11th

CONGRESS

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF SOIL SCIENCE

EDMONTON, CANADA

JUNE. 1978

GUIDEBOOK

FOR

A SOILS AND LAND USE TOUR OF AGRICULTURAL LANDS IN THE

LOWER FRASER VALLEY, BRITISH COLUMBIA

TOURS V2 aod V4

M.G. DRIEHUYZEN and A.L. REID

British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture

Cloverdale, British Columbia

Guidebook Editors

D.F. Acton and L.S. Crosson

Saskatchewan Institute of Pedology Saskatoon, Saskatchewan

i i

TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i v

INTRODUCTI

HISTORY .. · · · · ...... · ·. ·. · · · · .. · · · · ·. · ... ·. · ·. · .... · .................... .

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE •.................•..........•.....................

SOILS AND LAND USE •....•.........•.••........•.......................... Bedrock ogy and iography •...........•......................

cia 1 Deposits aci a 1 story ............................ . Climate ...•..•••.....•............•................................ Vegetation ........................................................ . Soi 1 s and , ..............•................•...............

The .. II .. $ ..................... Iii~ .. "."' Ill" (I .. " .. " a" ............................ ..

Major River Deposits .....•..•................. Deposits ................................ .

al and Ancient Beach Deposits ..... . i "" .. "." <!>"' .... " .... ""Ill." .. " ................ " ...... """' ...... ..

LAND culture ...••..•.•.•.......•..•..........•...•.................

land Reserve and Canada Land Inventory .......... . iculture in the lower Valley ....................... .

Use Conflicts .....•...........•..........................

1

1

4

4 4 8

13 15 16 16 17 17 17 18

18 18 18 20 22

GENERAL ITINERARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

TOUR THROUGH DELTA AREA ...........•..•.............................

STOP l Site STOP 2

l. Orthic Humic Gleysol ................................... . Tsawwassen Ferry Termi na 1 .............................. .

STOP 3 Oliver nt Pumping Station ........................... . STOP 4 Vegetable Farm •.........................................

TOUR THE SURREY AND LANGLEY UPLANDS ...•......................•..

c Fe c Podzol ............................. . STOP 5 Site 2.

REFERENCES .. .. .. .. "' .. .. ~ " " .. " .. .. Ill .. .. .. .. " .. • 0 .. .. " .. .. '" .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. " .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ~ .. .. "

APPEND A. Si and Profile Descriptions, Laboratory Analyses, and cromorpho l ....•..........•..........................•

Site 1. Site 2.

APPENDIX B. Plants

APPENDIX C.

c Gl eysol ................................... . rri c Podzo l ............................ .

ly Found in the Lower Fraser Valley area .....

cromorphological Descriptions • · · ... · ·. · ...... .

25

26 27 27 28

28

28

31

33 33 37

41

44

i i i

Page

APPENDIX D. The Canadian System of Soil Classification ····· · ········ ·· ··· 46

APPENDIX E. Methods of Analysis .... ·. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 48

FIGURES .................... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

l.

2.

3.

Location of tour area . · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

Vancouver City ........ · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·

Physiographic subdivisions of southwestern British Columbia · ······ ···

2

3

9

4. The Fraser Lowland .................... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 10

5. Surficial deposits of the Fraser Lowland and location of climatic stations referred to in Table 3 ...................... · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 11

6. Farm, Lower Fraser Va 11 ey ..................... ·. · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 19

7. Tour stops in the Lower Fraser Valley ...... ········ ······ ·· · ······ ··· 24

8. Micromorphology of the Orthic Humic Gleysol at Site 1 ······· ·· · ·· · ····

9. Micromorphology of the Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol at Site 2 ··· · ····· ··

TABLES

1. Reclamation of Lower Mainland floodplain areas ....................... .

2. Population of the Lower Mainland region .. " ..... " .................................. " ...

36

40

6

3. Summary of climatological data for some Atmospheric Environment Service stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4. Vegetable production within the Lower Mainland District ............... 21

5. Analytical data for the Orthic Humic Gleysol at Site 1 . • • . . . . . • • • . . . . . 35

6. Analytical data for the Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol at Site 2 . . . . . . . . . . 39

iv

EDGt~ENTS

CONTRIBUTORS AND SPONSORS:

J.E. Armstrong (Surficial Geology) Environment Canada, Vancouver, British Columbia.

A. Brierly (Soil Micromorphology) Soil Research Institute, Vancouver, Bri sh Columbia.

M.C. Coligado (Climate) B.C. Ministry of vironment, Victo a, British Columbia.

A.J. Green (Soil Classification) Soil Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia.

E.C. Hughes (Soils and Crops) B.C. Ministry of Agriculture, Cloverdale, British Columbia.

R.K. Jones (Vegetation and Editing) Soil Research Institute, Guelph, Ontario.

T.M. Lord (Soil Classification and Editing) Soil Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia.

H. Luttmerding (Soil Survey and Soil Classification) B.C. Ministry of Environment, Kelowna, Bri sh Columbia.

E.F. Maas (Agriculture and Land Use) Research Station, Ag culture Canada, Agassiz, British Columbia.

R. Reynolds (Host) Westham Island, British Columbia.

M. Singh (Host) Cloverdale, British Columbia.

K.W.G. Valentine (Soil Micromorphology) Soil Research Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia.

Special thanks to M. Ralph, W. Burchmore and J. Scales for typing the draft copies of t s tour guide.

Agriculture Canada, Research Station, Agassiz, British Columbia (Host). Agriculture Canada, Research Station, Ottawa, Ontario (clay mineralogy, typing,

drafting).

B.C. Ministry of Environment, Resource Analysis Branch, Victoria & Kelowna, British Columbia.

v

B.C. Ministry of Agriculture, Soils Branch, Victoria, British Columbia.

B.C. Land Commission, Vancouver, British Columbia.

University of British Columbia, Botanical Garden, Vancouver, British Columbia.

INTRODUCTION

The Lower Fraser Valley, in the southwest corner of the province of British Columbia (Fig. 1), represents a unique geographic unit in Canada. With a mod­erate Mediterranean-like climate and fertile soils, it has become the major food producing region in a province which has only 2.9% of its land suited for inten­sive food production. It is also the region in which over half of the province's population lives.

This small geographic unit, approximately 400,000 ha in size, is struggling to find room for its rapidly growing population, expanding industrial uses, and agricultural production. These uses complexed with wildlife and recreation needs have brought the Lower Fraser Valley into the forefront of land use planning in British Columbia.

HISTORY

The Lower Fraser Valley was not always characterized by the agricultural and urban-industrial mosaic so predominant today. Before the arrival of the white man, this area was prized by the native peoples for its abundant and varied resources. There were 18 local groups known as the Stalo Indians, a branch of the Coast Salish tribe. The Fraser River supplied them with a major transporta­tion artery but to native Indians the river was more than a transportation route. It was their supplier of food, giving yearly runs of salmon, steelhead, eula­chon, and other fishes. It also provided habitat for a bounty of waterfowl and animal species. The abundant growth of fruit-bearing shrubs such as salmonberry, thimbleberry, and huckleberry attracted native peoples from as far away as Vancouver Island.

Since Simon Fraser first navigated the Fraser River in 1818, the surface expression of the Lower Fraser Valley has changed considerably. The earliest developments centred around the Hudson's Bay Company and the fur trade. Large beaver populations formed the basis for the fur trade. In 1827 Fort Langley, located on the Fraser River, became the first British settlement actively trad­ing in furs, agricultural products (grown on a Hudson's Bay Company farm on Langley Prairie), and manufactured products. Fort Langley became the capital of the crown colony of British Columbia on November 19, 1858. The capital was moved to New Westminster in 1859 and finally to Victoria in 1868.

In the 19th century, the Fraser River was the only transportation route and by the 1850's, steamboats began giving regular service to settlements which de­veloped along their routes. The discovery of gold in the Fraser Canyon in 1858 gave impetus to the development of the area. Gold placer mines along the Lower Fraser and miners travelling into the Interior provided a market for produce from "Lower Mainland" farms. Land clearing of larger farm settlements first took place around Langley, Chilliwack, Sumas, and Agassiz. Agricultural development of the Cloverdale, Abbotsford, and Fraser Delta areas soon followed.

The logging industry was well established in· the. 1860 1 s and with the com­pletion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885, the Lower Mainland.was desUned to become an area of important commercial development based largely on the forest industry. Vancouver (Fig. 2) with its large natural harbour, and as the terminus of two transcontinental railways, became the major trade and commercial centre of the west coast by 1913.

PACIFIC e I'

{ ~2 Jr:1 QUEEN ~~~

~-/~ CHAHLOm ~~;

ISLANDS~ (}'

2

----"-----------,

Queen

OCEAN Charlotte

USA

100 200 M1

Km 150 100 .'iO

fig 1. LOCATION Of TOUR AREA

3

Courtesy of British Columbia Government

FIG. 2 VANCOUVER AND PACIFIC RANGES

4

Large scale land reclamation was undertaken between 1890 and 1920 with the dyking and draining of much of the floodplain within the Lower Mainland. Sumas Lake, a large shallow lake near Abbotsford, was drained and dyked in 1926 to provide an additional 12 000 ha of farmland. After a disastrous flood in 1948 many sections of the Fraser River dykes were rebuilt. The most recent Fraser River flood control program was initiated in 1968 to improve existing sea dykes in the Delta area and to upgrade dykes on smaller rivers in the Lower Mainland. Table 1 outlines the extent of reclaimed area within the dyking di­stricts of the Lower Mainland.

