CONTENTS

Preface ...................................................................................................................................... xxiii

Chapter 1 - The Science of Biology ......................................................................................1

Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 1Rise of Biology .......................................................................................................................................... 1Branches of Biology ................................................................................................................................... 4Nature of Science ...................................................................................................................................... 5

What is Science? ................................................................................................................................ 6Characteristics of Science ................................................................................................................... 6How Do Scientists Think? ................................................................................................................. 7How Does Science Work? .................................................................................................................. 7Terminology of the Truth .................................................................................................................. 9Designing the Good Experiment ..................................................................................................... 10Statistical Tests—Making Sense of the Data ..................................................................................... 13

In Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 14Review and Reflect .................................................................................................................................. 14Create and Connect ................................................................................................................................ 15

Chapter 2 - Taxonomy: Classification and Nomenclature ..................................................17

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 17Questions of Taxonomy .......................................................................................................................... 18Rise of Taxonomy .................................................................................................................................... 19Phylogeny Determines Taxonomy ........................................................................................................... 25Issues of Nomenclature............................................................................................................................ 29In Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 31Review and Reflect .................................................................................................................................. 32Create and Connect ................................................................................................................................ 33Box 2.1: The Life and Times of the Father of Modern Taxonomy .....................................................20

Chapter 3 - Viruses ............................................................................................................37

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 37History of Viruses ................................................................................................................................... 37Viruses Revealed ...................................................................................................................................... 38Virus Replication .................................................................................................................................... 44

Bacteriophage Replication ............................................................................................................... 45Animal Cell Replication .................................................................................................................. 48

Emerging Viruses .................................................................................................................................... 48Viral Diseases in Plants ............................................................................................................................ 49Viroids and Prions ................................................................................................................................... 50In Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 51Review and Reflect .................................................................................................................................. 52Create and Connect ................................................................................................................................ 53Box 3.1: Edward Jenner—Saving the World from Smallpox ............................................................40

Chapter 4 - Prokaryotes—Bacteria and Archaea ................................................................55

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 55History of Prokaryotes ............................................................................................................................. 56Domain Bacteria ..................................................................................................................................... 57

Bacteria Revealed ............................................................................................................................. 57Nature of Life .................................................................................................................................. 58Microbes and Medicine ................................................................................................................... 60Characteristics of Bacteria ................................................................................................................ 61Bacterial Metabolism ....................................................................................................................... 64Cyanobacteria .................................................................................................................................. 65Bacterial Reproduction .................................................................................................................... 66

Domain Archaea ..................................................................................................................................... 67In Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 68Review and Reflect .................................................................................................................................. 69Create and Connect ................................................................................................................................ 71Box 4.1: Experiments on the Generation of Insects by Francesco Redi .............................................71

Chapter 5 - Protists ............................................................................................................75

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 75History of Protists ................................................................................................................................... 75Diversity and Classification ..................................................................................................................... 77Supergroup Characteristics and Members ................................................................................................ 79

Supergroup Archaeplastida .............................................................................................................. 79

Supergroup Chromalveolata ............................................................................................................ 82Supergroup Excavata ........................................................................................................................ 89Supergroup Amoebozoa ................................................................................................................... 91Supergroup Opisthokonta ............................................................................................................... 92Supergroup Rhizaria ........................................................................................................................ 95

In Summary ............................................................................................................................................ 95Review and Reflect .................................................................................................................................. 97Create and Connect ................................................................................................................................ 98Box 5.1: Dying From Neglect—NTDs .........................................................................................94

Chapter 6 - Fungi .............................................................................................................101

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 101History of Fungi .................................................................................................................................... 101Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 102General Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 103Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 106

Phylum Chytridiomycota .............................................................................................................. 106Phylum Zygomycota ...................................................................................................................... 107Phylum Ascomycota ...................................................................................................................... 110Phylum Basidiomycota .................................................................................................................. 115

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 117Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 118Create and Connect .............................................................................................................................. 119Box 6.1: Lichens—A Strange Partnership ....................................................................................114

