100,000 hours and beyond - wordpress.com · vale inco’s creighton mine: digging deeper by the day...
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VALE InCo’S CREIghTon mInE:
digging deeper by the day
mInIng FLEET AChIEVES
100,000 hours and beyond
Spence mine:
a publication of Caterpillar global Mining
in a few short years
Building the technologies FoR ThE mInE SITES oF ThE FuTuRE
2008: ISSuE 4
From greenfield to major producer
The reclamation of Sudbury:
The greening of a moonscape
AddRESSIng unIquE ChALLEngES wITh
drive train options for mining trucks
c Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
We take readers to Freeport-McMoRan’s Sierrita
mine in southern Arizona, USA—where adherence
to a world-class Preventive Maintenance program,
in partnership with Cat dealer Empire Machinery,
has resulted in a fleet of high-hour 793 trucks.
Our underground mining story features Vale Inco’s
Creighton mine in Ontario, Canada—a 105-year-
old nickel mine that is successfully addressing the
challenges of being one of the deepest mines in the
world. This mine is located near the City of Greater
Sudbury—also showcased in this issue. We tell the
story of how the community and the mining industry
came together to save a barren landscape.
Above ground, we present Spence mine, operated by
BHP Billiton in northern Chile. This new mine has
quickly become a major producer in the copper market.
This issue’s technology feature explains what will
have a significant impact on the future of the mining
industry—autonomy. While the building blocks
of autonomy have been in development—and in
use—for decades, the time is drawing near when
these technologies will combine to produce a truly
autonomous mine site. Not only does autonomy
address cost-per-ton challenges—it also has a
significant impact on safety by removing operators
from harmful environments.
Finally, we’re pleased to introduce the new,
advanced fleet of Cat mining trucks—including
two trucks with electric drive. This article shares
some of the behind-the-scenes details of the
development of the new Cat AC trucks.
Caterpillar editorial board: dan hellige, Editor; erik elsmark, wheel dozers and Loaders; John enderby, China and India; greg gardner, Europe, Africa and middle East; Chris gehner, underground mining; larry gregory, Trucks; dan hellige, Safety; tony Johnson, marketing; Kent lynch, Tractors; Keith Malison, Latin America and the Caribbean; patrick Mohrman, Field Support; glenn Morrison, Australia, Indonesia and new Zealand; shane o'brien, north America; david schricker, 6 Sigma
I’m pleased to present this edition of Viewpoint, a Caterpillar Global Mining publication produced for and about the mining industry. Thanks to the support of our customers, in this issue we’re able to share best practices from three mine sites around the world.
Viewpoint is a publication of Cat global Mining, producer of the mining industry’s broadest line of equipment and technology. Caterpillar serves the worldwide mining community through its vast dealer network and a single division called Caterpillar global mining, headquartered in Peoria, u.S.A., with additional offices worldwide.
Chris CurfmanPRESIdEnT, CATERPILLAR gLobAL mInIng
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 1
Mining fleet achieves
100,000 houRS And bEyond 2
FRom gREEnFIELd To mAjoR PRoduCER In A FEw ShoRT yEARS16
nEwS FRom CAT: 45
The reclamation of Sudbury:
ThE gREEnIng oF A moonSCAPE 32
Table of ConTenTs
FoR ThE mInE SITES oF ThE FuTuRE 38
Vale Inco’s Creighton mine: dIggIng dEEPER by ThE dAy 22
AddRESSIng unIquE ChALLEngES wITh
drive train options for mining trucks 10
buILdIng ThE TEChnoLogIES
Spence mine:
2 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
Mining Fleet aChieVes
100,000 hours and beyond
people and proCesses are Key
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 3
Caterpillar’s first 793A-series truck was put into
service at Sierrita in 1991, and is one of five 793s
on site that have worked in excess of 100,000
hours. It has undergone more than 200 preventive
maintenance services, consumed more than 17
million liters (4.5 million gallons) of fuel, and had
132 tire changes.
“No one really expected this truck to do the hours
that it has already achieved,” says mine manager
Derek Cooke. “It has already passed even the most
optimistic of expectations and is performing well.
Indeed, it is Sierrita’s intention that this haul truck
will run another 50,000 hours. I think I can safely
say there are several more years left in this truck.”
While these factors are significant in themselves, it
is the condition of the truck that is most impressive.
Despite its age and long hours of service, truck
availability remains high at 90.4 percent.
“It’s not the hours run by this machine as well
as others in the fleet that is unique, but their
condition and the availability that these trucks
have enjoyed that is so impressive,” notes Steve
Maracigan, account manager at Caterpillar dealer
Empire Machinery. “The remarkable availability
has been achieved through hard work, pride in
workmanship, and an adherence to a structured
maintenance process.”
Sierrita’s Connie Puckett, Remote Asset Monitoring
Project fleet coordinator, attributes the high
hours to the basic maintenance philosophy of her
department. “It goes right back to the basics,”
she says. “Have a good, thorough Preventive
Maintenance (PM) program, do your fluid changes
when they need to be done, monitor equipment
condition and application, and respond to keep the
equipment in the best condition that it can be.”
Being proactive
As mining equipment gets older, its availability
tends to decrease. However, this has not been
the case for the haul truck fleet operating at
Sierrita—due in large part to the fact that the mine
has a world-class PM program, with processes and
procedures in place to support its equipment fleet.
“The truck fleet was new, the maintenance
philosophy was not,” says Puckett. “We were
fortunate enough to start with a good piece of
equipment, then with Empire and Caterpillar
supporting our maintenance philosophy, we’ve
kept it that way, and in some cases we’ve actually
been able to improve the performance of
those trucks.”
One part of Sierrita’s maintenance program is a
pre-PM inspection, which involves a thorough
inspection of the truck about five days before it is
due to arrive at the maintenance shop. This ensures
Freeport-McMoRan Copper and Gold’s sierrita open-pit mine is a low-grade copper operation located in southern arizona, Usa, some 48 kilometers (30 miles) north of the Mexican border. While the mine is known for its copper and molybdenum production, the site is currently being recognized for the performance of its fleet of high-hour Caterpillar® 793 trucks—and the people, processes and service excellence that have led to this achievement.
1
1/ marco Cordero, a Preventive maintenance (Pm) technician, inspects a transmission screen in the Sierrita mine shop. Site-specific Pm checklists, proactive inspections, staging of Pm parts, and dedicated specialists all contribute to the effectiveness and efficiency of the site’s maintenance program.
4 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
that any replacement parts, specialized equipment
and appropriately skilled mechanics are available
the minute the truck enters the PM bay.
“The biggest challenge to getting a truck to operate
at over 90 percent availability is the sustainability
of a robust maintenance program,“ says Larry Kitto,
Empire Machinery’s director of mining. “Maintaining
this high degree of professionalism does not happen
by chance; it is an attitude that starts at the top and
filters down—without dilution—to every part of
the organization.”
Economic analysis illustrates that it is better to
rebuild a well-maintained haul truck that is in good
condition, than it is to retire it in order to buy a new
one. “Every piece of equipment has a life expectancy,”
says Maracigan, “But even after this time, it is still
worth maintaining it as replacement costs are so high,
and even new trucks still need to be maintained.”
Those who set in place a comprehensive program to
keep their machines in good condition with high
availability are now reaping the rewards which they
justly deserve, says Maracigan.
Finding the right people
The maintenance team at Sierrita has not
changed much over the years, which is unusual
for a mining operation, and the pride and
diligence they share in maintaining equipment is
illustrated by the high availability of the machinery.
This team has developed highly consistent
processes for maintaining equipment to world-
class standards—and has rightly earned the respect
of the mine. In fact, an audit of the maintenance
program, performed by Empire, Caterpillar and
Sierrita, found excellent and effective processes
already in place.
Cooke is clear that ensuring that the right things
happen comes down to good people. “I would like to say that it’s a complex collection of systems and procedures alone that is the key to our success here at sierrita, but in the end it is the people who execute it all that make the difference,” he says. “We
have excellent people throughout the team. Larry
Buhlke, Sierrita’s maintenance superintendent, has
high expectations, holds his people accountable
and is always looking to correct even the smallest of
details. We have a great group of supervisors, and
a fantastic work force. They all take pride in their
contributions in support of this haul truck fleet—
which operates at a level of availability that some
mining operations can only dream of.”
The partnership with Empire is key. “Unforeseen
breakdowns are a major issue at any mine,”
says Tony Sharpe, Empire’s project manager at
Sierrita. “Empire and Sierrita’s maintenance and
operations staffs work together, doing everything
they can to ensure that breakdowns do not occur.”
The mechanics have a great relationship with the
operational side of the mine, which also contributes
to the overall health of the haulage fleet. Each
understands the work and responsibilities of the
other, says Sharpe, and they all have a mutual
respect for each other’s work.
1/ Tony Sharpe, Empire machinery’s on-site project manager at Sierrita, regularly attends the mine’s daily maintenance and operations department meeting.
2/ maintenance and operations department personnel meet daily to communicate machine status, review maintenance plans, and coordinate work between all parties.
3/ Truck unit no. 30, shown here at the Sierrita crusher, is one of five 793 trucks that have achieved over 100,000 hours of operation.1 2 3
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 5
Much of the maintenance work requires a high level
of technical expertise and involves many man-hours.
Sierrita’s maintenance crews include some of the
mine’s most dedicated performers—people who are
bright, enthusiastic and experienced. These teams
have an emotional buy-in for the machines for
which they are responsible, explains Maracigan, as
well as an immense sense of pride in keeping them
in excellent condition and running at high levels
of performance.
Following a coMponent replaceMent plan
One part of the maintenance program is the
Component Rebuild program, which involves
removing a component that is old, worn out or has
reached the end of its useful life, and replacing it
with a component that has been rebuilt to meet
Cat standards for durability and reliability. These
“old” components are sent to Empire’s component
rebuild center, where they are rebuilt and then
reinstalled into another Caterpillar machine
operating in Empire’s territory.
Sierrita depends on Empire to deliver quality
components. “We want to be able to take a
component that’s delivered to us and install it on
a piece of equipment, maintain it in the way we
have been taught is proper and correct, and for
that component to run its expected life without any
significant issues,” says maintenance coordinator
Connie Puckett, who has been at Sierrita more
than 20 years.
The key to successful component management is
the development of a detailed Planned Component
Replacement (PCR) program, which requires
defining a component’s life expectancy, ongoing
knowledge of its condition, appropriate response
to any reduction in performance and efficiency,
and replacement before breakdown, or—at the very
extreme—a catastrophic failure. Every major and
minor component is set up on a PCR interval.
“A component failure is an indication that your
maintenance program has failed,” says Sharpe.
“Component rebuild is all about having a process and
sticking to it. The dealers know they are investing
in the customer’s success through the component
rebuild program and that they cannot cut corners,
as this will only lead to issues at a later stage.”
Puckett believes part of Sierrita’s success with its
high-hour trucks was the ability to build its PCR
program from scratch. “We were able to start with
a fresh machine and build information as far as
our PCR program,” she says. “I’ve been basically
watching that truck, keeping track of everything,
since it was brand new.”
Sierrita and Empire have moved away from using
fixed interval “worked hours” as the sole indicator of
when a component should be replaced. “Today we also
look at condition-based factors such as cumulative
‘fuel burn’ as a better guide to the total work that
an engine has experienced during the course of its
life in the application,” explains Kitto. For example,
instead of replacing an engine once it has reached its
hours-based target life, Empire will now, based on its
condition, extend it for another 500 or 1,000 hours—
monitoring the filters, oil condition and consumption,
and overall operating performance, before making a
decision on when to replace the engine.
Following condition Monitoring processes
Another key part of Sierrita’s high-hour success
is its condition monitoring program. Condition
monitoring describes the collection of routines
that facilitate the early detection of changes in
equipment health, operation or application severity.
These processes support a repair-before-failure
approach to equipment management and guide
modifications to the maintenance plan, operation
or application. In its simplest form, condition
monitoring involves studying the state of machine
systems and components, as well as external factors
such as application severity that could—and do—
impact equipment health and longevity as a whole.
A successful condition monitoring program can:
• Reduce the number of failures and unscheduled
downtime repair events
• Favorably impact overall operation and
maintenance costs
• Promote efficient use of labor resources
6 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
• Improve equipment reliability / availability
• Increase production and reduce cost-per-ton
Sierrita employs a dedicated team that monitors
various aspects of equipment operating characteristics
including temperatures, pressures and speeds.
“Condition monitoring is not an exact science,” says
Kitto. “But by monitoring and studying the indicators
you gain an improved understanding of the operation
of the equipment as well as the operating environment
the equipment is working in. Sierrita’s approach to
condition monitoring helps support its repair-before-
failure strategy, resulting in optimized component
costs and equipment availability.”
The aspects of condition monitoring associated
with machine components can be sub-divided
into three parts:
• Proactive management of machine systems
and components
• Defect detection
• Application monitoring and management
The condition monitoring process can be
further broken down into sub-processes such
as inspections, fluids management, on-board
electronic data management, machine systems
performance tests, application analysis, and
learning from failures / failure analysis.
Puckett has described her role as maintenance
coordinator as being the “mother” of the truck fleet.
“I keep track of the component hours on the trucks,
the hours on the trucks themselves, the lubrication
changes, making sure everything is done at the
correct intervals,” she says. “I also record all of the
service that was done to them, all the work orders. It’s
my job to see that vital or important information is
recorded and kept. I have to schedule it in at the right
time. I’m not doing the work to the trucks myself, but
I am keeping track of the program so that everybody
else knows what they need to do to that truck.”
controlling contaMination
Paying attention to contamination control has
contributed to the high hours achieved by the
truck fleet at Sierrita. This reliability and durability
initiative helps equipment owners realize superior
value through the avoidance of component failures
and consequent longer component and product
lives, as well as optimized productivity throughout
the product’s life cycle.