From 1920 onward the population of the valley grew rapidly, especially in the period following the Second World War (Table 2) .

About this time the land use of lowland areas began changing from one of reclaimed agricultural land to one of industrial and urban sprawl. A large portion of the Fraser Delta region was converted to urban uses in the 1950-60's as uncontrolled growth demanded flat agricultural land for development. With improvements to the transcontinental highway in the mid 1960's municipalities surrounding Vancouver underwent rapid growth and pockets of urban sprawl deve­loped. Many larger properties were subdivided to meet the demand of urban workers who wanted more space than a city lot could provide.

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE

Industry and commerce in the Lower Fraser Valley largely centre around its importance as a major terminus for transportation routes, its importance in inter­national trade and commerce resulting from Vancouver's natural harbour, and Vancouver as a business centre for British Columbia's large forestry and mining industries. Service industries have developed to support the growing population of the region.

Most industrial and commercial activities centres around the Greater Van­couver Metropolitan area. Large industries process forest products for export and refine petroleum and mineral products. Vancouver also serves as a major distribu­tion .centre for imported products.

The main logging activity is on the mountain slopes of the Coast Mountains immediately to the north, and the Cascade Mountains to the southeast. This timber supplies the local mills producing construction lumber, plywood, shingles and pulp and paper products.

Other important industries such as agriculture processing plants and light manufacturing industries are situated in Vancouver and at other centres in the valley such as Mission, Abbotsford, Chilliwack, and Hope.

SOILS AND LAND USE

Bedrock Geology and Physiography

The bedrock geology (Roddick, 1965) of the Coast Mountain Physiographic Region consists dominantly of plutonic rocks with lesser amounts of metamorphic

5

Table 1. Reclamation of Lower Mai and Floodplain Areas

Dyking District

Agassiz Barnston Island Chilliwack Col brook Coquitlam Dewdney

Delta

East Nicomen West Nicomen Glen Valley Harrison Mi 11 s

Date Organized

1893 1909 1894 1923 1895 1894

two stages 1892& 1895

1930 1905 1909 1949

Lulu Island 1905 Maple Ridge 1893 Maple Ridge (no. 3 Rd.) Matsqui 1919 Mission Mud Bay 1946 New Westminster 1905 North Nicomen 1948 Pitt Meadows #l 1950 (Pitt-Polder) Pitt Meadows #2 1890 Salmon River 1928 Sea Island 1914

Sumas

South New Westminster 1920 South Shore of Delta Surrey 1911

Sil verda 1 e

Steves ton

Tapp Rd. (Burnaby) West Langley

Westham Island

Private dykes Dykes around Islands in Fraser River

1892

Hectares Reclaimed

2,400 560

8,280 350

1 ,200 l ,920

10 '000 440

1,600 920 440

12,000 3,200

95 4,000

120 440 280 100

2,800

400 480

1. 200

11 '200

560 480

4,400

320

90

60 170

640

560

330

Comments

Private dykes built in 1905. Becoming industrialized. 730 ha were reclaimed when dykes were rebuilt after 1948 flood.

Private dykes built in approxi­mately 1890. Now Richmond dyking district.

Largely industrial.

Largely industrial.

Largely funded by Dutch govern­ment for Dutch immigrants.

Location of Vancouver Inter­national Airport. Originally incorporated to dyke Sumas river in 1875. . Drained Sumas lake starting 1923. Industrial uses. Privately built; urban use. Reclaimed Serpentine-Nicomekl floodplains. New dyke built in 1949 after 1948 flood. Now part of Richmond dyking district; urban. Going to industrial uses. New dyke built in 1949 after 1948 flood; industrial. Private farm dykes built in 1894; now part of Delta Dyking District. Various uses.

Various uses including water fowl reserves.

Table 2. Population of the Lower Mainland Region

1921 - 1976

Census of Canada --------~,--·-------·~-~~.,--~~---

Municipa ity or Area 1921 1931 1941 1951 1956 1961 1965 1971 1976

Census Metropo 1 i tan At'ea --

Burrard Peninsula 12,883 25,564 30,328 58,376 83,745 100,157 112 12~) ,660 130,663

am 2,374 4 7,949 15,69 7 20,800 29,053 40 53,073 55,041 WPs tminster 14,495 17,524 21 ,967 28 31 ,665 33,654 38 42,835 38' 111

Port tlam 1 '178 l ,312 1 ,539 3,232 4,632 8,111 11 '121 19,560 23,772 Port 1 '030 l ,260 1 ,512 2,246 2,713 4,789 7,021 10,778 11 ,564 U.E.L. - 575 636 2 '120 2,999 3,272 2,979 3,5 36 3,452 Vancouver 163,220 246,593 275,353 344,833 , 365,844 384,522 410,375 426,256 407,226 Other 600 1 '156 2,012 2,230 2,] 72 2 '185 1 '376 1 ,958 2. 760 Tota1 !3urrard Peninsu1 a 195,780 298,855 341 ,296 457,463 514,570 565,743 623,837 683,656 6 ,589

North Shore Horth Vancouver City 7,652 8,510 8,914 15,687 19,951 23,656 26,851 31 ,84 7 31.721 North Vancouver District 2,950 4,788 5,931 14,469 26,252 38,971 . 48 '124 57,861 63,029 0')

West Vuncouver 2,434 4,786 8,362 13,990 19 '197 25,454 31 ,987 36,440 36 ,4 71 Total North Shore 13,036 18,084 23 '207 44,146 65,400 88,081 106,962 126,148 131 ,221

Ri ch•nond-South Shore Delta 2,839 3,709 4,287 6,701 8,752 14,597 20,664 45,860 64,076 Richmond 4,825 8,182 10,186 .19 '186 25,978 43,323 50,460 62 '121 79 '429 Surrey 5,614 7,888 13,240 29.729 43,927 70,838 81 ,826 98,601 115,6 76 '.,!hi te Rock 200 500 l ,600 3,941 5,439 6,453 7,787 10,349 12,297 Total South Shore 13,478 20,279 29,497 59,557 84,096 135,211 160,737 216,931 271 ,478

Indian Reserves - - 588 794 951 1 '130 1 '31 7 1,599 1 ,649

Total Cens~s Metro Area 222,294 337,218 394 '588 561 ,960 665,017 790,165 892,853 1 ,028, 334 l ,076,937

Table 2 (cont'd.)

Municipality or Area 1921 1931 1941 1951 1956 1961 1966 1971 1976 -

Fraser Valley

North Bank Harrison Hot Springs - - - 477 613 475 486 598 565 Kent 1 ,054 1 ,207 l ,287 1. 725 l '989 2,194 2,642 2,966 2,925 Maple Ridge 3, 772 4,932 6,476 9,891 12,502 16,748 19,287 24,476 29,193 Mission Citv - l '314 l ,957 2,668 3,010 3,251 3,412 Mission District 3,025 2,279 2 '718 4,467 4. 711 5,324 5 '351 10,220 14,683 Pitt Meadows 595 832 l ,119 1 ,434 l ,652 2,187 2,247 2, 771 4,653 Unorganized l 200 l ,422 1 , 563 2,209 2,277 2,269 2,197 2,474 2,913 Total North Bank 9,646 ll , 9 86 15,120 22,871 26,754 32,448 35,622 43,505 54,932

-.....]

South Bank Abbotsford District 2,299 2,322 3,035 4,800 5,335 6,033 6,237 7,479 9,347 Chi 11 iwack City l '767 2,461 3,675 5,663 7,297 8,259 8,681 9 '135 8,525 Chilliwack District 3,161 5,802 7,787 13,677 16,350 18,296 20,070 23,739 27,989 Hope - 374 515 1 ,668 2,226 2,751 2,948 3 '153 2,925 langley City - - - 2 2 '131 2,365 2,365 2,800 10 3 Langley District 4,881 5,537 7,769 10 '245 12,441 14,585 15 '767 21 '936 35,926 Matsqui 3, 763 3,835 5,601 10,308 11 ,521 14,293 16,161 23,554 30,178 Unorganized 720 984 l '120 1 ,954 2,287 2,440 4,601 5, 363 6,482 Total South Bank 16,591 21 '315 29,502 50' 337 59,588 69,022 77,265 99,043 131,445

Indian Reserves 800 800 842 1 ,380 1 ,624 l '984 1 ,629 l '730 3, 301

Total Fraser Valley 27,037 34,101 45,464 74,588 87,966 103,454 114,516 144,278 189,678

Lower Mainland Region 249,331 371,319 440,052 636,548 752,983 893,619 l ,007,369 1,172,612 1 ,266,615

British Columbia 524,582 694,263 817,861 1,165,210 1,398,464 1,629,082 l ,873,674 2 184,621 2,406,212

Figures from 1921-1961 adapted from "Population trends 1921-1981 for· the Lower Mainland Region", Lower Mainland Regional planning board. Figures from 1961 1971 adapted from 1971 "Census of Canada, Population Census Subdivisions (Histol'ica1)", Statistics Canada. 1976 Preliminary figures from Statistics Canada.

and sedimentary rocks Plutonic rocks are represented mainly by granite-quartz diorites containing hornblende, biotite, and some potassium feldspar, and by granodiorites. The stratified rock types, which are less common in the region are sandstones, shales, and conglomerates with minor basalt flows and pyroclastic rocks fron1 the Cenozoic era. From the Mesozoic era such rock types as tuffs, breccias, graywackes, andesites, granulites, amphibolites, gneiss, and schist are comu1on; shales, limestones, and siltstones are less common. The oldest rocks in the area were formed in the pre-Jurassic period.