Chapter 7 - Principles of Botany ......................................................................................121

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 121Nature of Green World ......................................................................................................................... 122What is a Plant? .................................................................................................................................... 123Rise of Botany ....................................................................................................................................... 124

Ancient Times to the Middle Ages—300 BC to 1500 AD ............................................................. 1241500 to 1900 ................................................................................................................................. 125Twentieth Century to Present ........................................................................................................ 127

Scope and Importance of Botany ........................................................................................................... 128Importance of Plants ............................................................................................................................. 129

Plants and the Atmosphere ............................................................................................................ 129Plants and Biogeochemical Cycles .................................................................................................. 130Plants as Habitat ............................................................................................................................ 130Plants as Food ................................................................................................................................ 130

Plants as Beverages ......................................................................................................................... 134Plants as Commercial Products ...................................................................................................... 135Plants as Fuel and Energy .............................................................................................................. 137Plants as Pharmaceuticals ............................................................................................................... 137

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 139Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 140Create and Connect .............................................................................................................................. 140Box 7.1: Rise of Experimental Botany ..........................................................................................126

Chapter 8 - Origin and Diversity of Plants ......................................................................143

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 143History of Plants ................................................................................................................................... 143Plant Classification ................................................................................................................................ 145Plant Diversity ...................................................................................................................................... 148

Non-Vascular Spore (Seedless) Plants—Bryophytes ...................................................................... 148Vascular Spore (Seedless) Plants—Lycophytes ................................................................................ 153Vascular Spore (Seedless) Plants—Pteridophytes ............................................................................ 157Vascular Seed Plants—Spermatophytes .......................................................................................... 162

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 172Review and Reflec ................................................................................................................................ 174Create and Connect ............................................................................................................................. 174Box 8.1: Beware the Quaking Bog ...............................................................................................152Box 8.2: The Upside Down Carboniferous Forest .........................................................................154

Chapter 9 - Angiosperm Architecture: Form and Function of Flowering Plants ...............179

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 179Angiosperm Cells and Tissues ................................................................................................................ 180

Angiosperm Cell Types .................................................................................................................. 181Angiosperm Tissue Types ............................................................................................................... 182

Angiosperm Vegetative Organs ............................................................................................................. 185Roots ............................................................................................................................................. 186Stems ............................................................................................................................................. 195Leaves ............................................................................................................................................ 202

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 210Review and Reflect ............................................................................................................................... 211Create and Connect ............................................................................................................................. 212Box 9.1: A Plant that Grows Roots into Itself? ..............................................................................191Box 9.2: Life Within the Rings ....................................................................................................201Box 9.3: Colors of Fall ..........................................................................................................209

Chapter 10 - Plant Nutrition, Photosynthesis, and Transport ............................................215

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 215Obtaining Nutrients .............................................................................................................................. 216

Soil Texture and Structure .............................................................................................................. 216Unusual Nutritional Strategies ....................................................................................................... 221

Photosynthesis ....................................................................................................................................... 222Discovering Photosynthesis ........................................................................................................... 223Anatomy of Photosynthesis............................................................................................................ 225

Transport............................................................................................................................................... 231Transport Processes ........................................................................................................................ 233

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 235Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 236Create and Connect ............................................................................................................................. 237Box 10.1: The Ghost Plant .........................................................................................................222

Chapter 11 - Plant Growth and Responses .........................................................................239

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 239Plant Growth ........................................................................................................................................ 240

Growth Sites .................................................................................................................................. 241Growth Rates Vary ........................................................................................................................ 243Command and Control ................................................................................................................. 244

Plant Hormones .................................................................................................................................... 246Auxins .......................................................................................................................................... 247Gibberellins .................................................................................................................................. 249Ethylene ....................................................................................................................................... 249Cytokinins .................................................................................................................................... 250Abscisic Acid ................................................................................................................................ 250Other Compounds ........................................................................................................................ 250