Contamination control has two parts: Fluid analysis
/ management, and maintenance process /
environment cleanliness control.
Fluid analysis / management involves monitoring
contaminants and trace elements in lubricating fluids
and fuels. Anything that doesn’t belong in a fluid is
considered contamination. Particulate contaminants
are the most common—and the easiest to control.
They include dirt, metals, weld spatter, paint flakes,
rag fibers and sealing materials. Heat, water and air
also are considered contaminants. They combine to
break down the oil’s chemical composition, forming
oil oxidation and acids.
“We have found that even a small amount of
debris in lubricating fluids can significantly
reduce component lives,” explains Kitto.
“Lubricants are pumped through an off-board
filtration system which removes particles and
contaminants to achieve and maintain a higher
level of oil cleanliness.”
The second aspect of contamination control
monitors the cleanliness of the environment in
which the trucks are maintained, as well as the
maintenance and repair procedures employed in
that environment. To meet the highest standards,
maintenance environments must be dust-free,
closed from the outside, and spotlessly clean.
“ Contamination control is something we try to pay a lot of attention to,” says Puckett. “It’s like general good housekeeping. not only is that a good thing for your equipment as far as keeping contaminants down while you’re working on them, but it’s also a safety factor in our workshops for our employees. It provides a much safer working environment for our folks, so housekeeping is a big deal here.”
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 7
1/ Peter Cuevas and Clint mathews, Sierrita maintenance personnel, discuss repair options in the mine maintenance workshop.
2/ Sierrita’s component life optimization plan includes fluids management—scheduled oil sampling, oil filter management, fluids dialysis and more.1 2
Caterpillar has focused a considerable amount of
effort on all areas of contamination control for the
last five years. The company itself strives to:
• Build and ship clean components and machines
• Design machines, engines and components
so they are easy to keep clean
• Provide tools and services to help manage
contamination
• Educate others on the causes and effects of,
and solutions for, contamination.
Caterpillar dealers play a large role in a successful
contamination control program. Empire has an
assigned contamination control administrator
and follows established procedures within the
parts and service departments. Employees receive
ongoing training in contamination control and
have access to the proper tooling and particle
count capability.
Sierrita takes its role in contamination control
seriously as well, making sure everyone on the
site understands the importance. The shop and
parts warehouse operations follow established
procedures, and maintenance personnel ensure
the equipment meets Cat’s recommended
cleanliness targets after self-performed maintenance
and repairs. Indeed, the facilities at Sierrita have
obtained Caterpillar’s Five Star contamination
control rating.
taking advantage oF upgrades
While Sierrita’s high-hour 793 trucks are
technically A-series models because of their
original frames, they have been extensively
upgraded over their years in service and are now
more similar to a B-series truck. These upgrades
include an electronic injection engine (HD) as
well as the addition of the Vital Information
Monitoring System (VIMS) electronic data
monitoring system.
As a result of the proactive repair philosophy
followed by Sierrita and Empire, overall maintenance
costs have been low. Sierrita has taken advantage of
every applicable upgrade that Caterpillar has offered
as a means of ensuring maximum machine life;
as a result, the mine has not had to invest in new
8 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
replacement equipment. These upgrade programs
are just one of the many factors ensuring the truck
fleet retains a high level of availability.
“I believe this truck has better performance today
than what it had when it was new,” says Buhlke.
“It runs a little faster on the ramps and it’s a little
more fuel efficient than what it was with the short
stroke engine—and the life of the HD engine is
considerably more than what we were getting out of
the short stroke engine that came with the truck.”
“We’ve done all the frame modifications and any
other upgrades that Cat recommended on the truck,”
Buhlke continues. “We got that information and we
acted upon it to make the truck a better truck.”
training eMployees
Both Sierrita and Empire are actively involved in
the training of their maintenance and operations
personnel. Training is designed to ensure that both
groups of employees work with a high degree
of professionalism.
Mining companies know that highly trained and
skilled operators will perform safely and efficiently
in a variety of weather and road conditions.
Sierrita uses PC-based training aids and a haul
truck simulator on-site, which allows it to train its
operators in the basics of haul truck operation before
they are allowed to climb into a full-sized vehicle.
“We never turn a person loose until we feel confident
that they can safely handle the truck,” says Cathy
Fontes, senior training specialist at Sierrita. “Then
we usually give that person another couple of days
on day shift driving solo so they really know all the
locations and have a full understanding of the truck
and then they are assigned to their rotating crew.
Once they’re on their crew they do come back and go
with another trainer on the night shift, because we
feel strongly that night-time driving is a lot different
than the initial driving during the day.”
In addition, Sierrita operators are trained to
understand how their machines should operate—
and the serious situations that could develop if they
are not operating properly. This helps Sierrita make
any repairs before a serious problem develops.
“I believe that the detailed training we provide
does help with machine health,” says Fontes. “We
even assign our new drivers back after they’ve been
rotating for about a month. They go to the truck
shop, shadow a PM mechanic, ask questions. Maybe
they don’t understand the mechanical language, but
have driven long enough to understand ‘that doesn’t
feel right, that doesn’t smell right, that doesn’t
sound right.’ It sure helps them understand what
makes the truck tick so they can recognize when a
problem’s about to happen and I do believe that has
helped us obtain longer life on our trucks.”
Empire has a regional training center where
it trains its own mechanics as well as those of
customers and other dealers. Mechanics’ training
courses are similar to an apprentice program.
A new employee in the maintenance workshop
will work alongside an experienced maintenance
technician to learn about both the equipment and
its components. In addition, mechanics will attend
training classes that are run by the Empire Group
at its facilities in Mesa, Arizona.
1/ management of electronic data for on-site condition monitoring is a planned part of the Preventive maintenance program. john wilson is one of the many trained mechanics who are able to quickly review data and immediately take necessary corrective actions.
2/ Careful attention to haul road conditions is an integral part of the Sierrita operation. Rubber tire dozers clean up any spillage on haul roads that can cause premature failures of haul truck tires.
3/ Connie Puckett, Remote Asset monitoring Project (RAmP) fleet coordinator, has worked at the mine for over 20 years and plans the maintenance and repair program for the 793 fleet.
Freeport-McMoRan Copper and Gold’s Sierrita
mine, located 40 kilometers (25 miles) south
of Tucson, Arizona, is an open-pit copper/
molybdenum operation. The mine’s product
feeds a 104,000-tonnes-per-day (115,000-short-
tons-per-day) sulphide ore concentrator, a
molybdenum plant, two roasters and a rhenium
processing facility.
While the Sierrita property was first claimed
in the 1890s, the current open pit was begun
in 1957. The mine employs approximately
1,000 people. The site produces 73 million
kilograms (160 million pounds) of copper
and 8 million kilograms (18 million pounds)
of molybdenum per year. There are minable
reserves of about 1,100 million tonnes (1,200
million short tons). Average ore grade is 0.26
percent Cu, and 0.027 percent Mo.
Sierrita is one of the safest mines in the United
States, having earned the federal government's
prestigious Sentinels of Safety award as the
safest mine in the open-pit hard-rock mine
category in 1993, 1997, 1999 and 2001.
The Sierrita mine
1
2
3
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 9
Maintaining haul roads
Following maintenance procedures and programs
has a profound effect on the life of Sierrita’s
equipment, but mine site operations also play an
important role. In particular, Sierrita pays a lot of
attention to its haul roads in order to increase the
life of its trucks and their components.
“Haul roads are one of the most important things
that we have to take care of,” says senior engineer
and quality analyst Gary Perry. “We have the ability
to capture a lot of data from our Cat® trucks. We
put people in the trucks and we measured what the
responses of the trucks were to the different areas
in the pit in each of the haul roads. What we found
is that our haul roads, while we thought they were
really perfect, were not so perfect.”
Perry explains that the engine was responding
differently as they measured the haul roads in
9-meter (30-foot) segments. “We went in and we
profiled all of the roads every 9 meters (30 feet) and
then we prioritized what areas of the road needed
to be fixed,” he says. “We were able to reduce rock
spillage, we were able to take the stress off of our
equipment, and we were able to take the stress off
of our tires from going up and down through ruts.
You end up actually taking the stress away from
the truck, which saves you money.”
By reducing haul road grade variation, Sierrita
was able to increase the speed of the trucks and
reduce the number of high-energy transmission
shifts. “That reduces the amount of rocks that
are being spilled, so it actually is a very good cost
savings,” Perry says. “In addition to that there has
been a noticeable increase in component lives.
Minimizing transmission shifts reduces drive train
shock loads and, if you are bouncing up and down
with a 236-tonne load (260-ton load), you’re going
to have failures in your struts at some time. You’re
also likely to have structural failures that must be
repaired. You’re going to have failures in the seats in
your truck that can cause employees to get injured.
If you fix those haul roads so that you can drive in
a pick-up at 35 miles an hour (56 kph) comfortably,
not bouncing off the roof, you are going to end up
having a lot longer component life, a lot less damage
throughout the truck, and your drivers are going to
have a much better quality of life.”
working together
While Sierrita is happy with the performance of
its truck fleet, Perry says that doesn’t mean the
site will stop looking for ways to improve. Teams
of people will visit other Freeport-McMoRan sites
in a constant search for best practices that could
improve operations at Sierrita.
“For example, we’ll look at things like water
trucks,” says Perry. “How can you use them better?
Water trucks are necessary to control the dust, but
they can wreck the roads if used incorrectly, so
how can we use them differently? What kinds of
additives can we use?”
“It’s interesting when you pull in 10 or 15 people
from different areas and sit down and try to see
what best practices that you can use, whether we’re
talking about the trucks, the haul roads, the shovels,
or any other areas involved in mining operations,”
Perry continues. “one of the things that we’ve done here recently is we’ve put compactors at all of the properties. We’ve got these Cat compactors on our dumps, on our haul roads, on our shovel pits and even out on our drill surfaces where we’re going to be drilling in order to cut down on the stress. That’s the kind of continuous improvement idea that we’re always looking for.”Perry stresses that open communication is the key
to success. “We have constant communications
between our operators and our dispatch system,” he
says. “If things are going wrong, our operators are
actually empowered to directly call the truck shop
and talk to the people there in order to communicate
information accurately and in a timely manner.
Our shovel operators do the same thing. They
call back and forth between the operators or to
maintenance or to dispatch. There’s a large amount
of communications that takes place in order to get
things done correctly.”
10 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
addressing uniQue Challenges With
For Mining truCKsdrive train options
10 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 11
Off-highway trucks have continued to evolve since
their inception in the 1950s. While customer
demand drove much of the evolution, technology
played an important role. Take Caterpillar Inc., for
instance. The company was a pioneer of the electric
drive in the 1950s, while at the same time working
on a mechanical drive truck. After entering the
hauler market in 1962 with the mechanical
drive 32-tonne (35-short-ton) 769, Caterpillar
immediately proceeded to design and test a range
of diesel-electric trucks, targeting the top end of the
scale. The 68-tonne (75-short-ton) 779 went into
production in 1965, and larger prototype trucks in
90-tonne (100-short-ton) and 218-tonne (240-short-
ton) sizes were also developed. A fleet of five
218-tonne (240-short-ton) electric-drive coal haulers
operated in an Illinois mine for several years.
But with the advancing improvements in
transmissions and drive trains in mechanical trucks,
Caterpillar concluded that mechanical drive offered its
customers the best haulage solution at that time, and
chose to withdraw its electric drive from the market.
Although Caterpillar advanced its mechanical drive
mining trucks to become world leaders, it never
completely abandoned the idea of electric drive for
its trucks. It monitored the situation, and watched
as new AC drive technology with brushless motors
and solid state control expanded the application zone
for electric drive to provide an efficient alternative
in large earthmoving equipment.
Today AC drive technology is well established in
the giant shovels and draglines being installed in
surface mines worldwide. Against this advancing
technology and coupled with improved components
and technologies from existing Caterpillar products,
the company concluded that now is the appropriate
time to offer electric drive as a complement to its
mechanical drive mining trucks.
In an effort to meet the needs of its customers,
the company has developed two electric drive large
mining trucks, one in a new size class. Cat electric
drive will make its debut at MINExpo 2008, Sept.
22-24 in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA.
listening to custoMers
While advancements in technology encouraged
Caterpillar in the development of its new and
improved mining trucks—including electric drive—
customer feedback was another main driver.
Customers have indicated there are certain
applications where an electric drive truck may best
meet their preferences. Building on their feedback,
Caterpillar embarked on a large investment in
improving its entire large mining fleet. New
technologies have allowed the company to make
as mining companies set record production standards to meet the unprecedented demand for mined materials, equipment manufacturers strive to meet their needs—building trucks that are larger, more efficient, and customized to address unique challenges and environments.
1950 1980 2009-2011
Caterpillar enters the hauler market in 1962 with the mechanical drive 32-tonne (35-short-ton) 769
68-tonne (75-short-ton) 779 goes into production in 1965
45-tonne (50-short-ton) 773 goes into production in 1970
77-tonne (85-short-ton) 777 goes into production in 1975
138-tonne (153-short-ton) 785 goes into production in 1984
177-tonne (195-short-ton) 789 goes into production in 1986
218-tonne (240-short-ton) 793 goes into production in 1991
345-tonne (400-short-ton) 797 goes into production in 1998
next generation of trucks go into production
new mechanical and electric drive trucks showcased at Minexpo 2008
12 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
trucks more reliable, easier to maintain, and more
friendly to both the operator and to the environment.