The Lower Fraser Valley lies within two major physiographic divisions (Fig. 3), namely, the Coastal Mountain area and the Coastal Trough (Holland, 1964).

The Coastal Mountains, characterized by peaks rising abruptly to 1500 to 2150 m a.s.l. (above sea level), constitute the northern boundary of the Fraser Lowland. The mountain peaks to the east and southeast of the valley form a portion of the Cascade Mountains and are also considered part of the Coastal Mountain area.

The mountainous areas are separated by large U-shaped valleys with floors up to approximately 100m a.s.l. The principal valleys in the region are associated with the Pitt, Alouette, Stave, and Harrison rivers, north of the Fraser Valley proper, and the Chilliwack River to the southeast of the Fraser River (Fig. 3). Burrard Inlet forms a major coastal inlet to the west.

The Coastal Trough lies between the Coast Mountain area and the Outer Mountain area of Vancouver Island. The Fraser Lowland, cow.monly referred to as the Lower Fraser Valley or Lower Mainland of British Columbia, is considered to be part of the Georgia Depression within the Coastal Trough physiographic division.

The Fraser Lowland (Fig. 4) physiographic region is characterized by wide flat-bottomed valleys and extensive uplands ranging in elevation from 15 to 122 m a.s.l. The upland areas have a generally rolling topography and a core of un­consolidated material of glacial, preglacial, and interglacial origin.

Lowland areas are represented by a variety of surficial deposits of more recent origin which overlie glacial, preglacial, and interglacial deposits. Bed­rock is felt to play a rather minor role in controlling the present landscape configuration within the Fraser Lowland.

Surficial Deposits and Glacial History*

Vertical cross sections in upland areas indicate there were three major periods of glaciation (Annstrong and Brown, 1954) between approximately 10 000 and 2.5 million years ago (referred to as the Pleistocene Epoch). A fourth glaciation (approximately 10 000 years ago) was smaller and probably glaciated only the valleys. Each major glaciation reached ice sheet proportions during its maximum advance (thought to be at least 2280 m thick over the valleys). Each glacial, interglacial, and nonglacial period, concomittant with a fluctu­ating sea level, saw the deposition of a variety of surficial materials. Ice,

*Contributed by J.E. Armstrong, Dept. of Mines and Technical Surveys, Vancouver

9

CANADIAN CORDilLERA

OUTER MOUNTAIN AREA Insular Mountains 1--------------+---------+-------~---·----

COASTAL TROUGH Georgia Depression Fraser lowland

COAST MOUNTAIN AREA Coast Mountains Pacific Ranges

Cascade Mountains Skagit Range

U.S.A.

Fig 3. PHYSIOGRAPHIC SUBDIVISIONS OF SOUTHWESTERN BRITISH COLUMBIA

10

FIG. 4 THE FRASER lOWLAND Courtesy of British Columbia Government

11

(f) l­Ui 0 a.. w 0 w 0.. 0 _J (f)

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12

fresh water, and salt ~.<mter were all agents used in the deposition and erosion

certain where geo the absence of Epoch).

of erosion the last

The present surf areas are a result of the last erosion and deposition second last glaciation of the continental ice sheet which Lowland the land to he as 300 m. Glaciofluvial material was morainal deposits on the treated wast , it thinned and sediments below the 150 m elevation. Fraser River were above the and as the land rose above sea sand and id down. These

rose relative to the sea

After a period of menta, an ice sheet direction down the Fraser to its present elevation.

Fraser Lowland. advance.

and omari.ne materials were of the ice sheet ice. Some of the

role than others a in a ial period

have been continuing in to as the Holocene

and some lowland advances and more recent

The 000 formed a portion

north across the Fraser sea poss as much

in advance of the ice sheet with hills. As this ice sheet re-

stony clay glaciomarine located north of the

elevation. After the ice melted, sediments and beach deposits of are located in areas at

is not certain how far the land

iofluvial and stream sedi­in a westerly

150 m relative 11 000 years ago

topography. An ice block caused the formation of a the Matsqui Valley.

i advance. Wasting remained covered with exhibit kettled and pitted ial lake in what is now

It is believed an ice block remained n the Sumas channel diverting the Fraser River to its channel from its lowlands. With the final of present level. A shallow lake was artificially drained 1926, Fraser Lowland.

Recent surficial deposits lacustrine ing below the 1

The present Fraser Fraser Lowland. Unconsolidated lie most of these flat­subsequent marine intrusions the older s8diments, par

river channels, at the river mouth (the

route through the Sumas the land surface rebounded to its

This lake, or lacustrine deposit in the

four or types floodplain , and sub-marine sediments occurr-

t~rrestrial portion of the the or rivers in the

ial periods under-Lowlands' western extent,

, and on of many of ect to river channelling. have accreted along

across the surface of older

1

deltaic deposits flood conditions (the floodplain). These more recent deposits are in a constant state of change, ect to the river's endeavour to find the path of least resistance. The origin of the wide flat valley bottoms of the Serpentine and Nicomekl rivers is believed to be different from the Fraser floodplain development. The rather small drainage areas and low water volumes of the Serpentine and Nicomekl rivers do not merit the large floodplains present today. Instead it is believed that most of this plain resulted from the sub­duing effect of a marine intrusion from pre-Fraser glacial periods.

The only extensive area of lacustrine deposits are those located in the Sumas Lowlands as discussed. Organic deposits occur in association with the floodplain landscapes of the Fraser River and other floodplains. They occur in areas where drainage is poor and where the present potential for river sediment influence is minimal. These deposits are considered recent (Holocene), having developed since the last major glaciation. Geological surveys of the area indicate organic deposits did occur at the surface in other locations on the floodplain but have since been covered by more recent river sediments. These deposits are composed primarily of plant material in various stages of decompo~ sition and are commonly referred to as peat bogs. The continual buildup of plant debris and slow rates of decomposition cause these landforms to rise above the plain forming a structure much like a flattened dome. Like the rest of the floodplain materials, these deposits are also highly susceptible to changes in river sediment distribution.

Climate*

The prevailing air flow over British Columbia is westerly with the tropo­spheric circulation being primarily controlled by two pressure systems, the Alaskan Low (Aleutian Low) and the Pacific High (Hawaian High), although other minor systems disrupt this principal west to east pattern. Low-pressure systems influence the area over a larger percentage of the year. However from May to September high-pressure systems dominate. The climate of the Lower Fraser Valley (Fig. 5 and Table 3) is further influenced by the abruptly rising Coast Mountains to the north, the Cascades to the south, and the Fraser Canyon to the east.

The numerous low-pressure systems bring most precipitation during the winter months. Precipitation generally increases from the southwest area of the valley to the north and east. This increase is associated with the increasing height of the land and distance from the ocean. Of an average annual precipitation of 1500 mm, 78% falls in the months from October to April and the remainder during the summer growing season. The average evapotranspiration rate of 350 mm exceeds precipitation rates during the summer months (see Table 3).

In winter, occasional outbreaks of cold air of a continental or~g~n and the subsequent arrival of a disturbance from the west bring snow and freezing rain to the area. Prec itation fall as snow amounts to only about 3 to 6% of the total precipitation.

*Contributed by R. Coligado, Resource Analysis Branch, B.C. Ministry of Environ­ment, Victoria

Table 3. of Climato1og1ca1 Data for Some c Environment Service Stations 1

Station"' Lat (N) Elev. Vrs of GOD lSF FFF FFP Pa Ps Mean GP Estimate Estimate Ext. Ext. Jan. m a.s.l. Record Snow PEa PEs Min. n. Max.

days mm mm em mm mm mm C C C C

Abbotsford A 60 27 l ,947 Apr. 30 Oct. 18 170 1,502 306 78 83 449 381 -21.1

2 z CDA 15 30 2 177 Apr. 12 Nov 7 208 1 369 85 116 388 340

3 11 iwack 6 30 2.193 9 Nov. 9 213 1,741 375 103 122 447 382

4 t am lake 61 30 1,649 Apr. 24 Nov. 1 190 3,631 640 149 203 370 327

5 Cultus lake 46 25 2,035 23 Oct. 25 184 1,425 75 164 424 368

6 UBC Rf MARC 171 26 28 190 2,212 479 111 149 392 344

7 Ladner 18 14 163 958 204 37 62 440 3HO

8 ey Lochi d 105 14 2 194 1 ,432 294 53 1 444 380

9 56 18 2,103 11 Nov. 9 211 1,573 332 65 98 364

10 New Westminster 119 30 2,134 Mar. 30 Nov. 6 220 1 ,520 315 77 132 442 379 -20 6 37.2 ~0.6 23.2

11 Pitt Polder 2 17 1,942 Apr. 24 Oct. 20 178 2,261 447 77 144 410 361 -23.3 36.1 -0.9 23.1

12 Stave falls 4" 1 II 55 30 1,986 Apr. 15 Nov. 4 202 2,135 507 63 152 430 379 -23.340.0 1.1 23.4

13 Steveston l II 2 30 1,885 Apr. 22 Oct. 17 177 994 208 41 73 459 394 -21.1 34.4 -LO 22.7

14 Vancouver Int'l A 5 30 2,003 Mar. 31 Oct. 30 212 1,068 221 52 68 435 378 -17.8 33.3 -0.4 22.2

15 Vancouver USC 1 3 1,977 Mar. 13 Nov. 19 250 1,230 248 49 88 3g2 34 7 -18.3 32.8 -0.3 21.1 ~----~--~~----~~~~~~----~--~---------· --------~·--·-··~-~--

16 White Rock 49°02" J23u50" ~ 70 30 1,892 Apr. 9 Nov. 3 207 1,047 231 37 97 391 336 -20.0 33.3 -0.4 21.1

1Abbreviations: lat. latitude N; Long. longitude W; Elev. elevation; GOD growing degree days; LSF average date of last spring frost; FfF average date of first fall frost; FFP frost-free period; Pa annual precipitation; Ps May-Sept. precipitation; Snow mean annual snowfall; GP greatest precipitation in 24 hours; PEa estimated annual potential evapotranspiration; PEs estimated May-Sept. potential evapotranspiration; Ext. min. extreme minimum temperature; max. extreme maximum temperature; Jan. min. Jan. minimum temperature; July max. July maximum temperature.