Inside Reacts to Outside ........................................................................................................................ 252Availability of minerals ................................................................................................................. 252Soil pH ......................................................................................................................................... 253Water and Oxygen in the Soil ....................................................................................................... 255Humidity ...................................................................................................................................... 255Intensity and Duration of Light .................................................................................................... 255Temperature .................................................................................................................................. 258

Plant Sensory and Response Systems ..................................................................................................... 259Plant Dancing ............................................................................................................................... 259

Plant Defenses ....................................................................................................................................... 263Structural Defenses ........................................................................................................................ 264

Chemical Defenses ........................................................................................................................ 265Animal Mercenaries ....................................................................................................................... 267

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 268Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 269Create and Connect .............................................................................................................................. 270Box 11.1: Commercial Use of Phytohormones ..............................................................................251

Chapter 12 - Plant Reproduction and Seed Formation ......................................................273

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 273Vegetative Reproduction........................................................................................................................ 274

Bending Plants to Our Will ........................................................................................................... 276Sexual Reproduction ............................................................................................................................. 282

Flower Function ............................................................................................................................ 283Flower Structure ............................................................................................................................ 285Formation of Gametes ................................................................................................................... 286Pollination ..................................................................................................................................... 288Fertilization—Fusion of Gametes .................................................................................................. 292

Seeds and Seed Structure ....................................................................................................................... 293Fruits ..................................................................................................................................................... 295Dispersal of Seeds and Fruits ................................................................................................................. 299Seed Germination ................................................................................................................................. 300Seed Dormancy ..................................................................................................................................... 302In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 303Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 304Create and Connect .............................................................................................................................. 305Box 12.1: Plants in a Bottle ........................................................................................................281

Chapter 13 - Animal Architecture—Form and Function ....................................................307

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 307Origin of Animals ................................................................................................................................. 307From Few Came Many—Rise of Animal Forms .................................................................................... 309Characteristics of Animals ..................................................................................................................... 310

Heterotrophy ................................................................................................................................. 310Multicellularity .............................................................................................................................. 310No Cell Walls ................................................................................................................................ 310Active Movement .......................................................................................................................... 310Embryonic Development ............................................................................................................... 311

Animal Body Plans ................................................................................................................................ 313Specialized Tissues ......................................................................................................................... 314

Symmetry ...................................................................................................................................... 314Body Cavities ................................................................................................................................ 315Metamerism (Segmentation) .......................................................................................................... 317

Genetic Basis of Animal Evolution ........................................................................................................ 319In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 320Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 321Create and Connect .............................................................................................................................. 322Box 13.1: Significance of Segmentation .......................................................................................318

Chapter 14 - Sponges and Cnidarians ................................................................................325

PHYLUM PORIFERA .......................................................................................................................................... 325Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 325History of Porifera ................................................................................................................................. 326Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 327Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 328Class Characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 328

Class Calcarea ................................................................................................................................ 328Class Hexactinellida ....................................................................................................................... 329Class Demospongia ....................................................................................................................... 329

Being Poriferan ...................................................................................................................................... 330Body Types .................................................................................................................................... 330Body Structure and the Aquiferous System .................................................................................... 331Feeding and Digestion .................................................................................................................. 333Gas Exchange and Waste Removal ................................................................................................ 334Response and Defense .................................................................................................................. 334Regeneration and Reproduction .................................................................................................... 335

Poriferan Connection ............................................................................................................................ 339Economically ................................................................................................................................. 339Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 340Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 341

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 341Sponges—Review and Reflect ............................................................................................................... 342Sponges—Create and Connect .............................................................................................................. 343Box 14.1 : Investigating Sponge Regeneration ...............................................................................335

PHYLUM CNIDARIA .......................................................................................................................................... 345Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 345History of Cnidaria ............................................................................................................................... 346Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 347Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 347

Class Characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 348Class Hydrozoa .............................................................................................................................. 348Class Scyphozoa............................................................................................................................. 350Class Anthozoa .............................................................................................................................. 352