At the same time, Caterpillar looked at the wide
variety of applications—uphill, downhill, extreme
and unique—and found that the electric drive truck
has a place in today’s mining industry.
“ We are very proud of the strong position that Caterpillar has attained with its mining trucks,” says Chris Curfman, president of Caterpillar Global Mining division. “now we can provide our customers unique solutions by offering both mechanical and electric drive trucks.”
Does this mean Caterpillar no longer sees a need
for its mechanical drive trucks? Not at all, says Ed
McCord, product manager, large mining trucks.
“We see the addition of electric mining trucks as a
complement to our existing mechanical drive trucks
and have no intention of backing away from our
commitment to that market.”
choosing electric or Mechanical
Caterpillar product leaders offer no short answer
when it comes to choosing mechanical or electric
drive trucks. The company believes mechanical
drive is still the best solution for the vast majority
of situations but acknowledges there are situations
where electric drive is preferred by customers.
Each job must be analyzed on its own merits, says
Jim Humphrey, Caterpillar’s market professional
for mining products. “A site analysis with
simulated hauls will help, but there are other
factors at play that will influence a customer’s
choice,” he says. “Company tradition plays a part.
It’s a giant leap to introduce electric trucks to a
large mine primarily running mechanical drive
trucks, or vice versa. There’s the major expense
of re-equipping the maintenance shop, changing
parts inventory, added safety requirements,
and the ongoing training of maintenance and
operating personnel to accept the unfamiliar.”
involving custoMers in developMent
Caterpillar has taken its customer feedback a step
further, partnering with mining companies in the
development of its next generation of trucks.
“a key element in the design process for these new trucks has been customer feedback and suggestions for improvements to all our existing mining trucks,” says Josh Wagner, product
marketing for electric drive trucks at Caterpillar.
Major customers such as BHP Billiton and Rio
Tinto have been involved since the very early
design phases.
Rio Tinto sent a group to Decatur to perform a
complete audit and analysis of the prototype 795F AC
truck built there. The group included maintenance,
maintenance planning, service, purchasing and
engineering personnel. All major components were
inspected and scrutinized to compare Caterpillar’s
design with Rio Tinto’s expectations, providing
important feedback for Caterpillar.
A second group from Rio Tinto witnessed haul
truck demonstrations at Caterpillar’s Tucson
Proving Ground, near Tucson, Arizona, USA, where
performance tests were evaluated. Rio Tinto’s in-
house specifications have largely been incorporated
into all Cat mining trucks. Improvements include:
• Improved operator access/egress, allowing
personnel to board the truck on the left side in view
of the driver. Also, in addition to the main stairway,
an emergency ladder is provided on each side.
• Battery boxes located behind the front bumper so the
battery pack can be removed directly by a forklift.
• Fluids evacuation station at one point, accessible at
ground level.
Craig Mamales, Rio Tinto’s principle advisor on
equipment specifications, is confident that the new
trucks will meet their demands. “With completion
of our design audit and evaluation, and knowing
that Caterpillar has incorporated recommendations
from ourselves and other key players in the surface
mining industry into the new design, we are satisfied
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 13
1/ The Cat® 795F AC is a new truck model for Caterpillar, filling the gap between the 793F and 797F.
2/ The brushless alternator is remote-mounted so it can be individually serviced.
3/ A unique radial grid system reduces noise and improves cooling for the resistor elements.
4/ The power inverter cabinet is pressurized and filtered to ensure a clean environment.
1
2 3 4
that Caterpillar’s next generation trucks will meet
our expectations,” says Mamales.
Similarly, representatives of BHP Billiton visited the
Caterpillar factory in Decatur, saw prototype trucks at
the Tucson Proving Grounds, and watched them in
operation in Canada’s Oil Sands. The feedback BHP
Billiton provided was instrumental in developing the
future of Cat’s mining fleet, says Wagner.
Building a truck For every application
At MINExpo 2008, Caterpillar will introduce
four new trucks. The 793-series in the 227-tonne
(250-short-ton) class will be available in both
mechanical (793F) and electrical (793F AC) versions.
The 313-tonne (345-short-ton) 795F AC, a new size
for Caterpillar, will be offered in electric drive only,
while the flagship 797B will be replaced by the new
797F, maintaining its 345-tonne (400-short-ton)
target payload.
Completing Caterpillar’s new mining truck
line will be new versions of the 785 and 789
mechanical drive trucks, upgraded to meet
customer requirements for serviceability, safety,
operator comfort and emission standards.
designing a new engine
Some of the new Cat models are powered by variations
of the new Caterpillar C175 engine, which is EPA Tier
II emission compliant and flexible for adaptation to
the next EPA tier. The 16-cylinder C175-16 powers
the 793 and 795 series trucks with gross ratings of
1,976 to 2,535 kW (2,650 to 3,400 hp). Variations are
derived from different turbocharging and engine
software. The 20-cylinder C175-20 is matched to the
797F, rated at 2,983 gross kW (4,000 gross hp).
Trucks being used in lower horsepower applications
will be powered by an improved 3500C engine,
which also meets EPA Tier II emission
regulations.
oFFering a new size
Having decided to introduce a new truck sized
between its two largest existing models, Caterpillar
focused on a carrying capacity that matched today’s
14 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
mining shovels. Humphrey was intimately involved
in capturing the customer requirements that drove
the changes and direction for the next generation
mining trucks.
“The 313-tonne (345-short-ton) target payload of
the 795F AC is a very popular size class for mining
trucks on a worldwide basis,” says Humphrey.
“It’s a good match to receive a load in only three
passes from the largest shovels currently being
manufactured, or four or five passes from 82-tonne
(90-short-ton) or 64-tonne (70-short-ton) capacity
shovels as well.”
conducting extensive testing
Caterpillar’s new electric drive trucks are the
culmination of extensive design, development and
testing programs extending back for more than a
decade. An electric drive was considered during the
design phase of the first 345-tonne (400-short-ton)
797 truck announced in 1997, but was discarded
in favor of mechanical drive, considered more
appropriate for market conditions at that time.
However, in 2004 Caterpillar senior management
gave the green light to include electric drives for its
next generation mining trucks, and the program
began in earnest.
Toward the end of 2005, a chassis converted from
a mechanical-drive 797 and powered by AC drive
technology was put under test at the Tucson Proving
Ground. Known as a “mule” truck, it was really a
laboratory on wheels, and its purpose was to test the
basics of the drive system. In November 2007 the
first prototype electric 793F AC was completed at
Caterpillar’s Decatur plant, where all Cat mining trucks
are manufactured, and shipped to the Tucson Proving
Ground. In December 2007 the first prototype 795F
AC was assembled at Tucson with components from
Decatur and other sources. This truck was introduced to
a select group of Caterpillar dealers in February this year.
Meanwhile, a second prototype 795F AC has
been built at Decatur, where it has been subject to
intensive analysis and auditing programs. Caterpillar
will present this truck, along with a 797F mechanical
drive truck, at MINExpo 2008. After MINExpo, the
show truck will go to the proving ground, where
it will join the other models of Caterpillar’s next
generation trucks to continue testing.
[ mechanical drive system ]
EngInE
ToRquE ConVERTER
TRAnSmISSIon
dIFFEREnTIALgEAR box
gEAR box
[ Electric drive system ]
EngInE
ALTERnAToR
PowER ConVERTER
gRIdS
ELECT moToR
ELECT moToR
gEAR box
gEAR box
photo/ Caterpillar will offer its 793F truck in both mechanical and electric drive.
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 15
Trucks are put through a number of rigorous
tests to prove and evaluate engineering designs
of each major function, in particular to assess
performance in field conditions. Safety, reliability,
durability and performance tests are devised
for braking, steering, noise emission, engine
emission and control systems, just to name a
few. In addition the trucks are subject to obstacle
courses to test suspension behavior on uneven
ground, cornering with full load at speed and
many more critical functions.
training on electric drive
From the outset Caterpillar realized that introducing
electric drive technology into the Caterpillar dealer
network steeped in mechanical and hydraulic
transmissions could be a challenge—so an intensive
training program is already under way. Offering
more than classroom courses, the phased approach
will first target those dealers where the test units are
operating, then expand the training to worldwide
locations where 227-tonne (250-short-ton) and larger
trucks will operate. The training program aims to
produce technicians with the high level of expertise
expected from Caterpillar customers.
developing electric trucks
Caterpillar’s electric drive trucks are fundamentally
different from its competitors’ trucks. First, the two
main AC propel motors are mounted in the rear
axle housing, rather than in the wheels. Keeping
them separate from the wheel-mounted final drives
improves maintenance access, and allows changeout
of motor or final drive without affecting the other,
says Wagner. Service can also be performed
independently on either the propel motors or final
drives, as each runs on different service cycles.
Similar advantages are gained by positioning the
main alternator remote from the engine, again
affording improved maintenance and allowing
independent changeout of engine or alternator.
Unlike much of the industry, Caterpillar chose to
develop its own electric motors, alternator, controls
and software—making all the major components
in the new trucks, including the diesel engines for
both mechanical or electrical options—entirely
Caterpillar products.
“ Caterpillar boasts something unique in the industry,” says Wagner. “one manufacturer, one supplier, and—more importantly when it comes time for service, training or parts supply—all can be provided from a single source: Caterpillar’s global dealer network.”
Caterpillar’s electric drive layout consists of an
engine-driven alternator supplying AC current
to a DC control box through a rectifier. The
DC power is taken through an inverter, which
provides AC current to the drive motors.
Caterpillar’s alliance with Mitsubishi Electric of
Japan has worked to provide the power inverters
and Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
technology for the new drive.
Mitsubishi’s core knowledge of AC technology has
been employed to advantage. The rest of the system
has been developed in-house by Caterpillar experts,
including the alternator, computerized controls,
hardware and motors.
sharing a design
In comparing the 793F and 793F AC trucks, the
one size currently offered in both mechanical
and electrical versions, only the drive trains are
different. The appearance of the two is almost
identical, as they share the same main frame, body,
radiator, hydraulic system and accessories.
Both feature state-of-the-art modular cabs offering
improved visibility with 40 percent more window
area, and a host of operator comfort features.
oFFering options
Caterpillar’s goal in developing electric drive
trucks—as well as improving its entire truck
line—is to provide a mining truck specifically
suited to meet all customers’ preferences and
match any haul profile in the mining world.
16 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
spenCe Mine:FroM greenField to Major producer in a Few short years
16 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 17
spenCe Mine:
It’s not every day that a major mInIng company starts an operatIon from scratch, but that’s just what BHP Billiton has achieved at its
Spence copper operation in northern Chile. Spence
is the first large-scale, greenfield mining project to
be developed in the country in the last six years and
the first solvent extraction / electrowinning (SX-EW)
project constructed since 2000.
photo/ The dramatic, yet hostile and unforgiving landscape of the Atacama desert in northern Chile provides the backdrop to the Spence mine, one of the newest and most significant mining operations in South America.
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 17
18 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
35%
8%
7%6%6%
5%
5%
28%
Chile: 35%
u.s.a.: 8%
peru: 7%
China: 6%
australia: 6%
indonesia: 5%
russia: 5%
others: 28%
World Copper produCtion
british geological Survey accessed in june 2008
This is no insignificant achievement considering
the mining activity the country hosts. Indeed,
Chile is the world’s largest single source of copper,
accounting for 35 percent of the world’s current
copper production—the majority of it sourced from
about two dozen surface and underground mines,
including Escondida, Cerro Colorado, Collahuasi,
Zaldivar, Radomiro Tomic, Chuquicamata, El
Tesoro, Mantos Blancos, Los Pelambres, and Los
Bronces. The mining industry as a whole accounts
for 10 percent of the country’s Gross Domestic
Product and employs 6 percent of its work force.
Located 1,700 meters (5,580 feet) above sea level,
the Atacama Desert in northern Chile is one of the
driest places on earth. Any moisture in the clouds
rolling in from the Pacific Ocean has already fallen
as rain over the foothills of the Andes to the west
long before reaching the Atacama. It is no wonder
that with rain falling once every 20 or 30 years, this
sun-baked scrub-land looks barren.
This hostile and unforgiving landscape provides
the backdrop to the Spence mine, one of the
newest and most significant mining operations
in South America. The mine, 100 percent owned
and operated by BHP Billiton, is located in Chile’s
northern region near the mining town of Sierra
Gorda, 150 km (93 miles) northeast of Antofagasta,
and 50 km (31 miles) southwest of the city of
Calama. The project site is situated alongside the
main highway, rail line and water pipelines, which
connect the two cities.
an aBundance oF copper
The Spence deposit is a supergene-enriched
and partially oxidized porphyry copper deposit
of Upper Paleocene age, formed approximately
57 million years ago. Prior to development, it
was 100 percent covered by gravels. Depth to
mineralization ranges from 80 meters (262
feet) to 100 meters (328 feet) below the surface.
Oxide and supergene sulphide mineralization
(atacamite and chlorite) are both amenable to
heap leaching.
Reserves are divided between 79 million tonnes (87
million short tons) of heap leach oxide grade ore at
a grade of 1.18 percent total copper and 0.88 percent
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 19
1 2
3
acid soluble copper, and 231 million tonnes (255
million short tons) of heap leach sulphide ore at a
grade of 1.13 percent total copper, both at a copper
cut-off of 0.3 percent.