*Numbers refer to locations in Figure 5.

15

As a result of the prevailing westerlies and moderating efforts of the Pacific Ocean and Strait of Georgia, the Lower Fraser Valley is characterized by mild winters, warm but not hot summers, and a small range of temperatures. The average Jao.uary minimum temperature is just slight below freezing, get colder as one goes north and east from the coastline. High summer temperatures also increase in a northeastern direction away from the moderating sea breezes.

The higher summer temperatures in the north and east of the valley result in higher Growing Degree Days (GDD) above 5 C.

Agassiz, Chilliwack, Mission, and New Westminster are areas having the highest GDD (over 2100). Two thirds of the sunshine hours occur during these summer days when GDD figures are highest.

The Lower Fraser Valley has the longest frost-free period in B.C. and in Canada, with the exception of Vancouver Island. The frost-free period is a localized factor within the Lower Fraser Valley depending on the availability of cold air drainage. In the more exposed areas the frost-free period exceeds 200 days. Areas at higher elevations such as the University of B.C. Research Forest north of Haney have shorter frost-free periods.

The prevailing winds are determined by major pressure systems affectlng the area. At Vancouver International Airport east and east-southeast winds prevail throughout the year. A westerly flow is associated with summer conditions.

Vegetation*

The native vegetation of the Lower Fraser Valley (Appendix B) varies greatly over rather short distances in response to rapid gradients in climate, elevation, material substrates and water table. Traces of coastal rain shadow from both the Olympic and Island mountains are still evident in the southern upland area of the delta and estuary region. The reduced rainfall and modifying marine in­fluence permit a high proportion of both seral and climax stands of Coast Douglas Fir (the Coastal Douglas Fir zone, Krajina, 1965) with understories of Salal, Oregon Grape, Red Huckleberry, Oceanspray, and wild roses. The increasing gra­dient in precipitation in a northeasterly direction causes a progressive shift from the drier, Coastal Douglas Fir zone, to the wetter Coastal Western Hemlock zone. This wetter zone occurs for the most part on the northern Surrey and Langley uplands, the Burra.rd Peninsula, and on the slopes of the coastal moun­tains to about 900 m a.s.l. A typical wet forest community consists of Western Hemlock, Western Red Cedar with Sword Fern, Deer Fern, Salmonberry, Devil's Club and Trifoliate-leaved Foamflower understory. Upper subalpine landscapes above 900 m a. s.l. generally have a longer snow duration, and are inhabited by forests of Mountain Hemlock, Pacific Silver Fir, and Yellow Cedar.

The vegetation of the Fraser delta and floodplain deposits is constantly influenced by changes in sediment distribution, salt water infiltration, and high water tables. Those areas not under cultivation contain a variety of mostly

*Contributed by R.K. Jones, Soil Research Inst., Agric. Canada, Guelph, Ont.

16

decLduous alluvial plant c.ormnunities. Species typical of the floodplain area on mineral soils are: Black Cottonwood, Red Alder, Bigleaf Maple, Common Paper Birch, and Trembl Aspen, with understories of Thimbleberry, Salmonberry, Western Red Osier Dogwood, and Honeysuckle on well-drained sites. Willows, sedges, water cress, and American Skunk-cabbage occur on poorly drained sites. Organic substrates support Shore Pine, Salal, Common Labrador Tea, Black Crowberry, Western Blueberry, Bog Cranberry, and deep accumulations of Peat Moss

Soils Landfonns

The complex glacial history of the Lower Fraser Valley and subsequent erosion and deposition by major rivers have resulted in a wide range of landforms and parent materials being deposited within the region. These landforms range from relatively fine textured marine deposits to coarse textured colluvial mat­erials of mountain slopes. All landforms are subjected to relatively high rainfall conditions and moderate yearly temperatures. A discussion of soils and landforms according to geographic regions (Fig. 5) follows.

The Fraser Delta.

Practically all the mineral soils within the delta area have developed from a mixture of marine and non-marine deltaic deposits. These deposits consist mainly of silt loam, silty clay loam, and silty clay materials 15 em to 3.5 m thick, overlying 15 em or more of fine to medium sand. The sand sediments are composed largely of quartz, feldspar, chlorite, mica, and amphibole with mont­morillonoid minerals forming an important component of the clay minerals (Lutt­merding and Sprout, 1969).

Saline and poorly drained conditions characterize most of the soils within the delta. Poor drainage is caused by high water tables, slow infiltration rates, and slow surface runoff. Saline conditions occur at various depths; however the majority of the soils are not strongly saline within one metre of the surface. Strongly saline conditions are more evident in the southeastern portion of the delta. The majority of the soils within the delta are classified as Humic and Eluviated Gleysols with a lesser amount of Regosols. Marine influence results in saline modifiers for many mineral soils.

Organic deposits, varying from 0.5 to 6 m thick, occupy almost one-half the area of the Delta Lowlands. Where the organic deposits are less than 1.5 m thick, are generally composed of a mixture of partially and well-decomposed reed, sedge, and woody plant material. Deeper portions of the organic deposits have up to 2 m of relatively undecomposed sphagnum moss overlying partially de­composed material. Drained areas, which have undergone shrinkage and settling and are under better aerobic conditions, result in thinner deposits with more advanced decomposition (Luttmerding and Sprout, 1969).

Surface reaction levels of the mineral soils range between pH 4 and 5. Levels for the organJc soils are about 3.

17

Floodplains and Major River Deposits within the Lower Mainland.

Fraser River deposits are composed of silty clay, silt, and sand up to 6 m thick with sand substrata (Luttmerding and Sprout, 1966). Nearer to the river, the topography becomes more undulating with parallel ri.dges and depressions trending with the river flow. The ridges are generally sandy or silty in texture while the associated depressions may contain finer textures. These lateral ac­cretion deposits occupy the youngest part of the river floodplain and in places are still in the process of deposition. Older portions of the floodplain have gentler topography and often have finer textured surface layers deposited by vertical accretion. Organic deposits also occupy areas of the older, less fre­quently disturbed floodplain.

The soils of the floodplains of the Pitt and Harrison rivers are similar to those of the Fraser River. The older soils are generally imperfectly to poorly drained Orthic and Humic Gleysols. Portions of Organic soils are located in areas of older deposits subject to less frequent flooding.

The parent materials deposited by the Chilliwack River and smaller streams draining the uplands in the eastern portion of the Lower Fraser Valley are com­posed of coarse sands and gravels. The surface texture varies from loamy sand to loam. Although these deposits are generally poorly to imperfectly drained, they do contain small, well drained portions. TI1e soils are mostly Regosols and Gleysols (Comar and Kelly, 1962).

The Lower Serpentine-Nicomekl Valley, located in the southeastern portion of the Lower Fraser Valley, is characterized by poorly drained mineral soils that have textures ranging from silty clay to silt loam. The soils are dominantly Orthic and Humic Gleysols. There are also extensive areas of organic deposits less than 3 m thick that contain relatively well decomposed material. These soils are classified as Humisol or Mesisol great groups and as either Terrie or Typic subgroups.

Fine Textured Upland Deposits.

Fine-textured till and glaciomarine deposits are located south of the Fraser River and within the western half of the valley. The topography of these deposits varies from undulating to rolling with some deeply eroded portions. The rolling topography coupled with a relatively impervious subsoil results in a variety of soils within these areas.

The glaciomarine and till deposits are composed of stony silty clay, silt, and sand from 7.5 to 90 m thick. The soils on areas of rougher relief are well drained and are classified as Podzolic Gray Luvisols or Luvisolic Humo-Ferric Podzols. Poorly drained depressions generally have finer textured surfaces and a Gleysolic soil development. Shallow organic deposits also occur in depressions.

Coarse Textured Glaciofluvial and Ancient Beach Deposits.

The large area of glaciofluvial deposits south of Abbotsford consists of recessional deposits and some deltaic deposits. These deposits are made up of sands and gravels up to 35 m thick. Parts of the area have an eolian cover

10

\vhich varies from less than 15 em to about 1 m in thickness. Included in these deposits are ice-contact sands and gravels which contain lenses and pods of glacio­marine and till rruJ.tertals (Luttmerding and Sprout, 1966). The topography of the deposi\:,s is relatively lt.wel although pitted and kettled topography is also present.

The beach deposits have a benched topography resulting from separate periods of washing as the land rose with the ice retreat. The beach deposits are generally less than 2 m thick overlying fine textured marine and glaciomarine materials.

Soils developed on the coarse textured deposits are generally rapidly drained Humo-Ferric Podzols. However portions of the beach deposits have cementing in the lower profile which results in a perched water table and the development of Gleyed Ortstein Humo-Ferric Podzols.

Mountain Slope Deposits.

