10 - influenza e persuasione...time 1 time 2 credible source non-credible source figure 4.9 the...

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Persuasione – dalla fonte al ricevente

Psicologia Sociale e della Comunicazione

La Fonte


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Leadership come capacità di Influenza e Persuasione

Hovland – Gruppo di Yale – 1942

Fonte

l  Persuasione Messaggio

Ricevente

Fonte: simile a noi, attraente, familiare, affidabile, disinteressata, esperta…ma anche fonti non esperte hanno effetto a lungo termine (sleeper effect)


Fonte: credibilità

Hovland e Weiss, 1951 – Sottomarino nucleare

T1 Opinione iniziale su tema di attualità

Manipolazione sperimentale della credibilità della fonte:

Pravda Oppenheimer

Ricevente: studenti statunitensi Messaggio: possibilità di costruire un sottomarino nucleare

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Fonte: credibilità




Pravda Oppenheimer


Risultati

T2 Fonte credibile à cambiamento di opinione


Fonte: credibilità




Pravda Oppenheimer


Risultati

T2 Fonte credibile à cambiamento di opinione

T3 (4 settimane) Sleeper effect

Fonte credibile à opinione iniziale

Fonte non credibile à cambiamento di opinione

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121Attitudes

replicated the original experiment but reminded participants of the source before their attitudes were reassessed. This eliminated the sleeper effect.

SummaryIn this section we have looked at attitude change. Attitudes can change via self-perception if the attitude is initially very weak, or it is less important for our self-concept, or via cognitive dissonance processes when we have a clear opinion of the issue at hand or it is important to us. While self-perception and dissonance-reduction lead to attitude change from internal processes, there can also be external pressures to change our attitudes, such as from the media, advertising, political par-ties, etc. We can process persuasive messages in either of two ways: systematically via the central route, or heuristically via the peripheral route. A number of factors influence which route is taken: speed of speech, mood, self-relevance, individual differences in processing tendencies and humour. If the peripheral route is taken then surface characteristics like attractiveness, similarity and perceived credibility will determine whether attitude change occurs.

Per

cent

age

Att

itude

Cha

nge

20

15

10

5

0Time 1 Time 2

Non-credible sourceCredible source

Figure 4.9 The sleeper effect. Data from Hovland and Weiss (1951)


Leader come Fonte

Leader: persona in grado esercitare influenza sugli altri membri del gruppo. Più alto in status.

l Approcci principali:

Personalità, caratteristiche del “grande uomo”, carisma

Stili di leadership: caratteristiche comportamentali del leader

Modelli della contingenza: interazione tra caratteristiche situazionali e stile di leadership

Modelli transazionali: rapporto bi-direzionale tra membri e leader

Posizione centrale nella rete di comunicazioni

Maggiore capacità di influenza e di persuasione

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Modelli Transazionali

•  Pongono in primo piano il ruolo dei follower Hollander: Il leader deve acquisire credito nei confronti dei membri I leaders sono valutati secondo: Adesione normativa, quanto il leader mostra di accettare le norme (almeno inizialmente); •  Competenza, quanto è competente in merito agli obiettivi del gruppo; •  Scelta, quanto è stato scelto / imposto dall’esterno; •  Identificazione, quanto si identifica con il gruppo.


Leadership come posizione nella comunicazione

Reti di Comunicazione: modalità di gestione delle informazioni nel gruppo

Bavelas: indici quantitativi attraverso cui differenziare le reti

di distanza: numero minimo di legami che occorre attraversare per andare dal nodo A al nodo B

di centralità: numero di comunicazioni che passano tramite un nodo della rete

Osservare anche le sequenze comunicative (inizio / fine)