BHP Billiton has an ongoing exploration program
focused on identifying additional potential oxide
and supergene sulphide mineralization for use as
supplementary feed to the Spence plant. The company
is exploring the potential mineral resources, within
an economic distance of Spence, that are amenable
to leaching.
exploration and developMent
Initially discovered in 1996 by Rio Algom, the
Spence prospect was bought by Billiton in 2000
prior to the company’s merger with BHP a year
later. Exploration and development work on the
deposit, which began in 1996, included 175,000
meters (574,000 feet) of drilling and 1,133 meters
(3,717 feet) of underground tunnel development
for bulk sampling purposes. Concept, pre-
feasibility and feasibility studies were completed
between 1999 and 2002, with the definitive
project study being completed two years later. In
October 2004, the BHP Billiton board of directors
approved the development of Spence, which was
officially opened by its former CEO, Chip Goodyear,
in March 2007.
Project design and construction benefited from
BHP Billiton’s experience at its Escondida oxide
project and Cerro Colorado mine in Chile, as well
as its Tintaya oxide project in Peru, which the
company sold two years ago to Xstrata.
The construction period of 22 months involved:
• civil earthworks of 8.8 million cubic meters
(311 million cubic feet)
• pouring 53,760 cubic meters
(1.9 million cubic feet) of concrete
• 6,772 tonnes (7,500 short tons) of structural steel
• 617,780 meters (2 million feet) of steel and
polyethylene (HDPR) piping
• 796,790 meters (2.6 million feet) of wire
and cable
1/ As of mid-2006, proven and probable oxide ore reserves for the Spence ore body were estimated to be 310 million tonnes (342 million short tons) with an average total copper grading 1.14 percent at a total copper cut-off grade of 0.3 percent.
2/ The life-of-mine stripping rate is estimated to be 3:1 waste to ore with mine pre-stripping totaling 78 million tonnes (86 million short tons).
3/ From the outset, bhP billiton set out to create a safe and healthy environment for its workers and the community within which it operates.
20 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
About 90 percent of the engineering was undertaken
in Chile, and 99 percent of the management team
is made up of Chilean nationals. The construction
work force peaked at 8,500.
Pre-stripping was completed in August 2006.
“Over 78 million tonnes (86 million short tons)
of material was moved,” recalls mine manager
Patricio Picero, “and four months later the first
cathode was harvested.”
The US$1 billion, open-pit, SX/EW project reached
its design capacity of 200,000 tonnes (220,000 short
tons) per year of high-quality copper cathodes during
the third quarter of 2007. The project delivered
its first ore to the crusher in September 2006 and
achieved mechanical completion in early November,
with the tank house producing its first cathode on
Dec. 6, 2006.
In the 18 months since operations began, the
mine produced approximately 270,000 tonnes
(298,000 short tons) of copper cathode. The
permanent Spence workforce totals 728 direct
employees, of whom 70 percent are from the
Antofagasta region, and an additional 969 indirect
employees. The workforce is young and newly
trained, with an average age of 32.
“ It is in our labor force that we have found our true wealth in Spence,” explains Picero. “When we started we had a work force of whom 70 percent had no real mining experience. Our initial intention—and one in which we have succeeded—has been to become a talent developer for the mining industry so that we can exchange personnel with other BHP Billiton operations, namely
Escondida and Cerro Colorado, who are equally committed to working safely and to the highest of standards.”
The current Spence mine plan assumes a mine life
of 19 years at a life-of-mine strip ration of 3:1, waste
to ore. Mine pre-strip totaled 78 million tonnes
(86 million short tons). The mining rate in the pit,
including waste removal, is designed to peak at
about 260,000 tonnes (287,000 short tons) per day.
Production costs during ramp-up were estimated
at US$0.60 per 0.5 kilogram (1 pound) of copper
produced. The designed ore treatment rate is 50,000
tonnes (55,000 short tons) per day.
Mining and reFining Methods
Ore from the open-cut mine is crushed,
agglomerated, and transferred to dynamic (on-
off) leach pads at a rate of 50,000 tonnes (55,000
short tons) per day. The mine’s principle drilling,
loading and hauling equipment includes three Pit
Viper drills, three P&H 4100-XPB 50-cubic-meter
(65-cubic-yard) shovels, two Caterpillar® 994D
18-cubic-meter (24-cubic-yard) wheel loaders, and 25
Cat® 793C 218-tonne (240-short-ton) capacity haul
trucks. Auxiliary equipment, all from Caterpillar,
includes five D10T track-type tractors, two 834G
wheel dozers, three 16H motor graders and three
777D water trucks. Spence mine’s haul-truck
maintenance workshop was the second one in the
world to earn a Five Star Contamination Control
certification by Caterpillar.
Sulphide and oxide ores, which are mined separately
and rely upon different chemistry processes to
achieve higher recovery rates, are treated by different
leaching processes. The chemical leaching of
the oxide ores and bacterial leaching of sulphide
ores is achieved on two different pads, with two
parallel solvent extraction (SX) plants and finally
an electrowinning (EW) circuit to produce copper
cathode from the pregnant leach solution at a
nominal annual rate of 200,000 tonnes (220,000
short tons). Processing technologies and methods
are similar to those employed by BHP Billiton at
1/ Among the mine's principle earthmoving equipment are 25 Cat® 793C 218-tonne (240-short-ton) capacity haul trucks.
2/ ore from the open-pit mine is crushed, agglomerated, and transferred to dynamic (on-off) leach pads at a rate of 50,000 tonnes (55,000 short tons) a day.
3/ A concentrated copper leach solution is placed in long tanks where it undergoes a process called electrowinning, which forms large plates of pure copper.
4/ In the 18 months since operations began, the Spence mine has produced approximately 270,000 tonnes (298,000 short tons) of copper cathode.
1
2
3
4
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 21
Cerro Colorado and Escondida. The cathodes are
transported to either the ports of Antofagasta or
Mejillones for onward shipping to customers in
North America, Europe and Asia.
saFety and coMMunity considerations
From the very start, BHP Billiton set out to
provide a safe and healthy environment for its
workers and the community where it operates. To
date, Spence has achieved two awards from the
Chilean “National Service of Geology and Mining”
(Sernageomin)—the most outstanding company
in Safety and Occupational Health, and the annual
prize of Mining Safety (national category). In
addition, the mine has been awarded the John
T. Ryan Award, which was founded by Mine Safety
Applications and the Canadian Institute of Mining,
making Spence the first company in the project
stage to receive this award.
Community considerations include a social
monitoring study, a community relationship
plan, a local sustainable development program,
an employment opportunity facility and an
environmental improvement project, which the
company runs in conjunction with other local
mine operators.
Yet these details tell only half the story: BHP
Billiton has spared no expense in producing a
mining and processing complex that incorporates
every innovation in an attempt to ensure that its
Spence operation continues to be at the vanguard
of science for many decades to come.
photo / given the harsh working and climatic environment, Spence mine relies on its up-to-date equipment maintenance facility as a pivotal part of the operation.
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 21
22 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 422 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 23
digging deeper by
the daythe 107-year-old creIghton mIne Is one of sIx vale Inco
mInes In the sudbury area of ontarIo, canada—and is its second
most profitable, thanks to its high ore grade, time in service, size of reserves
and existing infrastructure. Creighton’s only drawback is its depth—and the
increasingly high cost of bringing the ore to surface.
Located in the western portion of the City of Greater Sudbury, at 2,400 meters
(7,800 feet), the site is one of the deepest mines in Canada—a distinction that
brings with it certain challenges: High rock stresses determine the mining
methods, which have been designed to minimize the impact of sub-surface
seismic activities, and high virgin rock temperatures have necessitated employing
a novel “ice-cavern” cooling network, through which ventilation air is pumped
to the workings.
vale inco’s creighton Mine:
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 23
24 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
discovering a Massive ore Body
Creighton’s copper-nickel sulphide ore body was
discovered in 1856, when A.P. Salter observed
marked deflections in compass readings. In 1901,
the first ore was produced from the open pit.
In 1906, underground stoping started and two
years later the open pit ceased operations, having
reached a production level of 725 tonnes (800
short tons) per day.
evolving Mining Methods
In the more than 100 years since Creighton
began its underground operations, its mining
method has understandably varied and evolved
considerably. Shrinkage mining gave way to square-
set stoping, cut-and-fill mining, block caving and
post-pillar mining before the mine reverted back
to shrinkage mining and mechanized undercut-
and-fill mining. More recently, the large-diameter
blasthole method combined with vertical retreat
mining was introduced. In addition, mucking and
support methods have likewise evolved. Trackless
operations, hydraulically placed backfill, mining
of rib pillars and the introduction of cement into
backfill have all been implemented at one time
or another.
Since the start of operations, over 155 million tonnes
(171 million short tons) of ore grading—1.23 percent
copper and 1.59 percent nickel—have been extracted
from the Creighton property.
For operational purposes, the mine has been
sectioned into districts. Division 4, which is the
uppermost region of current operations, extends
from the 1,100-meter to 1,650-meter level (3,570-foot
to 5,400-foot level), and is open above this. Division
5 mainly consists of old workings between the
1,650-meter and 1,950-meter levels (5,400-foot and
6,400-foot levels). Division 6, which contains the bulk
of the ore body, extends from the 1,950-meter level to
the 2,390-meter level (6,400-foot level to the 7,840-
foot level), and is open at depth. In addition, 3-shaft
is currently being reactivated as a training center,
and is scheduled to restart production in 2021.
deterMining types oF ore
Creighton is located in the southern region of the
Sudbury Igneous Complex (SIC). The rocks of the
SIC, which are dated at 1,850 million years, are
exposed within an elliptical ring with a long-axis
of 72 kilometers (45 miles) and a short-axis of 27
kilometers (17 miles).
In broad terms there are three main categories of
mineralization at Creighton: sulphides associated
with the sub-layer norite or quartz diorite; high-
grade sulphide pods located in the footwall; and
sulphides associated with shearing. The main
base metal minerals contained in the Creighton
ore bodies are pyrrhotite Fe(1-x)S, pentlandite
(Fe,Ni)9S8 and chalcopyrite (CuFeS2). Recent
encouraging exploration results below the
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 25
2,377-meter (7,800-foot) level are anticipated to add
greatly to the life of the mine.
Production in 2007 yielded 793,000 tonnes (873,617
short tons) grading 1.62 percent copper and 2.8
percent nickel.
“There appears to be plenty of untapped mineralization below current working levels,” explains
Dave Andrews, Creighton’s chief mine geologist.
“In these deeper parts the ore tends to be hosted
in a more granitic footwall complex. The impact
that this transition (in ore geometry) has on the
mining method is associated with the mineralization
concentrated in narrower zones, so we may have to
scale down our stoping sizes, or even switch from
bulk mining to a more selective method.”
Creighton mine ore is poly-metallic, with credits
derived from nickel, copper, platinum, palladium,
rhodium, ruthenium, iridium, gold and silver, with
the bulk of the contribution from nickel and copper.
Creighton Mine uses both bulk and selective
mining methods.
using the selective Mining Method
Selective stoping, using the mechanized cut-and-
fill (MCF) method, is predominantly used in flat-
lying areas and for narrow, high-grade stringers.
Selective mining currently accounts
for approximately 5 percent of the ore extracted
at Creighton.
In the MCF method, stopes are driven transversely
in 4.5-meter-high (15-foot-high) lifts from an initial
7.5-meter-wide (25-foot-wide) slot. Rib pillars
measuring 5-by-6-meters wide (16-by-20-feet wide)
are left between stopes. Recently, MCF has been
modified to MCF-drifting, where the ore body
is mined longitudinally. Selective methods are
currently being used in the Division 5 area (i.e.,
workings between the 1,650-meter and 1,950-meter
levels or 5,400-foot and 6,400-foot level).
eMploying the Bulk Mining Method
Where the ore body is massive and steeply dipping,
the bulk method is used and currently accounts for
approximately 95 percent of the ore extracted from
Creighton. The preferred bulk method employed is
slot-slash.
Vertical retreat mining (VRM) was introduced in
the mid-1980s to replace the cut-and-fill mining
method. The slot-slash mining method, a modified
VRM, was introduced in the late 1990s and
replaced the VRM mining method. The change
from VRM to slot-slash was designed to reduce
blast damage by minimizing the number of blasts.
Both these methods are bulk mining methods
which utilize 152-mm (6-inch) production blastholes
drilled from a top-sill and breaking through into
a bottom-sill. The holes are filled with explosives
1/ Creighton mine operates a fleet of Caterpillar® R1700g load-haul-dump machines for mucking and tramming in both development and in the stopes.
2/ Ray Leahy is the mine superintendent in division 6, which contains the bulk of the ore body.
1 2
26 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
and blasted, where the broken ore is picked up by
a load-haul-dump (LHD) on the bottom-sill and
dumped into an ore pass.
In the slot-slash mining method, a slot raise is
drilled into the stope, using a 1.2-meter (4-foot)
diameter raise bore hole. The production holes at
the bottom of the stope, as well as those around
the slot raise, are loaded with explosives and
blasted. The method creates more free blasting
faces and allows Creighton to mine a stope with
fewer blasts.
The stope height varies between 26 and 61 meters
(85 and 200 feet), but the “internal” horizontal
dimensions vary little, so the ore produced from a
single stope may vary from 6,300 to 91,000 tonnes
(7,000 to 100,000 short tons). Some secondary
blasting may be required in lower-grade ore.