The mountains within the area were completely glaciated at one time. The lower slopes (up to 350m a.s.l.) contain glaciofluvial and till deposits. Textures generally range from gravelly sandy loam to sandy loam. Soils on the lower slopes are Hurno-Ferric Podzols or Ferro-Humic Podzols.

Coarse textured stony colluvial deposits occur on most steep slopes in the form of unstable deposits which slowly move downslope under the influence of gravity. They generally consist of shallow colluvial veneers which overlie bedrock or other deposits, and contain a mixture of rock fragments, reworked till, and other material (Luttrnerding and Sprout, 1968).

Soil development on colluvial slopes is similar to that on the morainal deposits.

Extensive areas of shallow soils and exposed bedrock exist on the mountain slopes of this area.

LAND USE

Agriculture

Agricultural Land Reserve and Canada Land Inventory.

In total, only about 4.9% of the land area of British Columbia has a cap­ability for agricultural use. The two key agricultural areas, the Lower Fraser Valley and the Okanagan Valley, are also the areas where urban pressures have been greatest in recent years.

It was a combination of scarcity of agricultural land and increasing expansion of urban uses onto some of the best agricultural lands that led to provincial legislation to preserve agricultural land in British Columbia for food production.

19

FIG. 6 LOWER FRASER VALlEY Courtesy of British Columbia Government

20

The Land Cou~ission Act, passed in the spring of 1973, established a five­member, independent, quasi-judicial Commission to bring in agricultural zoning throughout the province. The Agricultural Land Reserve Policy, commonly referred to as the A.L.R., was drawn on biophysical parameters and is intended to protect the land from irreversible uses in the long term.

As its technical base for the A.L.R. the Land Commission adopted the Canada Land Inventory (C.L.I.) classification systen1 (Canada Land Inventory, 1970), under which soils are grouped into seven classes according to their potentialities and limitations for agricultural use, depending upon inherent soil and climate characteristics.

C.L.I. agricultural capability ratings show ranges of crops that can be commercially grown with success. Classes 1-4 are considered arable for a de­creasing range of crops. Class 5 lands are suitable for forage production and Class 6 lands are natural rangelands suitable for grazing use.

In general, all Class 1-4 lands not already urbanized or irreversibly ali­enated in some manner, as well as some key forage and grazing lands, were included within the A.L.R. Maps are produced at a scale of 1:50,000 with con­stituent maps at larger scales available for around most of the main cities and towns. For administrative purposes, natural boundaries were converted to straight-line legal boundaries.

Within the A.L.R., as defined under the Land Commission Act, no sub­division or non-farm use is allowed without application to the Land Co~ission. There is also provision under the Act for application for exclusion of land from and inclusion of land into the A.L.R.

As well as preserving agricultural land through provincial zoning, the Land Commission is also working to create a positive atmosphere for agriculture in the province through encouragement and protection of the farming community. This is based on the premise that, in the long-run, preservation of agricultural land means preservation of the expertise of the farmer and the agricultural industry as well.

Agriculture in the Lower Fraser Valley.

A wide range of agricultural activity (Fig. 6) occurs within the Valley. The moderate climate allows for the maximum possible range of crops which can be grown in Canada. Soil variability then dictates which crop is best suited to any area within this region.

The Lower Fraser Valley is the major vegetable producing area of British Columbia (Table 4). The wet lowlands Organic and Gleysolic soils are well suited for vegetable production. The main vegetable producing areas are the Fraser delta, the Serpentine-Nicomekl floodplain, and the Sumas lowlands. Large areas of potatoes, onions, carrots, lettuce, and various cole crops are grown annually. Table 4 outlines the area and production values for various vegetable crops grown in the 1975 season. Sweet corn is largely restricted to the eastern end of the valley where higher summer temperatures provide the number of growing degree days needed for its production.

21

Table 4. Vegetable production thin the Lower Mainland District

1975

Vegetable Hectares Vegetable Hectares Quantity (kilos)

Asp a 2 4 • ons 128 5,972,670

Beans 547 4,857, rsl 8 70,650

Beets 19 Parsnips 1 6 '379 Broccoli 187 7, Peas 1 ,604 7,985,287

Brussel Sprouts 195 l '989. Pota 1 ,831 50,378,400

Cabbage 2 4,215,1 Ra shes 29 586,800

Carrots 124 3,717,734 32 530,553

Cauliflower 246 1 ,587,230 Rutabagas 80 1,580,796

Celery 55 2,057,400 Spinach 25 169,200

Corn 1 ,140 15,446. Squash, Marrow & Pumpkin 27 948,150

Cucumbers 24 339,300 Tomatoes 1 4,500

Lettuce 254 7,745,108 Other 115 1,121,400

The dairy industry is one of the oldest and largest industries of the area. Efficient market a large local urban market have created reasonable stabi-l:lty within this One can find a dairy farm along almost any rural road in the valley. Of the over 900 dairy farms in this region the largest concen­trations occur on the Pitt River floodplain, the Fraser River floodplain at Matsqui and Nicomen Island, and within the Sumas lowlands. This industry produces mainly for the fresh milk market of the metropolitan areas as well as processed dairy products.

Small fruit production, including raspberries, strawberries, blueberries, and cranberries, is concentrated within adaptable areas. Raspberries and straw­berries are especially well suited to the extensive areas of coarse textured glaciofluvial soils located south and west of Abbotsford. Blueberries and cran­berries assume a lesser role in the agricultural mosaic and are confined to the acid Organic soils of the Fraser Delta and Matsqui lowlands.

The nursery business is a large industry which has experienced rapid growth w:Lth the increased urban population. Urban geography dictates the location of nursery growers rather than physiography.

The mushroom and greenhouse industries are expanding industries which supply processed and fresh mushrooms, tomatoes, and cucumbers to the local population on a year-round basis. These industries are located throughout the valley but are largely concentrated in its western portions close to the major urban centres.

The poultry industry is well established, producing eggs, broiler chickens, and turkeys. Large concentrations of this industry are located in the upland areas around Langley and Abbotsford.

Beef and hog finishing industries play smaller roles in Fraser Valley agriculture. Small dairy goat operations are also starting within the lower mainland.

The major problems confronting land-based agricultural operations within the valley are those related to water management. High winter water tables create the need for internal artificial drainage to benefit good soil structure and earlier spring working. A summer moisture deficit then causes a need for irrigation systems. Low-interest loans for land improvements are provided to give incentive for farmers to develop water management systems. However, there is still a large number of farms which could benefit from proper water manage­ment systems. Regional dyking and drainage improvement programs are still needed to achieve maximum agricultural potential.

Other land use problems which effect agriculture are high land costs re­sulting from urban pressures, difficulty in farming on the urban fringe due to urban resistance to normal farm practices, and difficulty in moving farm machinery in areas dissected by major transportation arteries. Rural, and often urban, planning and education could help to alleviate these problems.

Land Use Conflicts.

In one and a half centuries the lower mainland has undergone drastic land­use changes. Only recently has the delicate ecological balance of this region

23

been recognized. This finite region must find room for its fish and wildlife, forest and agricultural industries, and its urban industry and population. Land-use conflicts have become increasingly more evident. Agricultural drainage schemes cause the loss of the limited natural wildlife habitat. Urban development of the upland areas causes increased run-off and flooding of agricultural lands in the lowlands. Industrial and urban expansion is causing critical pollution problems in the Fraser River. Before 1973 urban expansion was rapidly encroach­ing on the remaining highly productive agricultural lands; the development of · the A.L.R. came in as a partial solutions to the growing need for land use planning in the Lower Mainland region.

GENERAL ITINERARY

Tours V2 and V4 have been arranged to show some of the typical major soil and land use characteristics of the Fraser Valley. The first part of the tour covers the low, flat, poorly drained deltaic deposits of the Fraser Delta in which water management plays an important role, whereas the second part of the tour focuses on the upland soils in the central part of the valley.

The tour leaves Vancouver via highway 99 for the municipality of Delta with a stop at a typical Gleysolic soil on Westham Island. It continues through the Delta lowlands along dyking and drainage works to the vegetable growing area of Cloverdale.and lunch at a vegetable farm. From Cloverdale the tour traverses through the undulating uplands of Surrey and Langley municipalities to a well drained Podzolic soil at a small fruit research substation near Abbotsford. From here the tour returns to Vancouver for dinner and accommodation.

Gl

"' 0

~

Fig 7. TOUR STOPS IN THE LOWER FRASER VALLEY

\'

I'\)

-!=::>

25

TOUR THROUGH DELTA AREA

km

0 LEAVE VANCOUVER and cross Burrard urban areas south of the city.

Peninsula from the city core to the sub-

via Highway 99 and crosses no Bridge onto the floodplain the

ll FRASER RIVER. The ta of and its upstream limit is

Westminster~ 30 km east the the level of extreme gh tide

Fraser re the

Strait and is dyked

(Fig. 7) cends the south slope the Fraser ver on the k Street

·in the process of formation, butary is ven off at New

a. is delta s mos y ow to prevent ooding.

Present and raised marine deltas rise in a series of terraces from Burrard Inlet north to evations of about 300m a.s.l.

Studies have s that the area was subject to at least three major glaci Recent epochs vary to a maximum of 70

ons. The unconsolidated materials of the Pleistocene and in ickness from a metres in parts of downtown Vancouver m in the Boundary Bay area.

14 LULU ISLAND. The tour crosses Lulu Island on the freeway (Hwy. 99), passing through the municipalities Richmond and Delta which are a mosaic of pri-

vate residences, shopping centers, le Class 1 agricultural soils, and peatlands. Road traffic is carried below the main river by tunnel.

