cognitive-social developmentcognitive-social development school readinessschool readiness educational aspirationseducational aspirations

communitycommunity social capital (from social capital (from parents):parents):

advocacyadvocacy network sharingnetwork sharing knowledge sharingknowledge sharing

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Links to father involvementLinks to father involvement

familyfamily social capital social capital transmitted, in part, by the 3 components transmitted, in part, by the 3 components

of father involvement (positive of father involvement (positive engagement, warmth-responsiveness, engagement, warmth-responsiveness, control-monitoring)control-monitoring)

model puts father involvement/family model puts father involvement/family social capital in the context of other social capital in the context of other ways that fathers can foster ways that fathers can foster developmentdevelopment financial capital (= economic support)financial capital (= economic support) communitycommunity social capital (advocacy, social capital (advocacy,

networks, and knowledge sharing)networks, and knowledge sharing)

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An integrated “ecological-parental An integrated “ecological-parental capital” theory of father influencecapital” theory of father influence

the fatherhood field has needed a the fatherhood field has needed a more explicit view of more explicit view of whywhy and and howhow father involvement has positive father involvement has positive effects effects

attachment theory and essential attachment theory and essential father theory are not adequatefather theory are not adequate

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Best theoretical basis Best theoretical basis for father workfor father work

Bronfenbrenner’s characterization of Bronfenbrenner’s characterization of “proximal process” interaction“proximal process” interaction promotes “family social capital”promotes “family social capital”

supplement with Coleman’s analysis supplement with Coleman’s analysis of parents’ provision of of parents’ provision of communitycommunity social capital social capital advocacy, networks, knowledge sharing advocacy, networks, knowledge sharing

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let us proceed with our work with let us proceed with our work with fathers in the knowledge that we fathers in the knowledge that we know why the behaviors in know why the behaviors in fathers we work so hard to fathers we work so hard to promote should, and do, have promote should, and do, have the good effects that we strive the good effects that we strive forfor