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Leadership come capacità di Influenza e Persuasione

l  Credibilità / Legittimità à Internalizzazione

l  Attrazione / Esempio à Identificazione

l  Potere di Ricompensa à Condiscendenza


Potere come forma di Influenza

Potere: influenza potenziale di A su B

Basato su principi autocratici, padronali, di competenze, democratici

Dal punto di vista di B, French e Raven distinguono tra potere

Legittimo: basato su norme e valori interiorizzati

di Competenza: B riconosce che A ha delle conoscenze superiori e crede che le stia impiegando

di Ricompensa: B vuole o teme rinforzi o punizioni (positivo o coercitivo),

di Esempio: B si identifica con A

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Continuum dell’obbedienza


Obbedienza all’autorità

Milgram, 1963

Adattato da milgram, 1974

L’allievo è un collaboratore: finge di

ricevere le scosse Lo sperimentatore

incita il “maestro” a compiere il

proprio ruolo

Il soggetto sperimentale fa il “maestro”: deve punire l’allievo se sbaglia. La punizione è una scossa elettrica da 15 a 450 volt

La distanza tra i tre è manipolata nelle repliche

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Obbedienza all’autorità

Milgram, 1963 – Da studenti ad aguzzini

l  Condizione standard: il 65% dei “maestri” somministra scosse massime, di 450 Volt, etichettate chiaramente come molto pericolose

l  Condizione di contatto fisico (massima vicinanza maestro-allievo): fino al 30% di partecipanti

l  Condizione di minore pressione normativa (assenza dello sperimentatore) la percentuale scende al 20% ca.

Interpretazione: i partecipanti sono in uno stato eteronomico: prevale la norma dell’obbedienza ad una autorità (legittima, in un sistema cui si aderisce, che esercita pressione) rispetto alle norme soggettive.

Il comportamento è normativamente appropriato, quindi è messo in atto, anche se a livello individuale è molto costoso…


l’Autorità come fonte di influenza

Autorità come Costruzione Sociale Discorsiva discursive products worked up to perform particular social actions

in particular contexts.

In che modo i partecipanti hanno usato le categorie di Credenza, Conoscenza, Pensiero?

Studio degli scambi discorsivi tra Experimenter & Teacher

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Resistere all’influenza dell’Autorità

Gibson, S. (2014). Discourse , Defiance , and Rationality : “ Knowledge Work ” in the “ Obedience ” Experiments. Journal of Social Issues, 70(3), 424–438.

Autorità come Costruzione Sociale Discorsiva discursive products worked up to perform particular social

actions in particular contexts.

In che modo i partecipanti hanno usato le categorie di Credenza, Conoscenza, Pensiero?

Studio degli scambi discorsivi tra Experimenter & Teacher


Resistere all’influenza dell’Autorità

Almeno 1/3 dei partecipanti resiste

3 Strategie:

knowledge claims (I know),

denials of knowledge (I don’t know),

appeals to common knowledge (you know)

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Il comportamento del destinatario come fonte di influenza

Dissonanza cognitiva Impegno crescente Colpo Basso; Piede nella porta


Contesto l  (info?)

Comportamento Informazione Atteggiamento

Contesto l  (info?)

Self-Perception – Sé come fonte

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Self-Perception – Facial Feebback (Strack et al., 1988) 100 Essential Social Psychology

sub sequent attitudes. Participants who felt like they were smiling while forming an impression of the cartoon misattributed their facial expression as being indicative of their opinion towards it. People who felt like they were frowning did the same and formed a negative opinion (see Chapter 12 for how such misattributions can also lead to romantic attraction).

Although self-perception theory provides a neat explanation for Strack et al.’s (1988) findings, there is an alternative. Zajonc (1993) argued for a physiological explanation for the effect – the vascular theory of emotion. Zajonc argued that smiling (or any behav-iour that feels like smiling) causes the facial muscles to increase the flow of blood to the brain, which then creates a positive mood by lowering brain temperature. In contrast, frowning constricts facial muscles, lowering blood flow to the brain, and increasing brain temperature, causing a negative mood. Supporting this idea, Zajonc et al. (1989) found that making vowel sounds that mimicked frowning (e.g. ‘u’ or ‘o’) lowered fore-head temperature and lowered mood, whereas vowel sounds that mimicked smiling (e.g. ‘a’ or ‘e’) decreased forehead temperature and elevated mood.

Functional ApproachThe three ways in which attitudes can form discussed so far – exposure, learning and self-perception – all operate apparently outside of people’s awareness. Typically

Figure 4.4 Illustration of the type of facial feedback manipulation used by Strack et al. (1988)

Vedi anche CNV - Ekman

Il Messaggio


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Mere Exposure (Zajonc, 1968)


93Attitudes

25 times, etc. Following this, in phase 2 participants were told that the characters were adjectives and that the experimenter would like them to guess whether they were positive or negative in connotation. The adjectives were then presented one more time to the participants who rated the favourability of each one (i.e. whether they thought the symbol represented an adjective indicative of something positive or negative).