24 GEORGE MASSEY TUNNEL, an ingenious engineering feat that allows ocean-going freighters to pass over the tunnel en route to the upstream Port of New

Westminster. The highway emerges from the tunnel in the mainland municipality of Delta.

Since 1956 the populations of Richmond and Delta have increased 3 and 7 fold respectively. With this influx, the use of the land for agriculture decreased greatly. With the incorporation of the Agricultural Land Reserve Act in 1973 further alienations of these highly productive lands from agriculture was prevented.

29 LADNER. The tour leaves the Deas Island Throughway via the River Road exit along the south bank of the Fraser ver to the town of Ladner. This is

a centre for commercial fishing, recreation, and farming. Ladner is one of the oldest established communities on lower mainland. Commercial shing craft including seine boats, gill , lers may be observed moored along the ver banks. Large ocean going ghters pass by en route to the Port of New Westminster.

The tour leaves Ladner and lows River Road the dge join-ing Westham Island to mainl

33 CANOE PASS BRIDGE. After crossing the dge the route is over the main road across Westhorn Island to farm of Mr. R. Reynolds.

37 STOP 1. REYNOLDS FARM. to examine an Orthic

tour travels about 1 km from the farm residence c Gleysol at SITE l. Mr. Reynolds will welcome the

26

tour participants During the examina

give a tal on on and scuss on of

farm operations and local history. soil, coffee will be served.

SOIL PROFILE:

LOCATION:

LANDFORM, TOPOGRAPHY, DRAINAGE:

CLIMATE:

VEGETATION:

SOILS:

Site l: Orthi c c Gleysol

Orthic Humic Gleysol developed on alluvial-marine silts.

R. Reynold's farm on Westham Island, Richmond Municipality, 2 km northwest of Canoe Pass Bridge, 49005 I 20 "N 1 10

farm is situated near the centre of Westham Island, The Reynold's that lies off The delta, whi level of extreme deltaic deposits

of main channel of the Fraser River. 11 actively forming, is mostly below the

high tide and is dyked to prevent flooding. The lie below 6 m a.s. 1.

The parent material is a combination of medium- and moderately fine textured rna ne fresh water sediments, usually one metre or more thick, unde ain by sand. Surface and subsurface textures range from silt loam to silty clay loam.

These soils occupy the higher portions of the very gently undu­lating to level landscape. Slopes are generally less than 2% and elevations about 1.2 to 2.5 m a.s. l.

Soils are rnperfectly to poo y drained. Water tables are near the surface during the winter and recede to about 1.2 to 1.5 m below the surface in the summer. Internal drainage is slow while surface drainage varies from moderate to slow. Salinity is usually restricted depths below l .2m.

The Reynold 1 s farm is situated less than 12 km south of the Vancouver international airport, the main climate recording station of Environment Canada's Atmospheric Environment Service in the Lower Fraser Valley. The climate is classified as Csb (Koppen, 1923) with 1044 mm average annual precipitation and 10.2 C annual temperature. More detailed data on climate are given in the imatic section the guidebook.

The vegetation of the area is classified within the broad Coastal uglas r Biogeoclimatic zone (Krajina, 1965). In the poorly

drained oodplains the original vegetation was probably comprised of llows, sedges, rushes, and coarse grasses and forbs. Prac-

ly 1 agricultural lands in this soil association have been dyked, reclaimed, and cropped for many years. Crops currently produced on soils ude a wide range of forages, vege-tables, small frui

The pedon desc bed and fied as an Orthic Humic a saline Humic Gleysol

led at Site 1 (Appendix A) is classi­l. It is closely associated with

is poorly drained to very poorly

LAND USE:

drained. s 1 sites. Saline extract i the 1 surface for the pedon at depth.

27

slightly depressed topographic ng a vi of the saturation

/em occur at less one metre from ine phase. Conductivity readings less than 4 mmhos/cm within a metre

The cu1 vated soil has li thick that are moderately

coloured Ap horizons 15 to 30 em ic matter and strongly

acid in silt loam, acid.

) is grayish coloured y mottled, and strongly

The Cg zons are y mottled th a pseudoblocky structure sharply to extremely and a silty texture. on

acid (less than pH 3.5) at a depth of em.

The Cgsa horizons at mottling with depth, a reaction. Conductivi excess of 4 mmhos/cm

of 100 to 170 em show a decrease in massive structure, and an increase in

readings in these horizons are well in ite 1. Appendix A).

The soils are consi red be among the best in the delta area and are used produci de variety of crops including grass-clover , canning peas, beans, sweet corn, and various cereal grains. clover seed, sugar beet seed, ds are generally good, mainly because of on during the summer months. For shallow rooted crops ng very dry summers, surface irrigation is also benefi al. ficial drainage is required for controlling the high water tables to protect perennial crops and to facilitate earlier cul vation and planting dates in the spring. Puddling and compaction occur if the soils are culti-vated when wet. nter cover crops protect against puddling and help to replenish the rather low ic matter contents of the surface horizons" ional s ing improves aeration, rooting~ moisture tration. the growing season the water e is led by tile drains, ditches, and pumping.

Soi 1 capability for agriculture ra. ng of these soi 1 s is gen­erally Class 1. Soil conditions are s table for the production of a wide range of eli cally suited crops.

40 DEPART WESTHAM ISLAND. r leaves Island by the same route and continues southward through farmlands of Delta Municipality to join

48 HIGHWAY 17 near the Tsawwassen

51 STOP 2. TSAWWASSEN terminal ave coking

ground. The tour proceeds a turf farm and Vancouver Wireless

recreational area near the ferry a Vancouver Island in the back-

on ghway 17 then branches eas passing Station en route to

68

biol

90

After 1

99

use

to the

129

station i soil ( s ite 2 ) gravels ll freeway

SOIL PROFI

LOCATION:

route

and Bog, the site of the

stop , marine

leaving the lowlands vegeta e farming

ew the Serpentine wildlife an important commercial

i c soils.

is lunch stop the farm ic and Gleysolic soils.

UPLANDS

road east then south into the

ses

ll

parall s the international boundary

a

landforms of the uplands. Land ons, and sma 1 11 hobby farms".

tains across the inter-

strnas tree farm adjacent

culture Canada. An officer of the ll explain the operation of the sub­

culture of the district. A Podzolic s overlying deep glaciofluvial

served before the tour leaves via the on in Vancouver.

c Podzol

developed on silty loess overlying

it station, 3 krn south of Clear-

loca n a substantial area as a capping on the upland

on about 450 rn a.s.l. Surface lt loam a occur as uniform depo-ly g uvial materials. Where

less ern the soil is described

CLIMATE:

VEGETATION:

SOILS:

LAND USE:

The vegetation Douglas Fir all the gina to produce smal The origina coni The farm area blished in

as a materi Podzols.

The cul that is hi to yellowish show an abundance are common become horizons.

At a izon Root root

Ifl exposi stockpile

ace

to

ove

29

1

from gently ford area the The soils are

c vi-( Koppen,

on and 9.7 C average climate is given in

n the broad Coastal ). Practically

eared off ry production.

off, probably by 1900. rch forest when esta-

(Appendix A) is described vel on silty loessial

the area are Orthic Humo-Fe c

horizon, 5 to 15 em thick, strongl acid. The dark brown

silt oam texture. They idal concretions that

The concretions through the Bm

and hor­ly substratum.

although trees

ly cleared and used for mainly raspberries and r uses are as stmas

These soils able and

i on.

exerci avoid leveling is to

subsoil and re-

underl ng gl aci gravel and sand.

30

few remaining areas of forest, it appears ted for the production of trees and

steeply sloping areas are best

outwash provides a good source of

129 LEAVE the substation and travel due north to join the Trans Canada highway at

132 CLEARBROOK. Proceed northwest to Vancouver, passing through the municipal-es of Matsqui, Langley Surrey.

200 VANCOUVER CITY.

Agriculture Land Capabili ttee

Armstrong, J.E. 1957. a Geol i cal

Armstrong, J.E. 1 British Col

Armstrong, J.E. 1 Col a.

Canada Department for Canada.

Canada Department of cul Science. Publ. 1459.

Canada Department Precipitation Tables

Canada Land Inventory. 1970. Regional Econ. Expansion.

Census of Canada, Stat. Can. 1

31

ves. .L

' 1976.

Environmental Use

tmins Map Area tish

11 iwack (west f) map area.

sh

tern of soil classification

ossa of terms in il

1967. Temperature and a.

i on. Dept. of

Clayton, J.S., E ich, W.A., Cann, D.B., Day, J.H., and Marshall, I.B., 1976. Soils of Canada. s 1 & 2. Agric. . , Ottawa.

Climate of British umbia. es Repo for 1966. B.C. Dept. Agric.

Cline, M.G. 1949. Basic nciples

Comar, V.K. and Kelly, C.C. 1 Rep. No. 5.

D ehuyzen, M.G. 1972.

Environmental Use System. Goven.

Holland, S.S. 1964. Landforms B.C. Dept. of Mines

Inte on a l Canadian

Ke 11 ey, C. C. B . C . Dept. of Lower Ma i nl

1

a

tation and Sunshine.

on. Soil Sci. 67:81-91.

icipality Prelim.

n assi cation

a. A Physiographic Outline.

the Southern

Fraser Vall . Bul. 20.

Koppen's ass i to Climate.

cation Cli in A. pp. 381 3.

Krajina, V.J. 965. Ecol tern Univ. of B.C., Vancouver, B.C.