Cnidarian Body Plan ............................................................................................................................. 356Body Form ................................................................................................................................... 356Cell Layers .................................................................................................................................... 357Support and Movement ................................................................................................................ 360Feeding and Digestion .................................................................................................................. 360Gas Exchange and Waste Removal ................................................................................................ 361Nervous System and Sense Organs. .............................................................................................. 361Regeneration and Reproduction ................................................................................................... 362

Cnidarian Connection .......................................................................................................................... 362Economically ................................................................................................................................. 362Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 362Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 364

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 364Cnidaria—Review and Reflect .............................................................................................................. 365Cnidaria—Create and Connect ............................................................................................................. 366Box 14.2: Anemone Clone Wars ..................................................................................................353

Chapter 15 - Platyhelminthes and Pseudocoelomates ........................................................369

PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES ....................................................................................................................... 369Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 369An Explosion of Complexity ................................................................................................................. 370History of Platyhelminthes .................................................................................................................... 371Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 371Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 373

Class Characteristics ...................................................................................................................... 373Class Turbellaria ............................................................................................................................ 373Class Trematoda—Digenetic Flukes ............................................................................................... 375Class Monogenea—Monogenetic Flukes ....................................................................................... 375Class Cestoda ................................................................................................................................ 376

Platyhelminth Body Plan ....................................................................................................................... 377Body Covering .......................................................................................................................... 378Support and Movement ................................................................................................................ 379Feeding and Digestion .................................................................................................................. 380Circulation and Gas Exchange ...................................................................................................... 382Excretion and Osmoregulation ..................................................................................................... 382Nervous System and Sense Organs ....................................................................................... 383

Regeneration and Reproduction ................................................................................................... 384Platyhelminth Connection .................................................................................................................... 388

Economically ................................................................................................................................. 388Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 388Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 388

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 393Platyhelminthes—Review and Reflect ................................................................................................... 395Platyhelminthes—Create and Connect .................................................................................................. 396Box 15.1: Wonders of Regeneration .............................................................................................385

PSEUDOCOELOMATES .................................................................................................................. 397Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 397Terminology of Hollow Spaces .............................................................................................................. 398Importance of Hollow Spaces ................................................................................................................ 399Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 400Phylum Characteristics of the Lophotrochozoan Pseudocoelomates ...................................................... 401

Phylum Rotifera ............................................................................................................................ 401Phylum Acanthocephala ................................................................................................................ 402Phylum Gastrotricha ..................................................................................................................... 404Phylum Entoprocta ....................................................................................................................... 405

Phylum Characteristics of the Ecdysozoan Pseudocoelomates ................................................................ 407Phylum Tardigrada ........................................................................................................................ 407Phylum Nematoda......................................................................................................................... 409Phylum Nematomorpha ................................................................................................................ 412Phylum Kinorhyncha .................................................................................................................... 413Phylum Loricifera .......................................................................................................................... 415Phylum Priapulida ......................................................................................................................... 416

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 417Psuedocoelomates—Review and Reflect ................................................................................................ 418Pseudocoelomates—Create and Connect .............................................................................................. 418Box 15.2: One Tough Critter ......................................................................................................408

Chapter 16 - Annelids and Molluscs ..................................................................................419

PHYLUM ANNELIDA ......................................................................................................................................... 419Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 419History of Annelids ............................................................................................................................... 420Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 420Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 422Class Characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 423

Class Polychaeta ............................................................................................................................. 423

Class Oligochaeta .......................................................................................................................... 426Class Hirudinea ............................................................................................................................. 428

Annelid Body Plan ................................................................................................................................ 430Segmentation ................................................................................................................................ 430Body Covering .............................................................................................................................. 432Chaetae ......................................................................................................................................... 433Support and Movement ................................................................................................................ 433Feeding and Digestion .................................................................................................................. 433Circulation and Gas Exchange ...................................................................................................... 435Excretion and Osmoregulation ..................................................................................................... 436Nervous System and Sense Organs ............................................................................................... 437Regeneration, Reproduction and Development ............................................................................ 438