Zajonc found a positive linear correlation between exposure frequency and lik-ing (see Figure 4.1). In other words, the more the symbol had been presented to participants in phase 1, the more positive were their feelings towards it in phase 2. Controlling for all other variables (the symbols were completely new to par-ticipants), mere exposure had a significant impact on attitudes. The implications of this finding were considerable and wide-ranging. It suggested that familiarity does not, as the old adage says, breed contempt, nor does absence make the heart grow fonder. On the contrary – it appears that, quite simply, the more we see something, the more we like it.

There have been many replications of the mere exposure effect, and recent meta-analyses have confirmed that it is a very robust phenomenon. Some interesting stud-ies subsequent to Zajonc’s include one by Mita, Dermer, and Knight (1977). In their experiment, participants were shown two photographs of themselves (taken prior to the experiment). One was a normal photograph, but the other was the mirror image of this original image. In other words, the first image was analogous to the perspective other people normally have of us (like we normally see in a photograph of ourselves) while the second was the perspective we are used to seeing (our mir-ror image, which we see every day). The prints were taken so that they would be

5

4

3

20 1 2 5 10 25

Favo

urab

ility

Rat

ing

Exposure Frequency

Figure 4.1 The relationship between exposure and liking. Data from Zajonc (1968)

Mere Exposure


96 Essential Social Psychology

Interpreting the FindingsThe researchers noticed after the experiment that many of the participants indi-cated that although they usually liked rock-and-roll music, they did not like the antiquated style of music used in this experiment. The mere exposure effect assumes that stimuli are novel and neutral in connotation. If participants began with an initially negative attitude towards the music, however, repeated expo-sure may strengthen these negative affective reactions. To test this hypothesis, Brickman and colleagues conducted a further study in which participants were exposed to abstract paintings that they had previously rated very positively, very negatively, or neutrally. The figure shows what they found.

As expected, people with an initially neutral impression of the paintings liked them more with repeated exposure, as did people with an initially positive impression of the paintings. However, participants with an initially negative atti-tude liked the paintings less with repeated exposure. This confirmed a bound-ary condition on the effectiveness of mere exposure for improving attitudes: the initial attitude must be neutral or positive. This is consistent with the idea that mere exposure is most applicable when little is initially known about the attitude object.

Associative LearningThere are two ways in which we can learn by association, either implicitly through classical conditioning, or explicitly through operant conditioning. Classical con-ditioning refers to a learning process that occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes an emotional response (i.e. learning through implicit association; Pavlov, 1906). Consequently, the previously neutral stimulus,

170

150 Positive

Neutral

Negative

130

110

90

70

50

30

10

Liki

ng

Frequency of Exposure1 2 5 10

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Messaggio: qualità delle argomentazioni

Messaggi a senso unico?

“The hypothesized superiority of pre-exposure to weakened counterarguments runs counter to recommendations frequently repeated in investigations of prisoner-of-war behavior during the Korean conflict (Kinkead, 1959; United States Senate, 1956). The readiness of American personnel under prison camp conditions to surrender their prior convictions regarding proper behavior has been attributed to the failure of our formal and informal instructional institutions—home, school, army, etc.—to provide these soldiers with sufficient knowledge of "American" ideals and the reasons for maintaining them. Consequently, it was concluded, such vulnerability can be reduced in the future if our schools and other institutions teach more explicitly the reasons for maintaining these beliefs. The present hypothesis predicts that, on the contrary, pre- exposure to the counterarguments themselves (in weakened form) is more effective as an immunizing agent than is the presentation of arguments supporting the cultural truism.”