32

, G. T. 1954. An Introduction

ca. lume 1, Dept of Botany,

Luttmerdi , H.A. and , P.N. 1969. 1 Survey of Delta and Richmond Municipalities. Pre im. Rep. No. 10, B.C.D.A.

luttmerding, H.A. and Rep. . 9, B.C.D.

Luttmerding, H.A. and and Barnston Isl

McKeague, J. A. Methods of In st., Ottawa,

, P.N. 1968. Soil Survey of the Mission Area. Prelim.

of i1 ttee of

1 Survey of Langley Municipality 7, B.C.D.A.

ing and Methods of Analysis. Soil Survey Committee. S. Res.

Roddick, J.A. 1966. Coast Crystalline Belt of Bri sh Columbia. Can. Inst. Min. Met. Spec. Publ. . 8.

Runka, G.G. and Kelley, C.C. 1964. Soil Survey of Matsqui Municipality and Sumas Mountain. Prelim. Rep. . 6, B.C.D.A.

Runka, G.G. 1973. Methodology, land Capability for Agriculture, B.C. Land Inventory (C.L.I.) Soil Survey v., B.C. Dept. of Agric., Kelowna, B.C.

Soil Survey of Langley - Vancouver Map Area, Soil Survey Rep. No. 15. 1977

Soil Survey Staff. 1976. Soil Taxonomy. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Handbook No. 436. U.S. Govern. nting Office, Washington, D.C.

Taylor, R.L. and Macbryde, B. 1977. Vascular Plants of B.C. A Descriptive Resource Inventory. Univ. Press, Vancouver, B.C.

Working on Soil Survey Da . l (CanSI Manual Describing Can .• Ottawa, Ont.

The Canadian Soil Information System ls in the Field. S. Res. Inst., Agric.

33

APPENDIX A SITE 1

Field description of an Orthic Humic Gleysol on alluvial-marine silts.

Classification:

Location:

Sample No.: Elevation: Climate: Vegetation:

Landform: Slope: Drainage: Land Use:

Morphology

Horizon Depth em

Apl 0-13

Ap2 13-25

Bg 25-35

Cgl 35-48

Canada - ic aquic

U.S.A. - 1

F.A.O. - c On the R. Reynold 2 km of Canoe

( ) 3ma.s.l.

Gleysol, coarse silty, mixed, mild

t, coarse silty, mixed, acid, mesic

Island, Richmond, about 49°05'20"N l23°09 1 10 11 W.

ref. under crop; grass rna ne level

r International Airport, Richmond y records (circa 1859) describe

a grass-shrub cover a redtop

poorly drained mixed farming

Description

al delta

Dark grayish brown (lOYR 4.5/2 and light brownish gray (2.5Y 6.5/2,d); silt loam; moderate, medium, subangular blocky breaking to moderate, ne, ar blocky; sticky, very friable, hard, plastic; plentiful, fine inped roots, ver­tically oriented; very few, very ne inped pores, verti­cally oriented; strongly acid; diffuse. smooth boundary to

Dark grayish brown (lOYR 4/2, m) and light brownish gray (2.5Y 6/2, d); silt loam; moderate, medium subangular blocky; s , able. hard, plastic; plentiful, fine inped roots, cally ented; very few, very fine inped pores, ve ly ented; strongly acid; abrupt, smooth boundary to

Grayish (2.5YR 5/2, m) g (SY 6.5/1, d); silt loam; moderate to strong, medium subangular blocky break­ing to strong, ne subangular blocky; sticky, very friable, very , very p1 c; many, medium fine, prominent mottles (strong brown); plentiful, ne roots, inped and exped, cally ented; plentiful, very fine inped pores, vertically and obliquely ented; , very thin clay films on ped faces; strongly acid; clear, smooth boundary to

ive ( 5/2 and light gray (5Y 6.5/l, d); silt loam; moderate strong, coarse, pseudoblocky; few, medium, distinct mottles (brownish yellow); cky, firm, very hard, very plastic; to plentiful. fine. inped and exped roots; vertically and iq yo ented; plentiful, very fine,

Cg2 48-70

Cg3 70-100

Cgsal 100-127

Cgsa2 127-150

Cgsa3 150-170

Clay mineralogy

34

pores, vertical y obliquely oriented; few very ay lms; strongly acid; clear, smooth to

Olive gray (5Y 5/2 m) and gray (5Y 6.5/l, d); silt loam; moderate, coarse, pseudoblocky; common, medium and coarse

es (da ); sticky, soft, friable, plastic; few to enti 1, fine, inped roots, vertically and obliquely oriented; plenti , very fine, inped pores, vertically and obliq y oriented; some very thin clay films; extremely acid; clear, wa boundary to

Da gray (5Y 4.5/1, m) and gray (5Y 6.5/l, d); silt loam; massive breaking to coarse pseudoblocky; common, medium to coarse, nent mottles (yellow); slightly sticky, very friable, slightly hard, plastic; very few to few, fine to very ne, inped roots, vertically and obliquely oriented; very few, very fine inped pores, vertically oriented; extremely acid; clear, irregular boundary to

Dark greenish gray (5BG 4/1, m) and light gray (2.5Y 7/0 d); silt loam; massive; few, medium, prominent mottles (olive); slightly sticky, slightly hard, plastic; roots absent; very few, very fine, inped pores, vertically oriented; extremely acid; clear boundary to

Dark gray (5Y 4/l, m) and gray (2.5Y 6/0, d); silt loam; massive; nonsticky, slightly hard, slightly plastic; very strongly acid; diffuse boundary to

Very dark gray (2.5Y 3/0, m), light greenish gray (5 GY 4/l, m) and gray (2.5Y 6/0, d); silt loam; massive; slightly sticky, slightly hard, slightly plastic; medium acid.

The minor amounts of chlorite, smectite, and vermiculite in all horizons show little weathering. Mica is absent in the Cgsa3 and Cgsa2 horizons and minor in other horizons. Quartz and feldspar are present throughout the profile.

Table 5. Analytical data ~the OrthLc Humic Gleysol at si~ Donnees analytiques du gleysol humique orthique au s1te 1

~----,~~--~~-~~-.~~~--~~-·-~, ~------~---~--"

Horizon DePth Cael.....ElJ_. Org. mat. C/N Base Sat. Conductivity ac1 2 H2o Mat. org. Sat:-de bases~ Conductivittl