Annelid Connection .............................................................................................................................. 440Economically ................................................................................................................................. 440Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 441Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 441

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 442Annelids—Review and Reflect .............................................................................................................. 444Annelids—Create and Connect ............................................................................................................. 445Box 16.1: Significance of Segmentation .......................................................................................431

MOLLUSCS ........................................................................................................................................ 446Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 446History of Molluscs ............................................................................................................................... 446Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 448Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 448Class Characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 449

Class Gastropoda ........................................................................................................................... 449Class Bivalvia ................................................................................................................................. 452Class Cephalopoda ........................................................................................................................ 453Class Polyplacophora ..................................................................................................................... 458Class Scaphopoda .......................................................................................................................... 459Class Aplacophora ......................................................................................................................... 459Class Monoplacophora .................................................................................................................. 459

Molluscan Body Plan ............................................................................................................................ 459Body Wall ..................................................................................................................................... 460Mantle and Shell Formation ......................................................................................................... 460Foot and Locomotion ................................................................................................................... 463Feeding ......................................................................................................................................... 464Circulation and Gas Exchange ...................................................................................................... 465Excretion and Osmoregulation ..................................................................................................... 466

Nervous System and Sense Organs ............................................................................................... 466Reproduction and Development ................................................................................................... 467

Molluscan Connection .......................................................................................................................... 470Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 471Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 471Culturally ...................................................................................................................................... 472

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 472Molluscs—Review and Reflect .............................................................................................................. 475Molluscs—Create and Connect ............................................................................................................. 475Box 16.2 : From the Sea to Thee—Artificial Bone ........................................................................461

Chapter 17 - Arthropods and Echinoderms .......................................................................479

PHYLUM ARTHROPODA ................................................................................................................................. 479Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 479History of the Arthropods ..................................................................................................................... 480Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 482Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 483Subphylum and Class Characteristics .................................................................................................... 484

Subphylum Chelicerata.................................................................................................................. 484Subphylum Myriapoda .................................................................................................................. 494Subphylum Hexapoda ................................................................................................................... 497Subphylum Crustacea .................................................................................................................... 502

The Arthropod Body Plan ..................................................................................................................... 507Body Wall and Exoskeleton .......................................................................................................... 507Molting and Growth .................................................................................................................... 508Support and Locomotion .............................................................................................................. 509Appendages .................................................................................................................................. 511Digestive System ........................................................................................................................... 512Circulation and Gas Exchange ....................................................................................................... 514Excretion and Osmoregulation ..................................................................................................... 515Nervous System and Sense Organs ............................................................................................... 515Reproduction and Development ................................................................................................... 518

Arthropod Connection ......................................................................................................................... 519Economically ................................................................................................................................. 519Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 520Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 521

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 523Arthropods—Review and Reflect .......................................................................................................... 527Arthropods—Create and Connect ......................................................................................................... 528

PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA .......................................................................................................................... 530Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 530History of Echinoderms ........................................................................................................................ 530Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 533Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 534Class Characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 534

Class Asteroidea ............................................................................................................................. 534Class Ophiuroidea ......................................................................................................................... 536Class Echinoidea ............................................................................................................................ 537Class Holothuroidea ...................................................................................................................... 538Class Crinoidea ............................................................................................................................. 540

Echinoderm Body Plan ......................................................................................................................... 541Body Wall and Skeleton ................................................................................................................. 541Water Vascular System .................................................................................................................. 542Support and Locomotion .............................................................................................................. 543Feeding and Digestion .................................................................................................................. 544Circulation and Gas Exchange ...................................................................................................... 548Excretion and Osmoregulation ..................................................................................................... 549Nervous System and Sense Organs ............................................................................................... 549Reproduction and Regeneration ................................................................................................... 549

Echinoderm Connection ...................................................................................................................... 553Economically ................................................................................................................................. 553Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 553Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 554

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 554Echinoderms—Review and Reflect ........................................................................................................ 556Echinoderms—Create and Connect ...................................................................................................... 557Box 17.2: Spill Your Guts to Save Your Life .................................................................................539