In the Division 6 area, an underhand sequence is
used, with mining proceeding downward adjacent
to previously filled stopes. However, the underhand
method does impose constraints on both the
sequence (a rigid echelon must be adhered to)
and fill quality, but has the significant advantage
of reducing seismic activity as no pillar sills are
formed. Additionally, with the stresses being pushed
out to the abutments, there are no permanent
sills / pillars being created, and mining recovery is
therefore increased.
“Due to the depths at which we are mining, it
is very important that we follow this sequence,”
admits Alex Henderson, Vale Inco’s manager for
business planning and mines technical services for
the Ontario Operations. “If we didn’t, we could end up with considerable seismicity. In this area, the horizontal stresses are two times those of the vertical stresses. We are hoping that with depth, the stress differential between horizontal and vertical will become homogeneous.”
photos/ Since the start of operations, over 155 million tonnes (171 million short tons) of ore grading have been extracted from the Creighton mine using a variety of mining techniques. Today, the mine uses both bulk and selective mining methods. The site uses a fleet of Caterpillar load-haul-dump machines and articulated trucks, supported by Cat dealer Toromont.
26 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 27
Drilling for development purposes is undertaken
by two boom jumbo drills with Caterpillar®
R1700G, 6-cubic-meter (8-cubic-yard) capacity
diesel LHDs mucking and tramming in both
development and in the stopes. Trucks are being
employed in the lower areas to bring the broken
ore to the underground crusher station at the
2,100-meter level (7,000-foot level).
Managing seisMic activity
One of the major considerations for the mining
engineers at Creighton are the sub-surface seismic
occurrences, which are initiated by mining /
excavation activity.
“The majority of significant seismic events that we
experience at Creighton are due to the presence of
slip-faults,” explains Henderson, “with the majority
of seismic events occurring during or shortly
after a production blast. At the end of a shift we
leave a new face for several hours to ‘seismically
decay,’ before we re-enter that area. We monitor
these areas, using an array of geophones placed
strategically around the mine, and if we feel the
decay rate is not as we would anticipate, we will
temporarily close down this section of the mine
and extend the period before we will allow re-entry
to take place. There have been several times when
we have followed this protocol and have managed
to avoid any incidents that would have put our
workers in harm’s way.”
The mining methods employed were developed
internally by Vale Inco over time using stress
models. “One of the major innovations which
we are currently working on,” explains mine
manager Kelly Strong, “are not the mining methods
themselves, but the support methods that follow.
Creighton has never been a single support system
mine. We currently employ a series of support
systems in development and production drifts,
and haulage areas.”
These support systems include cemented tailings
as hydraulically-placed backfilling; shotcreteing;
shotcrete arches; enhanced supports; and large
diameter split-set bolts— 46-millimeter-diameter
(1.8-inch) unclipped compared to the traditional
34-millimeter-diameter (1.3-inch) unclipped
split-sets.
“These ‘fatty’ split-sets are too robust to be put in by
hand, so we employ one-man operated Bolter units,
which are able to drill and set these 46-millimeter-
diameter (1.8-inch) sets in place,” says Strong.
“This Boltec is a remote-running machine, so the operator is able to work from a cabin some distance from the unsupported zone. This is significant as we often find ourselves driving drifts underneath backfill.”The backfill contains mill tailings from the
Clarabelle plant, which are pumped as a slurry
(40 percent solids to 60 percent water) along
40-centimeter (16-inch) diameter surface pipes to
a holding tank where it is agitated while waiting
to be mixed with cement / fly ash before being
pumped underground to act as backfill.
“When we backfill a stope we have to do this in
stages to enable the excess water to percolate down
through the fractures in the rock,” says Strong.
“We are currently examining the use of pastes for
backfilling purposes, but to date no decision has
been made on their commercial use at Creighton.”
handling ore and waste
All ore is hoisted up 9-shaft, using a 5,200-kilowatt
(7,000-horsepower) double-drum hoist and two
13.5-tonne (15-ton) aluminium skips. Ore arrives
at the hoisting shaft from one of three distinctive
areas: Division 4, 5 or 6.
• Division 4 ore is mucked to ore passes that feed
a diesel locomotive on 1,500-meter (5,000-feet)
level. Material is trammed for 1,400 meters
(4,500 feet) to a crusher, with the crushed ore
being conveyed to the 1,600-meter (5,280-feet)
level loading pocket at 9-shaft. The skipping rate
from this level loading pocket is 308 tonnes (340
short tons) per hour.
28 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
• Division 5 ore is mucked to ore passes that feed
a diesel locomotive on 1,950-meter (6,400-feet)
level. Material is trammed to an ore pass that
feeds the 2,000-meter (6,600-feet) level crusher,
with this crushed material reporting to the
2,036-meter (6,680-feet) level loading pocket
at 9-shaft.
• Division 6 ore is trucked up a ramp by trucks to
the dump at 2,124-meter (6,970-feet) level. This
material is then mucked into the 2,133-meter
(7,000-feet) level crusher, which feeds the
crushed material (via a conveyor) into the same
2,036-meter (6,680-feet) level loading pocket at
9-Shaft as the Division 5 ore. The skipping rate
from this 2,036-meter (6,680-feet) level loading
pocket is 272 tonnes (300 short tons) per hour.
All personnel and materials access the mine via
the 9-shaft cage.
The mine is now looking at alternatives to trucking
this ore upward along the ramp. “We have a great deal of ore at depth and we need to make sure we do not squander the wealth here on an unsuitable and unsustainable ore movement method,” says Henderson. “We are probably talking about putting in a secondary internal hoisting system with a bin to enable ore transfer from one shaft to the other.”
providing adequate ventilation
Creighton 9-shaft workings are ventilated with
45,000 cubic meters (1.6 million cubic feet) per
minute of fresh air, using a single pass system.
Fresh air is drawn from the surface through a mass
of broken rock located in old stopes in the vicinity
of 3-shaft, which forms an “ice cavern” due to the
cold winters and the moisture in the air. This ice-
cavern acts as a heat exchanger, warming the air in
the winter and cooling the air during the summer.
The sub-surface air temperature averages 3 degrees
Celsius (37 degrees Fahrenheit), with a small
seasonal variation.
As a result of the ice cavern system, it has not been
necessary to provide mechanical refrigeration so far.
To date the savings in terms of plant, maintenance
and power consumption have been very significant.
Creighton was one of the first mines in Canada to
employ this simplistic, though novel, ice-cavern
cooling system.
“Because in the near future we will be working
beyond the limit of our current cooling system,”
explains Strong, “we are having to look at a number
of alternatives. One option would be to supplement
our ice caverns with an expensive mechanical
refrigeration plant. The alternative would be
to expand the open-pit in order to increase the
catchment area / cooling-surface available for the air
being drawn underground. However, it is still too
early to say which option will be chosen. Modeling
work in this department continues.”
processing ore
The ore from Creighton mine is crushed
underground before being hoisted to the surface
and into surface loading bins, from where it
is shipped by rail to Clarabelle Mill. It is then
blended with ore from the group’s six Ontario
operational mines, as well as from third parties, as
it is unloaded at the mill. This blended ore is fed
through a crushing circuit then ground through
a series of ball and rod mills before entering
flotation. In flotation, the non-mineral- bearing
rock and the majority of pyrrhotite are rejected and
pumped to the tailings area. The mineral bearing
pentlandite is then recovered and pumped to the
smelter for further processing. A chalcopyrite, or
CU rich concentrate, is also separated and sold to
third parties.
In the near future, the mine plans to begin
production of higher grade separate copper
and nickel concentrates, with precious metals
(platinum, palladium, gold and silver) reporting
to the copper side. Nickel concentrate would
continue to be treated at Copper Cliff, while
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 29
30 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
copper concentrate would be treated elsewhere
by a third party.
protecting the environMent
For generations, the Sudbury area has been
associated with deforestation due to logging
and smelting activities.
Considerable progress has been—and continues
to be—made in returning the area to pre-
mining conditions. “There has been considerable effort invested in this area to restore the landscape, and to make good some of the environmental damage that has taken place here over the last 150 years,” explains Art Hayden, superintendent
of safety for Vale Inco operations in the Sudbury
area. By and large the Sudbury Soils Study gave
the area a clean bill of health.
The city recently won a UNESCO award in
recognition of the environmental restoration work
that has gone on in the Sudbury area. “We have
invested more than $1 billion to reduce emissions
by more than 90 percent,” says Hayden.
A closure plan for Creighton was filed in July 2001,
in accordance with the Ontario Mining Act. The plan
identifies various site rehabilitation activities that
can be conducted prior to and following site closure.
Closure costs are estimated to be approximately
US$10 million.
Meeting water quality guidelines
Surface water from the mine site flows naturally
through to the tailings area. This water is then
piped to water treatment plants and upon meeting
water quality guidelines, is discharged into the
local watershed.
Underground, Creighton is a relatively dry mine,
with the majority of the water generated coming
from backfill and drilling equipment. Mine water
is collected in main dirty water sumps located
on four levels between 579 meters (1,900 feet)
and 2,100 meters (7,000 feet). Water below the
2,100-meter (7,000-feet) level is collected on three
levels before being pumped to the 2,100-meter
(7,000-feet) level main sump. Solids are allowed to
settle in these sumps and clear water is pumped to
surface in stages.
generating power
Creighton receives approximately 25 percent of its
electrical power from the Vale Inco electrical grid,
and the rest is taken from the provincial grid. At
full production, Creighton consumes on average
between 10.5 and 11.0 million kilowatt hours per
month, at a price (mid-2007) of approximately
US$0.06/kWhr. Approximately 60 percent of the
electrical power is used for ventilation, 20 percent
for hoisting (personnel and rock), and 20 percent
for pumps, crushers, mobile equipment and
production drilling.
taking advantage oF the Mining BooM
The current mining boom has had both a positive
and negative impact on operations at Creighton.
“The rise in metal prices means that there are now
areas in the mine, such as lower grade zones and
remnant mining zones, which we can now look
at as economically exploitable, whereas before
they were not,” says Strong. “In addition, we
have recently started bottom-sill-slashing as an
innovative way to get higher extraction rates where
ore is extremely valuable.”
On the reverse side, given the level of competition
that exists on a global scale, Strong says Creighton
is having difficulty recruiting experienced miners,
operators and technical staff required for mine
expansion and new projects. “The result of this is
that we are spending a great deal of time and effort
on training such people. This is in spite of the fact
that Creighton’s turnover in staff—particularly the
technical ones—is still low.”
participating in non-Mining activities
On the non-mining side, Creighton houses the
Sudbury Neutrino Observatory, which was opened
by Stephen Hawking, the Nobel Prize winner, world
famous astrophysicist and best-selling author of “A
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 31
Brief Moment in Time.” The facility is considered,
in the rarefied world of particle physics, to be a
world-class facility. The laboratory is located some
1,800 meters (6,000 feet) underground.
In addition, and in an effort to reduce its
environmental footprint, Creighton also houses
underground greenhouses, where tree seedlings
are grown year-round despite harsh winters on
the surface.
looking to the Future
Creighton’s managers identified a number of
priorities for technical staff that were deemed
worthy of further work, including:
• The continued exploration of the up-and-down-
plunge extents of the deposits
• The completion of the scoping study to identify the
optimal mining methods and infrastructure for
mining at depths of up to 3,000 meters (10,000 feet)
“Not only are there great opportunities at depth,”
explains Henderson, “but there is also some
remnant ore that has been left behind in old
workings. Some of this ore was bypassed over the
last 100 years as being either uneconomic or
because the mining method of the day did not
allow it to be mined, but it is now being extracted
safely and economically.”
Strong estimates the mine is about three-quarters
of the way through its at-depth exploration drilling
program, which will delineate ore volumes, grades
and stresses. “After that there is a great deal of
engineering work that needs to be done to justify
shifting the category from being a resource to a
reserve,” Strong explains, outlining three major work
areas in which the mine is currently involved:
• Developing the mine internally down to the
2,500-meter (8,200-foot) level (i.e., two more levels).
• Exploring the potential to develop the mine at the
3,000-meter (10,000-foot) level.
• Drilling from both the surface and underground
to properly exploit the 402 orebody ores above the
610-meter (2,000-foot) level.
Down to and beyond 3,000 meters (10,000 feet),
the major challenge is to determine if the mining
method Creighton is using at 2,377 meters (7,800
feet) is still viable—given that seismic activity
increases at depth.
To that end, Creighton mine is working with
a number of research agencies, engineering
establishments and technical universities, as well
as the Centre of Excellence in Mining Innovation
(CEMI) to determine if the current mining method
will continue to be a safe workable mining method
at depth.
“In addition, we are examining other mining
methods that are being employed in other deep or
seismically active mines,” says Henderson. “I have
no doubt that in the future, the world will come to
Creighton to see how it should be done.”
32 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
The reclamation of sudbury:
the greening oF a MoonsCape
photo/ Sudbury's former landscape consisted of black rock, metal-tolerant grasses and small clumps of unhealthy birches. The area was so devoid of life that dead wood could not be decomposed.
32 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 33
It has been called one of the sunniest areas of
Ontario, with clean air and world-renowned
environmental initiatives. It has even been cited
by the United Nations for its land reclamation
program and has won several other international
and national awards.
However, Sudbury looked radically different just 35
years ago, when a group of transplanted professors,
municipal employees, mining company leaders and
local residents put their heads together to come up
with a way to save it.
Years of mining, logging, fires, smelter emissions
and soil erosion had taken their toll, wiping
out almost all of the vegetation in the area and
poisoning lakes and streams. Because there were
no trees on barren sites, there were no leaves to
create the mulch that protects the soil. As a result,
the barren soil suffered from severe frost in the
winter and too much heat in the summer.