IMMUNIZATION AGAINST PERSUASION 331

TABLE 1BELIEFS AFTER IMMUNIZATION BUT BEFORE EXPOSURE TO STRONG COUNTERARGUMENTS

(15 = absolute agreement; 1 = absolute disagreement)

Issues

DMPT

Weightedmean

Total N

Immunization Condition

Reading

Supportive

Passive

14.7515.0014.6714.22

14.62

32

Underline

15.0014.2212.6214.89

14.16

32

Refutational

Passive

15.0013.1414.6714.22

14.34

35

Underline

14.5012.7115.0014.14

14.13

31

Writing

Supportive

Outline

14.1114.6214.1114.83

14.38

32

No outline

13.8314.3314.1114.38

14.19

32

Refutational

Outline

13.5713.0013.7114.30

13.71

31

No outline

14.5712.2212.6714.50

13.46

35

Control (NoImmuniza-

tion)

13.3913.2213.4113.02

13.26

260

TABLE 2BELIEFS AFTER BOTH IMMTJNIZATOIN AND EXPOSURE TO THE STRONG COUNTERARGUMENTS

(15 = absolute agreement; 1 = absolute disagreement)

Issues

DMPT

Weighted meanTotal N

StrongCounterargu-ments Only

(No Immuni-zation)

4.747.068.626.42

6.64130

Immunization Condition

Reading

Supportive

Passive

8.256.178.786.33

7.4732

Underline

9.505.33

11.625.11

7.6332

Refutational

Passive

12.7011.1411.1011.00

11.5135

Underline

10.0010.8613.8610.29

11.1331

Writing

Supportive

Outline

9.008.757.675.67

7.9432

Nooutline

9.174.897.565.25

6.5332

Refutational

Outline

7.578.719.71

10.30

9.1931

Nooutline

7.577.33

10.8911.40

9.4635

Control (NoImmunizationor Counterar-

guments)

12.8811.5013.4412.69

12.62130

than the 6.64 point level to which they werereduced after no defense at all. Even the mosteffective supportive defense (writing-with-outline) was superior to no-defense only on the.13 level of significance; and the poorest sup-portive defense (writing-without-outline) wasactually (though trivially) worse than nodefense at all, as can be seen in Table 2.

Comparative Efficacy of the Different Participa-tion Conditions

The defensive treatments clearly lost effec-tiveness to the extent that they required thesubject's unguided active participation in thedefense. This detrimental effect is seen mostclearly if we consider the major manipulation

of participation, reading vs. writing. Thereading conditions had a greater (p = .05)direct strengthening effect (see Table 1), andeven more pronounced, a greater (p < .001)immunization effect (see Table 2).

All four of the comparisons between minormanipulations of participation were in thesame direction. Passive reading proved supe-rior to reading-and-underlining in regard toboth direct strengthening and immunization.Likewise, writing-from-outline proved moreeffective than writing-without-outline in boththese respects. While all four effects were inthe same direction and agreed with the signifi-cant effect of the main (reading vs. writing)manipulations of participation their magni-

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Messaggi a senso unico? Dipende dall’atteggiamento iniziale

Disinformazione o att. favorevoleà comunicazione unilaterale Atteggiamento negativo à comunicazione bilaterale “Teoria della vaccinazione”: essere esposti a messaggi ambivalenti protegge dalla successiva esposizione di controargomentazioni

“gli è stata fornita la base per ignorare o squalificare gli argomenti negativi e, così vaccinato, tenderà a conservare la conclusione positiva”



La paura fa novanta? Relazione curvilineare - Janis 1967

Paura

Efficacia

Protection motivation theory - Rogers 1983

Rischio Protezione

1) Gravità del rischio 3) Efficacia dei consigli

2) Vulnerabilità al rischio 4) Auto-efficacia

Es. Autopalpazione: messaggio che sottolinea i rischi del non effettuarla, effetto in particolare per chi si ritiene competente nella auto-diagnosi (Meyerowitz e Chaiken, 1987)

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Framing ed Euristiche

Teoria del prospetto (Kahneman e Tversky, 1979)


Effetti subliminali

Possiamo esercitare influenza sugli altri senza che ne siano coscienti?