Chapter 18 - Hemichordates, Chordates, and Fish .............................................................559

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 559History of the Hemichordates .............................................................................................................. 560PHYLUM XENOTURBELLIDA ......................................................................................................... 560PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA ............................................................................................................ 561Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 561Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 561Class Characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 561

Class Enteropneusta....................................................................................................................... 561Class Pterobranchia ....................................................................................................................... 563

Hemichordate Body Plan ...................................................................................................................... 564

Body Wall, Support, and Locomotion .......................................................................................... 564Feeding and Digestion ................................................................................................................... 565Circulation, Gas Exchange, and Excretion ..................................................................................... 566Nervous System and Sense Organs ................................................................................................ 566Reproduction and Development ................................................................................................... 567

Hemichordate Connection ................................................................................................................... 568

PHYLUM CHORDATA ...................................................................................................................... 568History of Chordates ............................................................................................................................. 568Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 568Phylum Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 570Subphyla Characteristics ........................................................................................................................ 570

Subphylum Cephalochordata ......................................................................................................... 570Subphylum Urochordata ............................................................................................................... 572

Urochordate Connection ....................................................................................................................... 574Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 574Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 574

Subphylum Vertebrata (L. vertebratus, backboned) ........................................................................ 574Chordate Body Plan .............................................................................................................................. 575

Notochord .................................................................................................................................... 575Dorsal Tubular Nerve Cord .......................................................................................................... 576Pharyngeal Pouches ...................................................................................................................... 576Endostyle or Thyroid Gland ......................................................................................................... 577Postanal Tail ................................................................................................................................. 577

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 577Hemichordates and Chordates—Review and Reflect ............................................................................. 580Hemichordates and Chordates—Create and Connect ........................................................................... 581

FISH ..................................................................................................................................................... 583Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 583History of Fish ...................................................................................................................................... 583Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 585General Characteristics .......................................................................................................................... 587Class Characteristics .............................................................................................................................. 590

Class Myxini .................................................................................................................................. 590Class Cephalaspidomorphi ............................................................................................................ 592Class Chondrichthyes .................................................................................................................... 594Class Osteichthyes ......................................................................................................................... 597

Body Plan of the Cartilaginous and Bony Fish ..................................................................................... 602Body Covering .............................................................................................................................. 602Fins and Locomotion .................................................................................................................... 603

Buoyant Bladder ........................................................................................................................... 606Respiration and Gas Exchange ...................................................................................................... 607Feeding and Digestion .................................................................................................................. 609Osmotic Regulation ...................................................................................................................... 611Circulation and Body Temperature ............................................................................................... 612Nervous System and Sense Organs ............................................................................................... 613Reproduction and Development ................................................................................................... 616

Fish Connection .................................................................................................................................... 619Economically ................................................................................................................................. 619Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 620Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 624Culturally ...................................................................................................................................... 625

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 625Fish—Review and Reflect ...................................................................................................................... 628Fish—Create and Connect .................................................................................................................... 629Box 18.1: Life History of a Fish As Told By.....Its Ears? .................................................................588

Chapter 19 - Amphibians and Reptiles ..............................................................................631

PHYLUM AMPHIBIA .......................................................................................................................................... 631The Great Leap ..................................................................................................................................... 631History of Amphibians .......................................................................................................................... 632Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 636General Characteristics of Amphibians .................................................................................................. 637Order Characteristics of Class Amphibia ............................................................................................... 638

Order Gymnophiona ..................................................................................................................... 638Order Urodela ............................................................................................................................... 639Order Anura .................................................................................................................................. 639

Amphibian Body Plan ........................................................................................................................... 641Body Covering .............................................................................................................................. 641Support and Locomotion .............................................................................................................. 643Feeding and Digestion ................................................................................................................... 646Respiration and Vocalization .......................................................................................................... 648Osmoregulation and Excretion ..................................................................................................... 650Circulation and Body Temperature ............................................................................................... 652Nervous System and Sense Organs ............................................................................................... 655Reproduction, Development, and Metamorphosis ......................................................................... 657