Sudbury’s landscape was compared to the surface of
the moon. Editorial cartoonists joked that birds had
to carry their lunchboxes from tree to tree because
they were few and far between.
And in the late 1970s, the community, its university
and the mining companies decided to do something
about it.
what happened in sudBury
The Sudbury landscape today is the result of several
environmental factors acting together over a period
of almost a century. Vegetation damage began with
irresponsible logging, fire and roasting beds, but
the decades of intense fumigation from smelters
caused most of the damage. The poisoning of the
soil by the addition of acids and toxic metals from
smelter fumes created conditions that were unlikely
to allow rapid natural recovery.
While logging and fires are blamed for some of the
damage to the landscape, mining is held accountable
for most. For the past century, Sudbury has produced
copper and nickel—and a dozen other metals. Today,
the 18 active mines in the area yield more than
50,000 tonnes (55,000 short tons) of ore each day.
Reserves are substantial and new deposits are still
being found—making mining a likely activity in
Sudbury for decades to come.
While mining operations took a toll on the
landscape, the majority of the damage is blamed on
smelting. “The regulations we have in place today
to protect the environment weren’t there decades
ago,” says Dr. David Pearson, one of Canada’s
foremost science communicators, a professor of
earth sciences at Laurentian University, and the
founding director of Science North. “There was
widespread contamination from smelter fumes, as
well as acidic runoff from waste rock.” The damage
impacted over 80,000 hectares (198,000 acres) and
17,000 lakes in the region.
Pearson explains that metal droplets from the
smelters were swept up the stacks by the velocity of
the rising sulphur dioxide gas. The droplets froze
into metallic dust that drifted to the ground and left
the soil heavily contaminated with metal. In turn,
the acidity of the soil mobilized the metals in the
soil and made them toxic to plants. Because the
soil was no longer able to support grass or shrubs,
surface layers of soil that held organic materials
washed away with nothing there to hold it in place.
Slopes and high land in the region lost close to a
foot of soil.
a Mining town
Two major mining companies were responsible for
the bulk of the activity in Sudbury—Inco (now Vale
Inco) and Falconbridge (now Xstrata).
CoMMUnITy and IndUsTRy CoMe ToGeTheR To saVe The enVIRonMenT
sudbury, ontario, Canada, is a tourist destination, with major attractions like science north and its internationally renowned science center and IMaX Theatre, dozens of lakes and scenic attractions.
34 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
“Vale Inco and Sudbury grew up together,” says
Vale Inco spokesman Cory McPhee, director of
communications and public affairs. “There was
a period when we were ‘Mother Inco,’ and the
community relied on us for everything. It was
not always a loving relationship. It was born of
dependency and the company was perceived as
arrogant at times.”
At its peak, Vale Inco employed 20,000 people in
the mines and processing plants. Through the late
1970s and early 1980s, both the company and the
community were hit by a downturn in the world
nickel markets that saw layoffs, shutdowns and
lengthy labor disputes that strained the relationship.
“The company faced a number of ongoing
issues that threatened its relationship with the
community,” says McPhee. These included the
atmospheric sulphur emissions that scarred the
surrounding landscape and destroyed vegetation
and acidified lakes; sulphur dioxide leaks into
the surrounding community; blasting noise and
vibrations in people’s homes; and operating noise
and dust.
McPhee said the company finally came to an important
realization—that Vale Inco and the community must
work together. “We benefited from the ore and the community benefited from the ore. We finally realized that we could get much further if we were partners.”
iMproving perForMance and reducing eMissions
Government regulations and newly developed
methods of removing sulfur from the ore and
smelter fumes have caused significant reductions
in emissions. Emissions were reduced at both
the Copper Cliff (Vale Inco) and Falconbridge
(Xstrata) smelters—in some cases by as much
as 90 percent.
“We recognized early on that improving our
communications and social responsibility would
only take the company so far,” explains McPhee.
“We knew we had to work on our performance—
reducing emissions, dealing with the impact
of our operations to-date, and improving our
blasting operations.”
In the early 1970s, Vale Inco erected the Superstack,
a 380-meter-tall (1,247-foot-tall) chimney constructed
at a cost of US$25 million to protect the nearby city
from smelter emissions.
In 1994, the company completed a US$600 million
sulphur dioxide abatement project, significantly
reducing emissions and improving air quality in
the Sudbury region. Work on emission reductions
continues today—with close to US$1 billion spent
since 1980. The company has reduced emissions
in Sudbury by more than 90 percent. Most
recently, a further 34 percent reduction was
achieved in October 2006 with the introduction
of new scrubbing technology at the company’s
fluid bed roaster facility. More significant cuts are
planned by 2015.
“The essence of our emission reduction efforts is
to capture and convert the sulphur dioxide that
would otherwise be emitted and transform it into
marketable products,” says McPhee. “We do it for
environmental reasons, but we’re also able to sell the
resulting sulphuric acid and liquid sulphur dioxide.”
The reductions in emissions set the stage for
further reclamation activities including pioneering
techniques such as aerial seeding of large tracts of
barren land inaccessible by traditional treatment
methods. The company also launched and paid
for a US$10 million soil study in partnership with
Xstrata, looking at the impact to human health and
the environment of years of metal deposits. Other
partners in the study included the City of Greater
Sudbury, the Sudbury and District Health Unit,
the Ontario Ministry of Environment, and Health
Canada Inuit and First Nations Branch.
Vale Inco also improved its blasting operations. “We
agreed not to blast before or after certain hours,”
says McPhee. “And we set up a phone system that
automatically calls residents before blasts over a
certain size. Residents told us that just knowing what
was happening has made a huge difference. It wasn’t
a technical solution; it was a community solution.”
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 35
perFect tiMing
While mining companies were working on becoming better citizens of Sudbury, an
effort was under way to begin turning around the community’s barren landscape.
The newly formed Regional Municipality of Sudbury created a “Technical
Tree Planting Committee,” which in 1978 changed its name to the Vegetation
Enhancement Technical Advisory Committee (VETAC). The organization is
committed to the restoration and protection of Sudbury’s air, land and water.
At the same time, joint work between the Ministry of Natural Resources and
Laurentian University was under way to create the “science” necessary to regreen
Sudbury’s landscape.
As part of its reclamation efforts, Vale Inco had tried sowing grass seed—which
would germinate, but the roots would wither as soon as they encountered the
contaminated soil. After years of experimentation, Laurentian researchers—led by
the late Keith Winterhalder, a Laurentian professor and former VETAC chairman—
learned that an application of ground limestone could detoxify soil. They also
learned that if a sparse grass cover could be established on a rocky hillside that had
been treated with limestone and fertilizer, seeds from the few existing trees in the
area would blow in, germinate and grow.
“This effort was a marriage of research expertise from the university and
municipal involvement,” says Pearson. “For the university, it was both a research
project and a public service. The people in municipal administration were also
keen to get on with the work. They were conscious of the city’s image and wanted
to change it.”
“The science isn’t really complicated,” says Pearson. “First lime is scattered onto the
soil to help deal with the acidity. And then fertilizer is added to provide the nutrients
that plants need. In the first four to five years of research, Keith Winterhalder and his
colleagues learned what were effective mixtures of lime and fertilizer, what grasses
would provide cover, what trees would survive, and how best to plant them.”
While the process isn’t complicated, it is very labor intensive. “everything had to be done by hand, by armies of people carrying bags of lime,” says Pearson. “and after that was done, they would walk the land with bags of grass seed and fertilizer.”Newly hired environmental planner Bill Lautenbach came across Winterhalder’s
research just as the community learned that the mining companies were laying
off thousands of workers. Lautenbach led a task force to come up with short-
term job creation opportunities—and thanks to a number of federal and local
grants, the city was able to put some of those unemployed people to work in the
regreening effort.
“I knew about VETAC,” says Lautenbach. “So I tried to get funds for some short-
term jobs to help with VETAC’s efforts, and they agreed. Over the years we have
received numerous types of grants and funding to keep this project going.”
1/ greater Sudbury’s big nickel, located at Science north’s dynamic Earth, is said to be the icon of Sudbury.
2/ A new forest grows on the shores of one of greater Sudbury's more than 300 lakes.
3/ Pine stumps photographed in the 1980s show exposed roots—testifying to the amount of soil loss that occurred due to erosion.
4/ Spreading limestone by hand is a very labor-intensive process, but is crucial to decreasing soil acidity—blocking the uptake of certain metals in the soil by plants.
1
3
2
4
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 35
36 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
The community of Sudbury, Ontario, Canada,
has a history rich in science—from mining
technology to geology to botany. Suggestions
for a Sudbury museum began in the mid-1950s
and continued until the late 1970s—when the
chairman and vice chairman of mining company
Vale Inco agreed to finance a study to explore the
concept of a science center in Sudbury.
In January 1981, Vale Inco donated US$5 million
to the project—the largest single corporate
donation to a community project in Canadian
history at that time. Falconbridge Ltd. donated
US$1 million—the largest donation in its
corporate history. And the Province of Ontario
committed US$10 million to the project,
paving the way to start construction on the new
museum, called Science North.
Science North opened its doors in 1984 and now
includes six attractions: a science center, IMAX
Theatre, butterfly gallery, motion simulator,
special exhibitions hall and Dynamic Earth,
home of the Big Nickel.
The science center boasts exhibits, theaters
and science labs. It is configured around the
labs, each led by a staff scientist, known as
a Bluecoat, whose job it is to involve visitors
in scientific activity inside the labs. The labs
explore astronomy, biology, physics, robotics,
computer science, human physiology and more.
In 2003, Science North opened Dynamic Earth—
a mining and geology attraction that combines
both above- and below-ground experiences.
The seven-story Vale Inco chasm leads to an
underground mining tour, where visitors witness
the transformation of mining over the last 100
years. Other attractions include the Rockhound
Lab, where visitors can trade their own rock and
minerals for samples in the lab; a newly renovated
Explora Mine—a scaled down version of a real
working mine—and Mining Command Center,
which includes a new Caterpillar® excavator
simulator training program; and the Xstrata Nickel
Gallery—a walk-through theater that takes visitors
through above-ground mineral processing.
Celebrating science—and mining—at Sudbury museum
the greening oF sudBury
Between 1978 and 2007, the “Greening of Sudbury”
saw 3,300 hectares (8,100 acres) limed and seeded,
and more than 8.8 million trees and 43,427 shrubs
planted. This is one of the largest re-greening efforts
in the world. It has been estimated that a total of
15 million trees have been planted over the past 30
years by VETAC, the industry and the community.
VETAC supplies seedlings, planting equipment
and guidance to groups, clubs and schools. It
also distributes thousands of pine seedlings every
year to citizens for residential planting. Many of
those seedlings come from Vale Inco, which grows
100,000 trees a year underground at its Creighton
Mine, where temperatures are 20 to 24 degrees
Celsius (68 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit) year-round.
“VETAC did not, of course, act alone,” says
Pearson. “Federal and provincial governments
provided funding. And without the investment of
hundreds of millions of dollars in new technology
by the mining companies that drastically reduced
sulphur emissions, all efforts of VETAC would
have come to nothing.”
seeing iMproveMents
For its first re-greening efforts, VETAC selected
areas of Sudbury that were highly visible—near
schools, in the center of the city, or along corridors
coming into the community. It didn’t take long
before the improvements were visible—and before
community residents became even more energized
to expand the efforts.
1/ This view of the martindale Road area in the early 1980s shows black rock and a few metal-tolerant grasses.
2/ The martindale Road area in the early 1990s shows great improvement. Today, trees block the view of the houses.
1 2
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 37
“Everyone knew it was going to be slow, slow work
and we were in it for the long haul,” says Pearson.
“A few dozen acres was the most we could expect
to do at one time. But even early on there were very
dramatic improvements.”
Lautenbach says the changes are both profound and
subtle. “It seems a gradual change to those who grew
up here, but to those who have not seen it in a while
it is remarkable. It attracts people to Sudbury. It’s a
different place today.”
why it worked
While the technical side of the regreening effort was
important, the social side has been equally as vital to
the success of the program. “Getting the community
involved is what has sustained the program,” says
Pearson. “About 25 percent of the trees have been
planted by community groups—Scouts, schools,
Lions and Rotary clubs. Some groups volunteer over
and over again.”
Many of those involved with the regreening effort
point to the people involved as the reason for its
success. Some of the early members of VETAC—
including Lautenbach and Laurentian botanist /
ecologist Peter Beckett—are still involved today.
“This continuity of individuals, their
determination, and the recognition that everyone
would work has helped make this project
succeed,” says Pearson.
Beckett agrees. “These people wanted to get things
done,” he says. “after 35 years, there are still about 20 people who were there from the beginning. and the mining companies are a part of it, too.”Pearson also points out the lack of finger-pointing as
a key to success. “There was no blame,” he says. “The
committee didn’t want to create hurdles by trying to
figure out whose responsibility it was and who would
pay. They looked within the city administration and
applied to the government for small amounts to
keep the work going. The mining companies were
spending plenty of money working on their issues,
so there was no advantage in laying blame.”
the Future oF the regreening eFFort
While much work has been done, much work remains.
Pearson estimates that just 30 to 40 percent of the land
that needs to be revegetated has been completed.
There is work done every year on a small scale.
“The big question is ‘when will it be finished?’ ” says
Beckett. “But we don’t know. We’re trying to bring back
a forest. There are areas of Sudbury that were reclaimed
over 30 years ago, and we still don’t know. How much do
we do ourselves—and how much do we leave to nature?”