Coscienza

Consapevolezza percettiva: proprie percezioni qui e ora

Consapevolezza cognitiva: propri pensieri

Consapevolezza metacognitiva: riflessione sui propri processi mentali

Monitoraggio e controllo: vigilanza focalizzata

La coscienza come processo cognitivo che crea rappresentazioni simboliche attraverso l’elaborazione delle informazioni

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Effetti subliminali

Persuasione e Coscienza

Informazioni processate … Controllo sulle intenzioni comportamentali

Ad esempio

nei modelli a due vie... quando anche si segue la via top-down, l’attenzione è focalizzata su alcuni elementi (es. gli indici di categorizzazione) che sono processati intenzionalmente e quindi coscientemente portati a formare prime impressioni, atteggiamenti e opinioni

Invece... implicit social cognition


Priming e Comportamenti d’Acquisto

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N = 250 75 Chardonnay 75 Cabernet sauvignon



l  White wine compared to “no music condition”

powerful and heavy were 32% higher in the powerful and heavy music condition (mean rating = 5.64 > 4.28, , p.<.05)

subtle and refined were 31% higher in the subtle and refined music condition (6.84 > 5.24, p.<.05)

zingy and refreshing were 40% higher in the zingy and refreshing music condition (7.00 > 5.00, p.<.05)

mellow and soft were 26% higher in the mellow and soft music condition (7.20 > 5.72, p.<.05)

l  The same pattern was found in ratings of the red wine.

powerful and heavy were 60% higher (6.92>4.32, p.<.05)

subtle and refined were 41% higher (6.36>4.52, p.<.05)

zingy and refreshing were 43% higher (6.80>4.76, p.<.05)

mellow and soft were 25% higher (6.76>5.40, p.<.05)

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Matching goals and primes

Strahan, Spencer, and Zanna (forthcoming) subliminally primed thirstiness and caused thirsty, but not nonthirsty, participants to drink more of a purportedly thirst-quenching beverage ("SuperQuencher") than of a purportedly energy- giving beverage ("PowerPro").

In another study, they primed sadness and thereby caused participants to prefer listening to a CD purported to put them in a good mood rather than to a CD of music described as strong and powerful.

Again, in both studies non-goal-primed participants did not show these effects.

For the subliminal effects to occur required the match between the needs and goals of the participant and the needs that the product was alleged to satisfy


Priming & Goals

Accessibilità di obiettivi e comportamenti Discrepanza tra stato attuale e stato desiderato Valenza Affettiva degli obiettivi

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Nudging


Ricevente

Caratteristiche di personalità? Autostima bassa, maggiore influenzabilità; Umore? Intelligenza? Relazione tra Fonte, Messaggio e caratteristiche del ricevente? Messaggi con struttura logica complessa più persuasivi per persone intelligenti, slogan per persone meno intelligenti;

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Dopo 40 anni vasto insieme di risultati ma difficoltà nel sintetizzare le differenti

relazioni riscontrate tra le componenti elementari della comunicazione in una Teoria Generale del Processo Comunicativo

Anni ’80 – Modelli a due vie

ELM

Modello Euristico Sistematico

Anni ’90

Modello Unimodale


Elaboration Likelihood Model - Petty e Cacioppo 1981

Motivazione

Abilità

Fattori legati al compito

Differenze individuali

Fattori contestuali

Fattori legati al compito


Fattori contestuali

Attivazione (arousal)

Intenzione (scopi)

Sforzo Percorso Centrale

Elaborazione accurata

Percorso Periferico

indici secondari

?

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Dovete sostenere un nuovo esame

Petty, Cacioppo & Goldman, 1981

3 VI

Fonte: Esperta (commissione) vs. Non Esperta (Studenti)

Qualità del messaggio: 8 argomenti molto vs. poco convincenti

Rilevanza individuale: alta (tra 1 anno) vs. bassa (tra 10 anni)

Disegno sperimentale 2 x 2 x 2

VD: Accordo con l’introduzione di un nuovo esame


Motivazione

Abilità

Fattori legati al

compito


Fattori contestua

li

Fattori legati al

compito


Fattori contestua

li

Attivazione (arousal)

Intenzione (scopi)

Sforzo Percorso

Centrale

Elaborazione accurata

Percorso Periferico

indici secondari

Alta Bassa

Risultati (Petty et al. 1981)

Rilevanza individuale

Effetto della Qualità delle

Argomentazioni Indipendentemente

dalla fonte

Effetto della Qualità della Fonte Indipendentemente

Dalle argomentazioni

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