Amphibian Connection ......................................................................................................................... 660Economically ................................................................................................................................. 660Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 661Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 662

Culturally ...................................................................................................................................... 662In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 664Amphibians—Review and Reflect ......................................................................................................... 665Amphibians—Create and Connect ........................................................................................................ 666

PHYLUM REPTILIA ............................................................................................................................................ 668Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 668History of Reptiles ................................................................................................................................ 668Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 674General Characteristics of Reptiles ........................................................................................................ 677Order Characteristics of Class Reptilia .................................................................................................. 678

Order Testudines ........................................................................................................................... 678Order Sphenodontia ...................................................................................................................... 681Order Crocodilia ........................................................................................................................... 682Order Squamata ............................................................................................................................ 684

Reptilian Body Plan .............................................................................................................................. 694Body Covering .............................................................................................................................. 694Support and Locomotion .............................................................................................................. 695Feeding and Digestion .................................................................................................................. 697Respiration ................................................................................................................................... 698Osmoregulation and Excretion ..................................................................................................... 699Circulation and Body Temperature ............................................................................................... 699Nervous System and Sense Organs ............................................................................................... 700Reproduction and Development ................................................................................................... 701

Reptile Connection ............................................................................................................................... 702Economically ................................................................................................................................. 702Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 704Medically ....................................................................................................................................... 705Culturally ...................................................................................................................................... 705

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 706Reptiles—Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................ 708Reptiles—Create and Connect .............................................................................................................. 709Box 19.2: Your Tail for Your Life ...............................................................................................687

Chapter 20 - Birds and Mammals ......................................................................................711

CLASS AVES .................................................................................................................................................... 711Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 711History of Birds ..................................................................................................................................... 712Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 714General Characteristics of Birds ............................................................................................................ 718

Body Plan of Birds ................................................................................................................................ 718Body Covering .............................................................................................................................. 718Support and Locomotion .............................................................................................................. 722Limbs and Feet ............................................................................................................................. 731Feeding and Digestion .................................................................................................................. 732Respiration ................................................................................................................................... 735Excretion ...................................................................................................................................... 737Circulation and Body Temperature ............................................................................................... 737Nervous System and Sense Organs ............................................................................................... 738Reproduction and Development ................................................................................................... 742

Bird Connection ................................................................................................................................... 750Economically ................................................................................................................................. 750Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 750Medically and Scientifically ........................................................................................................... 752Culturally ...................................................................................................................................... 753

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 754Birds—Review and Reflect .................................................................................................................... 755Birds—Create and Connect .................................................................................................................. 757Box 20.1: Migration Mysteries—How Do Birds Find Their Way? .................................................730

CLASS MAMMALIA ....................................................................................................................................... 759Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 759History of Mammals ............................................................................................................................. 759Diversity and Classification ................................................................................................................... 761General Characteristics of Mammals .................................................................................................... 763Mammalian Body Plan .......................................................................................................................... 764

Body Covering............................................................................................................................... 764Support and Movement ................................................................................................................ 767Limbs and Locomotion ................................................................................................................. 770Feeding and Digestion .................................................................................................................. 773Respiration ................................................................................................................................... 777Excretion ...................................................................................................................................... 778Circulation and Body Temperature ............................................................................................... 779Nervous System and Sense Organs ............................................................................................... 782Reproduction and Development ................................................................................................... 783

Mammal Connection ............................................................................................................................ 787Economically ................................................................................................................................. 787Ecologically ................................................................................................................................... 788Medically and Scientifically ........................................................................................................... 789Culturally and Historically ............................................................................................................ 790

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 791

Mammals—Review and Reflect ............................................................................................................. 791Mammals—Create and Connect ........................................................................................................... 794Box 20.2: How Warm Is Your Form?—Thermoregulation in Endotherms ......................................781

Chapter 21 - Animal Behavior ...........................................................................................797

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 797Biology of Behavior ............................................................................................................................... 797Causation of Behavior ........................................................................................................................... 799