This is an important question to ecologists and
to mining companies—which are charged with
returning the lands they disrupt as close as possible
to their pre-mining state.
“In the ecological world, when we cause a ‘disturbance,’
it may take 100 to 200 years to have a new forest,”
Beckett continues. “We’re trying to move things along
faster. We’ve overcome some of the critical inhibitions.
We’ve fixed the soil so nature will take over. We’re in the
process of assessing the sites to see if we can make a
projection of how things are going.”
Beckett says the woodlands in Sudbury have been
restructured. There are trees, insects and birds. “But
we’re still missing many of the species. We haven’t got
the whole assemblage of plants and animals back. We
don’t have all the trees or ground species back.”
A new ecological concern also will affect the
conditions in Sudbury: Climate change. “The annual
temperature has increased 1 degree since 1970,” says
Pearson. “That increases evaporation, so it seems
likely we will have drier soil conditions. The soil
isn’t as deep in Sudbury because of erosion, and the
trees are young. There is some concern that drought
might damage revegetated areas.”
Beckett says climate change may affect the planting
schedules as well as the types of trees selected. “We
can now plant trees in the fall when it used to be too
cold. But our spring planting is affected by hotter,
drier summers so many of the trees we used to plant
in spring are not surviving,” he says. “We’ll keep
doing research to see how well the sites are faring,”
Beckett continues. “We’re also always looking at
other ways to improve reclamation.”
38 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
The development of autonomous mining has
been a topic in the industry for more than
a decade. Caterpillar first demonstrated the
technology at MINExpo in 1996, but found not
only that the technology was not ready at that
time—but its customers weren’t ready either.
“Mines didn’t have the same business drivers
then that they do now,” says Caterpillar’s Ed
McCord, product manager, large mining trucks.
“When we talked with the customers about what
they needed, they indicated they weren’t ready
for autonomy.”
Mike Verheyen, Caterpillar Electronics & Connected
Worksite product manager, recalls, “Based on what
the mines told us and the limited technology at the
time, we focused on addressing their immediate
needs, while continuing our autonomy program
behind the scenes—concentrating on the building
blocks that are becoming the autonomous system
of the future.”
the tiMe is now
As technology improved and mining companies
faced new challenges in people and productivity,
autonomy again came to the forefront of the
industry and the equipment manufacturers who
support it. But perhaps the main driver for the
autonomy push is the boom in the mining industry.
Commodity prices are strong and economies
are thriving—and the demand for minerals has
grown at a staggering rate. Mining companies
eager to take advantage of the situation are
working to quickly move as much material as
they possibly can—while maintaining their focus
on safety.
“In the previous decades, mining companies were
meeting the demand with the equipment and the
people that they had,” says Ken Edwards, Caterpillar
mining technology manager. “That’s not true today.
In order for them to capitalize on the demand, they
need to get more ore out of the ground as quickly
and efficiently as possible.”
In addition, the mining boom has led to a time
of profitability for mining companies—and the
funds they need to invest in the future. “Mining
companies now have the money for research and
development, and they are focused on autonomy
as one of the technologies they want to see move
forward to support their operations,” says Edwards.
Many mining companies consider autonomy the key to the future of their industry—and for good reason. a successful autonomous mining haulage system accomplishes a number of their key goals, including positively impacting safety and increasing productivity.
the tiMe is right For autonoMy
the Futurebuilding the teChnologies For the Mine sites oF
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 39
the BeneFits oF autonoMy
Mining companies look at autonomy as an enabler
that will help them make quantum leaps in safety,
efficiency and productivity—lowering costs and
increasing availability.
Safety
“Zero injuries is the mantra of mining companies,”
says McCord. “A switch to autonomous mining
equipment will have a tremendous influence on their
achievement of that goal. When you can remove the
operator from harm’s way, he is not impacted by any
of these concerns.”
For example, significant injuries can occur as
operators access or egress from a machine. However,
with an autonomous machine, there is significantly
less need for a person to climb on and off.
Studies have also shown that head-to-head and
head-to-tail truck crashes are some of the most
common collisions in a mine. With autonomy, the
interaction between machines is tightly controlled
with various layers of redundancy to prevent non-
manned vehicles from hitting each other.
Consistency of operations
A key benefit of autonomous mining is consistency
of operations. All workers feel fatigue at the end of
the day—whether they’re working in a truck or in a
mine office. As a result, their efficiency goes down.
“Inefficiencies and human inconsistencies can add
up to millions of dollars of operating expenses or lost
revenue,” says Edwards. Consistency leads to better
efficiencies, lower costs and higher overall productivity.
Autonomous mining allows for repeatability and
consistency by using software to manage
the processs. Consistency results in a number
of potential benefits:
• In an autonomous operation, a truck can be
programmed to consistently back under the shovel to
within 25 centimeters (10 inches) all day, every day—
so the shovel operator does not have to waste valuable
time trying to chase the truck due to poor spotting.
• An autonomous truck cycle time will be
consistent throughout the shift—beginning,
end, and in the middle.
• An operator gets tired at the end of a shift, while
an autonomous machine operates at the same
efficiency 24/7.
• Visual truck safety checks can be done during fueling,
while the truck’s health is being continually monitored
by on-board health monitoring systems such as
VIMS (Vital Information Management System).
• An autonomous system will eliminate
misdirected loads.
• With “virtual shift change” on the trucks,
bunching at the start and end of the shift will
significantly disappear.
• By controlling speed, location, and truck routes,
the autonomous system may offer improved
algorithms to impact tire life.
• Consistently running the truck within design
specifications improves mechanical availability.
• Allowing the on-board and off-board computers
to maximize the truck and the autonomous
system may provide opportunities to minimize
fuel burned during the load-haul-dump cycle.
Caterpillar’s autonomous mine and truck simulator
will be used for testing fuel efficiency.
“With an autonomous system, the truck will do
whatever the shift supervisors have told the software
to do—and it will do it consistently,” says McCord.
“This will improve efficiency and utilization and
result in a lower cost-per-ton—the goal of every
mining company.”
Time wasted due to inconsistencies and
inefficiencies adds up to millions of dollars of
operating expenses, Edwards explains. “Mines
want to work to their maximum potential at
all times. This is the key role that autonomous
machines and mining technology products play
in the future of mining.”
People shortage
As mine sites move into more remote areas, it
becomes even more difficult to find qualified
people willing to operate the equipment. And the
increase in mining activity worldwide has depleted
the existing pool of operators. Autonomous
equipment offers a solution to this issue.
40 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
“Mining companies want to expand their operations
and increase production to take advantage of the
boom, and they just can’t get the people,” says
Edwards. By making new or expanded sites
autonomous, current employees can be deployed to
other positions while autonomy makes up the gap.
“ Mines will always need people, so it’s not a matter of companies reducing their work force,” says McCord. “Rather, they will be able to increase production using the employees they already have.”
Autonomy also may play a role in attracting a
new generation of employees to work in mines.
“This generation has grown up with high-powered
computers, instant communication and the
Internet,” says Michael Murphy, autonomous
mining commercial manager. “Autonomy’s ‘video
game’ feel is something that will attract them to
work in the industry. It will be something they
easily accept.”
In addition, autonomous mining will allow mining
companies to reduce the infrastructure required for
operations. When fewer people are working on-site,
there is less housing to build, less training required,
and fewer flights to and from remote areas.
the technology Building Blocks
Over the past 10 years, Caterpillar has focused
on building the core technologies for autonomy,
understanding that they would be needed one day.
In fact, mining companies around the world are
using the building blocks of autonomous technology
on surface and underground sites every day.
Today’s technologies include:
• Autonomous equipment systems such as MINEGEM,
which is used in a number of underground mines.
• Information management systems
• Machine health and condition monitoring systems
• High-precision Global Positioning System (GPS)-
based guidance and control systems
• Broadband wireless communication technologies
“Caterpillar has continued to advance toward
autonomy over the past 10 years by focusing
on the key core technologies and products, which
we call building blocks,” says Verheyen. “The
advancement of our fleet management system,
onboard monitoring systems and research on cost-
effective radar are examples of work directly linked
to autonomous systems.”
Cat customers use a number of products that
are considered the building blocks of autonomy:
MineStar™ Fleet Commander, MineStar™ Health,
MINEGEM, AQUILA™ Drill and Dragline
Systems, VIMS, Computer Aided Earthmoving
System (CAES), Slow Speed Object Detection,
Remote Control, Condition Monitoring, and
Predictive Analysis Service.
“ Today’s technology is laying the foundation for a technology revolution that will change the face of the mining industry for years to come,” says Chris Curfman, president of Caterpillar’s
Global Mining Division. The technology is moving
from machine guidance systems, to integrated
automated machine controls, to remote control
operations, to autonomous machines, and finally
to autonomous mine sites.
technology partnerships
Leading universities have partnered with equipment
manufacturers to begin enhancing the core
technologies for a fully integrated, autonomous
mine site. One such partnership exists between
Caterpillar and Carnegie Mellon, a global research
university of more than 10,000 students, 70,000
alumni and 4,000 faculty and staff.
“We’re aligning ourselves with the best and
the brightest minds in the fields of science and
engineering,” says Gwenne Henricks, Caterpillar vice
president of Electronics and Connected Worksite.
The Caterpillar / Carnegie Mellon collaboration is
a longstanding relationship, created to co-develop
automated equipment.
“I’ve been working with Caterpillar for more
than 20 years,” says robotics professor William
“Red” Whittaker. “And one of the outcomes of our
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 41
partnership has been 13 patents for technologies
and inventions.”
The two organizations are co-inventors of GPS
guidance for off-road machines, computer planning
for robotic digging, and operator-assistance for
loading trucks.
“ The utilization of GPs to guide an outdoor vehicle was envisioned and created 20 years ago—before the GPs constellation was even in the sky,” Whittaker recalls. “no one else could even envision that it would be a core technology used across all types of outdoor machines.”
The collaboration also resulted in the development
of sensors to safeguard a moving vehicle. “It’s
essential that a vehicle sees where it’s going and
stays out of trouble,” Whittaker says. “Equipment
operators are able to sense their surroundings,
make plans, and then take action. Humans aren’t
even conscious of the fact that we are sensing,
feeling, hearing and seeing. We just do it. But
machines need technologies to help them see and
react to what’s around them.”
For example, if a machine needs to follow a haul
road that requires a right turn, it must be told first
to see the road. Then it must plan to make a turn;
operate the steering, braking and throttle in order
to take that action; then decelerate into the turn and
accelerate when coming out of the turn.
Caterpillar and the university also have developed
technologies that make it possible to orchestrate
multiple vehicles on a mine site—which requires
fleets of machines to do the digging, the loading
and the hauling.
Typical projects begin as two-year studies at the
university. Once the technologies have reached a
level of relevance and their viability for a product
appears solid, then the organizations work together
to create a prototype of the product or feature
on a Cat machine. In addition to Caterpillar,
Carnegie Mellon has a number of other research
partners in industries like automotive, defense and
Caterpillar has partnered with Carnegie
Mellon University for decades, working
together to build technologies and develop
innovations that are the building blocks of
autonomous haulage.
That partnership also includes Caterpillar
sponsorship of the award-winning “Boss,”
an autonomous Chevrolet Tahoe that won
first place in the 2007 DARPA Urban
Challenge. The competition is sponsored
by the Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency to help the United States defense
department develop a fleet of autonomous
ground vehicles to improve troop safety.
The Urban Challenge featured autonomous
ground vehicles maneuvering in a mock city
environment, executing simulated military
supply missions while merging into moving
traffic, navigating traffic circles, negotiating
busy intersections and avoiding obstacles.
CMU and its Tartan Racing group received
a US$2 million cash prize along with the
recognition as a national leader in robotic
engineering. The victory was based on
three criteria: data collected during the
competition, race time, and the ability to
comply with traffic laws.
“Team Caterpillar is tremendously proud
to be involved as a sponsor of CMU’s
Tartan Racing team,” says Tana Utley, vice
president of Caterpillar’s Technology and
Solutions division. “This victory represents
what can happen when business and
academia combine forces and work toward
a shared goal of advancing technology.”
As part of the sponsorship, Caterpillar
provides advanced technologies such
as drive-by-wire steering, sensing
and software. In addition Cat has an
embedded engineer working full-
time with CMU’s Tartan Racing team.
Electronics control the engines and
Caterpillar’s Morelectric™ system
generates the electrical power and air
conditioning for the on-board navigation,
control and guidance systems.”
Team leader William “Red” Whittaker, a
CMU robotics professor, says Caterpillar’s
business of developing innovative
equipment to performing rugged work
conditions made the company the perfect
partner in this project.
Nearly 60 participants applied for the
event, with the field narrowed to 11
finalists following a series of qualifying
events. Also receiving high honors was
Caterpillar-sponsored Virginia Tech’s
“Odin,” which took third place, and
Oshkosh Trucks “TerraMax,” one of
the finalists.
In addition to the benefits of
participating in the development of
the technologies used by its sponsored
teams, Caterpillar benefits from the
other teams as well.
“We’re leveraging the knowledge of all
the teams,” says Utley. “DARPA gives us
access to the brightest minds in the world,
and we’re taking that knowledge back to
Caterpillar and using it in our machines.”
Building an award-winning autonomous vehicle
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 41
CONTINUED ON PAGE 43
42 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
agriculture. That ongoing research—which leads to
technological advances—also becomes valuable in
the projects CMU is developing with Cat.
The collaboration strengthens the knowledge base
of both organizations. It exposes both CMU and
Caterpillar researchers to the rigors of applied
science and engineering, and to leading-edge
automation challenges.
advanceMents in technology
While the technology was not viable when
Caterpillar was ready to introduce autonomy more
than a decade ago, that is no longer the case.
“Technology has moved forward by leaps and
bounds in the last 15 years,” says Verheyen. “Back
when Cat first demonstrated its autonomous truck,
the Internet was in its infancy and WiFi-radio
communication was a concept in the university
research labs. And it was like something out of
‘Star Wars’ to think that you could get your e-mail
anywhere in the world on a hand-held device.”
CMU’s Whittaker agrees, explaining how far
technology has come since the university began
collaborating with Caterpillar more than 20 years
ago. “When the technological advances are viewed
over decades, it’s almost like going from fantasy
and science fiction to reality and manifestation,”
he says. “The differences are profound.”
“Every version of what we develop builds in
aspects of technologies we’ve developed before,”
he continues. “It benefits from advances we create
together—and the advances the world creates
for us.”
Automation technology has benefited from advances
in computing, in GPS, in gyroscopes and many
others, says Whittaker. “The mining industry and
Cat and Carnegie Mellon didn’t directly improve
those things,” he says. “But mine automation
benefits immensely from them.”
gps
The GPS constellations that are so important for
autonomous navigation did not even exist 15 years
ago, recalls Whittaker. “In 1990 it took several racks
of electronics and processors just to estimate the
machine’s position—and even then we couldn’t do
it accurately or quickly. LCD screens and flat panel
displays didn’t exist. Neither did the networked
radio systems that allow communication among the
vehicles and the mine managers.”
Electronic componentry
Many of the components that are standard on
the mining equipment of today didn’t exist when
the partnership began researching autonomous
technologies two decades ago. For example, electronic
control modules and embedded controllers are
standard features on every wheel loader, excavator
or truck made today. When the research began,
machines had mechanical controllers—not electrical.
Similarly, machines used hydraulics instead of
electro-hydraulics; sensors that are now available
at the time were expensive, low capability and
temperamental; and the algorithms, software and
processing that make autonomy possible were
either poorly understood, or tentative at best.
Perception technologies
One of the biggest challenges in the development
of autonomous mine sites is obstacle detection
and avoidance. Early versions of obstacle avoidance
systems caused a machine to come to a stop when
it detected an obstacle—resuming motion only after
the obstacle was cleared. More advanced technologies
enable an autonomous machine to determine
alternate routes around the obstacles it detects.
Significant advances have been made in these
“perception technologies,” which make it possible
for a vehicle to look at its environment and
recognize what it sees. “Any autonomous vehicle
has to take in sensor data, then process it fast
enough to plan a route and make adjustments,”
says McCord.
As autonomous fleets of mobile machines become
more widely used and complex, the task of planning
alternate routes to avoid multiple, and often moving,
obstacles requires the development of unique and
inventive methods to be successful.
“Radar sensors are one part of the perception
equation, but a number of different sensors are
required,” says Verheyen. “Any single technology
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 43
wouldn’t provide enough information to make the
truck work as a part of the total mining system.”
Management of exceptions
A human operator processes information without
even realizing it, and can handle exceptions; a truck
cannot. “We must be able to manage exceptions
with the software,” says McCord. “For example, if an
operator hears a strange noise, he’ll take preventive
action, such as reporting it to maintenance. So we
must expand VIMS to include those items normally
monitored by an operator. Likewise, an operator can
see a flat tire on the truck ahead of him, so we are
developing technologies that are able to monitor tires.”
an autonoMous haulage systeM
An autonomous mine site involves a lot more than
autonomous trucks. While the technology exists to
build a truck that can navigate a haul road, it has
to be able to work as part of a mine site system—
interacting with every piece of equipment and every
person on the site.
“We’re developing an ‘autonomous haulage
system,’” says Edwards. “It’s not just a truck.
It’s the process, the truck, the office software,
the infrastructure. It may include a drill, tractor,
truck, etc. It will incorporate technologies like
MineStar®, CAES and Aquila™, as well as radio
communications and positioning technologies.”
Site automation is much more than the
machines or the technologies. “Caterpillar is approaching autonomy in a comprehensive manner, where everything is automated—from blasting to loading to hauling to site management,” says edwards. “It’s a very different approach. all of the vision will not happen overnight but Caterpillar is laying the foundation for the fully autonomous mine to be there one day.”The successful implementation of these new
technologies will require significant changes in
people and processes. “Some mining customers
Sponsoring the teams also allows
Caterpillar to build actual components and
test them in real environments. “We’re
using these vehicles as a test bed for the
technology,” says Utley. “It’s a different
approach to product and technology
development and it’s working.”
Boss is a 2007 Chevy Tahoe that uses
19 sensors of six types to perceive its
surroundings. Software running on 10
blade computers uses the sensor input to
build a model of Boss’ environment and
to choose an appropriate set of actions for
each road and traffic situation.
Boss is equipped with more than a
dozen lasers, cameras and radars to view
the world. High-level route planning
determines the best path through a
road network. Motion planning requires
consideration of the static and dynamic
obstacles detected by perception, as well
as lane and road boundary information,
parking lot boundaries, stop lines, speed
limits, and similar requirements. Boss
handles surprises such as other vehicles
running a stop sign or making sudden
stops or turns. Defensive driving skills
allow Boss to avoid crashes.
Technology enables Boss to:
• Follow rules of the road
• Detect and track other vehicles at
long ranges
• Find a spot and park in a parking lot
• Obey intersection precedence rules
• Follow vehicles at a safe distance
• React to dynamic conditions like blocked
roads or broken-down vehicles
Each of the semifinalist teams had to
demonstrate technical prowess to get
invited to the event, but Tartan Racing
believes that it has several characteristics
that set it apart:
• Rigorous testing. Tartan Racing used
two identically prepared vehicles to
double the team’s testing capabilities,
logging more than 2,000 autonomous
miles during more than six months of
rigorous testing.
• Analysis tools. Tartan Racing has
developed tools that allow team
members to rapidly identify and correct
problems that arise during testing.
"Just as a good football team improves
itself by watching film of its games, our
system allows the team to visualize the
vehicle’s performance during tests,"
Whittaker says.
• Sponsors who are embedded on the
team. The Boss’ sponsors were active
participants, working side-by-side to solve
problems. Caterpillar has an Automation
Center near Carnegie Mellon University
which provided strong support to the
team, including an embedded engineer.
CONTINUED FROM PAGE 41
44 Cat global mining / Viewpoint / 2008: issue 4
believe the biggest challenge to introducing
autonomy is not the technology, but the people and
processes,” says Murphy. “Oftentimes, engineers
focus on the product, but fail to understand
that people and processes must change if the
technology is going to deliver value.”
Recognizing that there will be new mining
processes resulting from autonomy, Caterpillar
recently announced a groundbreaking alignment
with BHP Billiton—the world’s largest diversified
natural resources company—to develop an
autonomous mining haulage system.
“This close collaboration will focus on Caterpillar
building an autonomous haulage system that will
tightly integrate with BHP Billiton mining processes,”
says Caterpillar group president Stu Levenick.
The two companies are launching joint development
programs, which includes enhancing existing
mining trucks by integrating them with robust
autonomous sub-systems—many of which Cat has
already proven in the marketplace.
the Best applications
Like any new technology, mine site automation will
not immediately be relevant in all ways on all sites.
Individual companies will have to distinguish which
sites have the best circumstances for early adoption.
Companies may find autonomy most useful where:
• The location is most remote
• Labor is less available
• Operations are highly repetitive
• Operations are simple
• A new site is being developed or an existing site
has significant expansion
“Of course areas like the frozen North, where
there are new opportunities to mine diamonds and
uranium, are extremely amenable to automation,”
Whittaker says. “But that’s not to say a 40-year-old
mine on the outskirts of a city, one that’s already
entrenched with human operations, would not be
the right application to get started with autonomy.”
the payBack
While development of an autonomous mine site will
require more capital upfront than a traditional site,
paybacks are rapid.
“ There are some costs for familiarization and for the learning curve and for embracing the new capability,” says Whittaker. “but there is an immense return on investment. Much of the componentry is already there. so the industry will get a lot for a little more. It’s inevitable that they’re going to embrace it.”
the Future
Whittaker maintains that autonomous technology
will move forward as quickly as the marketplace
demands. Once a number of mine sites are onboard,
other sites will work quickly to follow suit.
“Development is rarely paced by the technology,”
he says. “The technology is there, and it can be
built very quickly and introduced in a product.
Once the industry starts demanding it, it will go
much faster.”
“It can become such a value-add and such an
important competitive edge that it becomes
something you can’t be without,” he says. “It will
quickly go from being folly to being fundamental.
It is something that pretty quickly mining
companies won’t do without.”
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 45
CAT PLANS TO MEET EMISSIONS REQUIREMENTS
Caterpillar has announced plans to meet stringent Tier IV emissions requirements, building on the success of its ACERT® Technology and integrating state-of-the-art systems that are designed, produced and supported by Caterpillar. System design will be tailored to optimally meet customer needs in each application and horsepower range. Instead of using selective catalytic reduction to meet the requirements, Cat Tier IV engine systems will be equipped with particulate matter after-treatment technology, including oxidation catalysts and diesel particulate filters with advanced regeneration systems that will optimize uptime, fuel efficiency and operator convenience.
CAT TO BUILD SMALL EXCAVATORS IN CHINA
Caterpillar plans to build small-sized (less than 18 tonnes or 20 short tons) hydraulic excavators in Nanjing, Jiangsu province, China—building a facility that fits into the company’s emerging markets strategy and will be a key element of the company’s worldwide excavator manufacturing footprint. Caterpillar plans to begin construction on the 33,900-square-meter (365,000-square-foot) facility in early 2009 pending appropriate government approvals. Caterpillar has 16 operations—both joint venture and wholly owned businesses— in China today.
CAT TO EXPAND MANUFACTURING IN INDIA
As part of its strategic plan to increase its manufacturing footprint in the rapidly growing Asia-Pacific region, Caterpillar has announced a four-year, US$200 million investment to increase manufacturing capacity in India. The company will significantly increase production of off-highway trucks made at its facility near Chennai. These trucks are used for coal and other mining applications in India. The company also will expand engine production at its facility in Hosur, adding production of the Caterpillar® 3508 engine, to be used primarily in off-highway trucks produced by Caterpillar in India.
CAT ACQUIRES BRAZILIAN LOCOMOTIVE COMPANy
Caterpillar has reached an agreement to acquire all of the capital stock of MGE Equipamentos & Servicos Ferroviarios Ltda (MGE), the manufacturer and reconditioner of traction motors, main and auxiliary generators, control equipment and auxiliairy components for locomotive and transit cars. Customers include several transit authorities and railroads in South America. MGE will become part of Caterpillar’s Progress Rail Services division, one of the largest integrated and diversified suppliers of railroad and transit system products and services in North America.
ACQUISITION TO ENHANCE CAT REMANUFACTURING BUSINESS
Caterpillar has announced that it will acquire certain assets of Gremada Industries, a leader in the process of remanufacturing and reclaiming metal parts and components used in transmissions, torque converters and final drives. Gremada provides service support and remanufacturing expertise for off-highway equipment used in the mining and petroleum industries. Based in North Dakota, the company will join 16 other Cat remanufacturing facilities located in the United States, Mexico, Europe and Asia.
CATERPILLAR INVESTING $1 BILLION IN FACILITIES
Demonstrating confidence in its ability to compete globally from a strong U.S manufacturing base, Caterpillar has announced a multi-year US$1 billon capacity expansion that will position key factories in Illinois and other areas to compete for the long term. The investments will allow Cat to
meet continued demand and bolster its global leadership for machines used primarily in mining and large infrastructure applications. The company will invest US$1 billion from 2008 to 2010 in five existing facilities in Illinois—East Peoria, Joliet, Decatur, Aurora and Mossville.
WHEEL LOADER DESIGNED FOR EFFICIENCy
The new Caterpillar 992K Wheel Loader will have new features that enhance productivity, operator efficiency and safety, serviceability and durability. The loader efficiently matches with the Cat® 777 and 775 off-highway trucks. The new loader delivers fast cycles and high bucket fill factors for productive truck loading. The 992K features the Cat C32 ACERT® engine for increased performance and US EPA Tier II and EU Stage IIa emissions compliance. Also boosting productivity is Positive Flow Control hydraulics—the next generation of load-sensing hydraulics.
ACCUGRADE HAS NEW ON-BOARD RADIO SySTEM
Caterpillar has introduced a new CR Series on-board radio that enables users to switch between GPS and ATS grade control without changing out the machine radio. Firmware on the CR radios upgrades directly through the display, eliminating the need for using a PC and simplifying machine installation and integration. The radio is available in two configurations—single band 900 MHz and 2400 MHz, and dual band 900/2400MHz. CR Radios share a common housing and electrical interface, which simplifies machine installation and integration. The new radios replace the TC450, TC900 and TC2400 radios.
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» For more Caterpillar news, visit www.cat.com
Cat global mining / Viewpoint 45
Visit www.cat.com/mining— starting September 22, 2008
In conjunction with MINExpo, starting September 22, 2008, visit www.cat.com/mining to request free materials; the new industry film “Ground Rules: Mining Right for a Sustainable Future,” “Managing a Mining Lifestyle” safety DVD, and a new poster series, “Mining safely. Mining more. Mining right.”