Learning by Imprinting ................................................................................................................. 801Learning by Conditioning ............................................................................................................. 802Learning by Imitation .................................................................................................................... 803Learning by Instruction ................................................................................................................. 804

Development and Control of Behavior .................................................................................................. 804Function of Behavior ............................................................................................................................ 806

Agonistic (Competitive) Behavior ................................................................................................. 807Territorial Behavior ........................................................................................................................ 808Mating Behavior and Reproductive Strategies ................................................................................ 809Foraging Behavior ......................................................................................................................... 810Communication ........................................................................................................................... 810Altruism ........................................................................................................................................ 812

Comparative Psychology ....................................................................................................................... 814Memory ....................................................................................................................................... 814Tool Use ........................................................................................................................................ 815Reasoning and Problem Solving ..................................................................................................... 816Language ....................................................................................................................................... 817Consciousness ............................................................................................................................... 817Deception and Empathy ............................................................................................................... 818Emotion ........................................................................................................................................ 818

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 818Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 820Create and Connect .............................................................................................................................. 821Box 21.1: The Games Animals Play ...........................................................................................815

Chapter 22 - Ecology of Populations and Communities ....................................................823

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 823Matters of Ecology: An Awakening ........................................................................................................ 824Biosphere—A Thin Veneer of Life ......................................................................................................... 825Ecological Hierarchy ............................................................................................................................. 827Ecology of Populations .......................................................................................................................... 827

Range ........................................................................................................................................... 827Access and Barriers ....................................................................................................................... 828Dispersal and Spacing ................................................................................................................... 829Density ......................................................................................................................................... 830Dynamic Changes ........................................................................................................................ 831Population Growth ....................................................................................................................... 832The Human Population ................................................................................................................. 833

Ecology of Communities ....................................................................................................................... 836Everything Changes Over Time ..................................................................................................... 836Tooth and Claw of Competition .................................................................................................... 839Interspecies Interactions ................................................................................................................. 842Indirect Interactions ...................................................................................................................... 846

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 847Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 848Create and Connect .............................................................................................................................. 848Box 22.1: Is Earth Alive? ............................................................................................................826

Chapter 23 - Ecology of Ecosystems and Biomes ...............................................................851

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 851Ecology of Ecosystems ........................................................................................................................... 852

Biogeochemical Cycles .................................................................................................................. 852Flow of Energy .............................................................................................................................. 858Biological Productivity ................................................................................................................... 860

Ecology of Biomes ................................................................................................................................. 864Terrestrial Biomes .......................................................................................................................... 864Aquatic Ecosystems ....................................................................................................................... 869

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 872Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 872Create and Connect .............................................................................................................................. 874Box 23.1: Worlds Within Worlds .................................................................................................853

Chapter 24 - Conservation Biology ....................................................................................875

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 875Human Impact on Biodiversity ............................................................................................................. 876Ecological Hotspots ............................................................................................................................... 878Levels of Biodiversity ............................................................................................................................. 879

Genetic Diversity ........................................................................................................................... 880Species Diversity ............................................................................................................................ 880Ecosystem Diversity ....................................................................................................................... 881

The Value of Biodiversity ...................................................................................................................... 883Direct Value of Biodiversity ........................................................................................................... 883Indirect Value of Biodiversity ......................................................................................................... 884Existence value of Biodiversity ....................................................................................................... 885

Planet in Peril—Threats to Biodiversity ................................................................................................. 886Habitat Destruction ..................................................................................................................... 886Introduced Species ......................................................................................................................... 889Overharvesting .............................................................................................................................. 891Global Change .............................................................................................................................. 893

Future of the Biosphere ......................................................................................................................... 899Conserving and Preserving Biodiversity ......................................................................................... 900

In Summary .......................................................................................................................................... 903Review and Reflect ................................................................................................................................ 904Create and Connect .............................................................................................................................. 906

Appendix: Scientific Writing .......................................................................................................909Glossary ....................................................................................................................................911Photo Credits ............................................................................................................................961