cationique Ca Mg K Na c em % % me/lOOg % % " % % % mmhos/cm "

~~~,~~,~--·~~· -·-·~- ~~--~· ,,,,,.u,, .. ~~~---·--~~---~~-·• -----· Apl 0-13 5.19 5.51 3.15 0.178 10.28 16.93 82.81 11. 10 2.57 0.26 0.09 1. 83 0.41 Ap2 13-25 5.25 5.62 3.09 0.172 10.41 16.93 82.22 11.17 2.44 0.22 0.09 l. 79 0.37 Bg 25-35 5.26 5.52 1.72 0.1 7.58 16.25 79.69 8.5:.'! 4.06 0.22 0.14 1.00 0.22 Cg1 35-48 4.82 5. 31 2.07 0 101 11.98 15.76 66.05 5.30 4.74 0.15 0.22 1.21 0.25 Cg2 48-70 3. 71 4.28 2.79 0.122 13.28 16. !2 21.09 1.17 1.84 0.16 0.23 1.62 0.36 Cg3 70-100 3.37 3.62 2.05 0.093 12.130 15.86 25.35 0.80 1.77 0.30 l. 15 1.19 .44 Cgsal 100-127 3.56 3.59 2.34 0.091 14.95 13.92 100+ 2.40 7.38 0.65 5.10 1.36 10.11 Cgsa2 127-150 4.72 4.70 1. 90 0.065 1 . 54 12.85 100+ 2.37 6.89. 1.01 5.96 1.01 8.44 Cgsa3 150-170+ 5.68 5. 71 1. 35 0.057 13.68 11.02 100+ 2.01 .03 0.81 4.83 0.78 7.13

e 2-0.05 0.05-0.002

mm mm mm Fe Al Fe A1 em % % % % ppm ppm % % % % alec %

Ap1 0-13 4.51 75.38 20.11 5. 71 21.9 100.7 0.19 0.09 0.62 0.23 1. 32 1.71 Ap2 13-25 4.39 75.69 19.92 5.80 23.7 126.1 o.w 0.09 0.62 0.22 1. 43 1.71 Bg 25-35 2.13 74.59 23.28 6.80 4.7 80.5 0.17 0.08 0.65 0.23 1.40 l. 93 Cgl 35~48 2. 71 75.17 22.12 6.32 6.3 I OJ. 7 o. 10 0.10 0.16 0.23 l. 39 1. 74 Cg2 48~70 7.89 74.89 17.22 5.17 13.8 43.7 0. 32 0.14 0.66 0.23 l. 66 Cg3 70-100 8.75 75.81 15.44 3.76 14.9 49.0 0.25 0.06 1.09 0.17 1.18 2.04 Cgsa1 100-127 10.46 75.60 13.94 2.51 9.2 122.9 0.38 0.06 0.50 0.17 2.01 Cgsa2 127-150 14.34 73.03 12.63 2.68 5.5 205.7 0.24 0.05 0.37 0.16 1.15 1. 56 Cgsa3 150-170+ 30.14 60.45 9.41 1. 57 5.5 156.7 0.14 0.04 0.30 0.15 1.05

36

Figures. Micromorphology of the Orthic Humic Gleysol at Site 1.

a. plane light b. p 1 ane 1 i ght c. plane light

Ap The dense fabric (Fig. Sa) consists of clay and silt sized quartz (C) mica (C) and feldspar (R) particles. A few sand sized quartz skeleton grains

also occur. Organic matter and small ferruginous zones occur occasionally in the matrix. -1- silasepic porphyroskelic

Bg The dense, slightly banded fabric (Fig. Bb) consists of silt and clay sized particles. The silt is quartz ( F), mica (F) and feldspar (R) grains.

Rare traces of organic tissue may be found in matrix. Mottled zones and ferru­ginous nodules surrounded by halos occur (C). -1- silasepic porphyroskelic

Cgsal The dense fabric consists predominantly of silt sized quartz (C) and mica (C) particles and clay. Skeleton grains of quartz (R) feldspar (R) in the

sand size are dispersed tnroughout the matrix. Around some voids a complex pedo­logical feature occurs (Fig. 8c). From the void lining to the matrix, these features consist of ferriargillans (R-VR), traces of organic matter (R), chestnut brown ferruginous mottles (C) and finally isotropic dull brownish-gray deposits of jarosite which encloses all the previous accumulations. The ferriargillans and organic matter are not always present with the mottles or jarosite deposits. -1- silasepic porphyroskelic

3'7

APPENDIX A s 2

Field description of a Sombric c Podzol on loess.

Classification:

Location:

Sample No.: Elevation: Climate: Vegetation: Landform: Parent Mater i a 1 : Slope: Drainage: Land Use:

Morphology

Horizon Depth em

Ap 0-9

Bfl 9-17

Bf2 l 29

Bml 29-46

Canada -

U.S.A. -

Description

Fe c Podzol, coarse loamy over sandy xed, acid, mild subhumid family .

• coarse loamy over sandy skeletal, family

1 t substation, NW 1/4 Sec 5 Tp 16, 490Ql'20 11 N 122°20'28"W.

Dark (7.5YR 3/2, m) and dark brown (lOYR 3/3, d); silt moderate, urn subangular blocky and granular; slightly

e, soft, slightly plastic; abundant, very y oriented; few, fine, spherical

matrix; occasional round gravel; strongly d; some fragments of charcoal and wood; clear, wavy boundary to

(5YR 3/3, m) and dark brown (7.5YR 4/4, , medium and fine subangular blocky; e, s1i y hard, slightly plastic;

• y oriented; few to cal ons throughout

gravel; very strongly acid; gradual

Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4, m) and yellowish brown (lOYR 5/4, d); silt loam; , um, subangular blocky; slightly sticky, e, slightly hard, slightly plastic; abundant, very fine inped y ented; few to common, fine medium concretions throughout matrix; occasional very ly acid; distinct,

Da brown (7.5YR , m) and yell sh brown (lOYR 5/4, d); silt loam; moderate, medium and coarse, subangular b1 ; slig l s able, slightly hard, slightly plas c; pl • very ne inped roots, randomly oriented; few to common, medium spherical concretions

Bm2 46-63

Bm3 63-

IICB 73-90

IICl 90-124

IIC2 124-145

Clay Mineralogy.

A large Traces the

y gradual,

, m) and yellowish brown to light - 6/4, d) silt loam; weak to

lar bl ; slightly tly plas c; abundant,

; few, ne and matrix; occasional 1. wavy boundary to

, m) light yellowish brown to moderate, medium and coarse,

, iable, slightly hard, fine inped roots, randomly

spherical concretions gravel; very strongly

to

(1 4/4, m) and brown to pale brown ravelly sand; structureless; nonsticky,

, fine roots; randomly oriented; ls; strongly acid; gradual, smooth

; structureless; single c; few, very fine roots, gravels; strongly acid;

ly sand; structureless; single nonplastic; very few roots, les; 35% gravels; strongly acid;

material is present in all horizons. in the C horizon, as well as at lorite. Mica is absent, quartz

l e.

Table 6. Analitical data for the Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzo1 at site 2 Donnees analytiques du podzol humo-ferrique sombrique au site 2

Horizon Deeth eH Org. mat. Nitrogen C/N c. E. c. Base Sat. Exch. cat. - Cations echans. Profondeur rarr2 R2o Mat. org. Azote Cap. d echange Sat. de bases

cationique Ca Mg K Na c em % % me/lOOg % % % % % %

Ap 0-9 5.32 5.38 21.98 0. 875 14.57 51.32 56.80 25.05 3.23 0.81 0.06 12. 75 Bf1 9-17 4.69 5.07 7.00 0.208 19.52 28.07 18.85 4.13 0. 79 0.34 0.03 4.06 Bf2 17-29 4.80 5.14 4.95 0.159 18.05 22.88 13.94 2.25 0.58 0.34 0.02 2.87 Bml 29-46 5.16 5.51 2.12 0.072 17.08 12.67 17. 13 1.28 0.46 0.41 0.02 1.23 Bm2 46-63 5.06 5.76 1.69 0.055 17.82 10.78 13.08 0.50 0.11 0.78 0.02 0.98 Bm3 63-73 5.12 5.84 1.29 0.038 19.74 9.09 15.51 0.38 0.07 0.94 0.02 0.75 IICB 73-90 5.12 5.61 0. 72 0.021 20.00 6.01 15 ~31 0.19 0.03 0.68 0.02 0.42 HCl 90-124 5.31 6.15 0.34 0.010 20.00 3.87 . 9.56 0.14 0.02 0.19 o.o2· 0.20 IIC2 124-145 5.40 6.27 0.21 0.007 17.14 2.26 16.37 0.16 0.04 0.16 0.01 0.12

. .., Horizon DeDth Sand Silt c\Tte Fi~e c1a.>: p P.t:rO(!hOS Hygroscopic w

§ISle Umon Arg1 e· · Arg 1e 'nne Bray 1 Bray 2 . Moisture <.0

2-0.05 0.05-0.002 <0.002 <0.2lJm ldumldi t~ mm mm mm Fe Al Fe Al hygroseopi que

em % •% % % ppm ppm "' % % % % /0

Ap 0-9 22.04 67.24 10.72 1.42 382. l 1342.4 0.45 0. 51 0.78 0.94 5. 72 Bfl 9-17 27.75 66.84 5.41 0 140.4 232.7 0.49 0.65 0.87 1.40 3.44 Bf2 17-29 30.83 65.77 3.40 0 49.2 90.9 0.34 0.61 0.86 1. 28 3.29 Bml 29-46 36.29 60.42 3.29 0 20.3 43.4 0.08 0. 31 0.27 0. 78 2.16 Bm2 46-63 46.73 49.91 3.36 0 14.2 40.7 0.07 0.30 0.54 0. 71 1. 74 Bm3 63-73 63.35 34.21 2.44 0 20.8 55.9 0.05 0.21 0.43 0.94 1. 60 IICB 73-90 81.24 17.05 1.71 0 52.9 124.7 0.03 0.15 0.29 0.43 0.9G liCl 90-124 96.18 2.42 1.40 0 84.5 110.7 0.01 0.14 0.15 0.33 0.57 IIC2 124-145 96.52 2.74 0.74 0 53.3 77.2 0.01 0.07 0.13 0.23 0.33

40

Figure 9. Micromorphology of the Sombric Humo-Ferric Podzol at Site 2

a. plane light b. plane light c. partly X

Bfl The moderately dense brown fabric (Fig. 9a) consists of sand sized quartz, quartzite and feldspar skeleton grains (C) in a matrix of fine aggregates

of clay and silt. The aggregates are joined together. Organic matter remnants occur in the voids and in the matrix. Matrans (C) and thin weakly oriented ferri­argillans (0) exist round sand grains. Ferruginous concentrations (up to 300~m, 0) occur in the aggregates. -1- silasepic agglomeroplasmic -2- silasepic matrigranoidic

Bm2 The porous fabric consists of rock fragments (0) of metamorphic and igneous origin and sand grains (C) of quartz, feldspar, amphiboles and pyroxenes

with coatings, bridges and aggregates of dull brown matrix material of clay and silt (Fig. 9b). Many rock fragments are highly weathered. There are ferruginous nodules (0). Matrans (R) up to 300~m thick surround some sand grains. -1- silasepic intertextic -2- matriplectic

IIC2 The highly porous fabric consists of rock fragments of igneous and meta-morphic origin, up to 5mm in size (0) and sand (C) and silt grains (C) of

quartz, feldspar, pyroxenes and amphiboles (Fig. 9c). There is no matrix material. Thin weakly oriented ferriargillans coat some grains. -1- granular

orthogranic

41

APPEND B Plants* commonly found in the lower Fraser' lley area

Name

Trees

Abies amabilis Abies grandis Acer circinatwn Acer macrophyZlum Alnus rubra Arbutus menziesii Betula papyrifera var. papyrifera Betula papyrifera var. suhcordata Comus nuttallii Chamaecypar1:s nootkatensis Picea sitchensis Pinus contorta var. contorta Pinus monticola Populus balsamifera subsp. trichocarpa Populus tremuZoides var. tremuloides Populus trernuloides var. vancouveriana Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii Taxus brewifol1:a Thuja plicata Tsuga heterophylla Tsuga mertensiana

Shrubs

Arctostaphylo.s uva-ur•si subsp. adenotricha Comus sericea subsp. occidentalis Cytisus scoparius Gaultheria shaUon Holodiscus discolor subsp. discolor Kalmia microphyllo Ledum groenlandicum Lonicera involucrata Loni.cera s p. Mahonia aquifolium Mahonia nervosa Myrica gale OpZoplanax horridus Paxistima myrsinites Rosa gymnocarpa Rosa spp. Rubus subsp. parviflorus Rubus Rubus macropetaZus Salix spp. Spiraea douglasii

r

c Madrone)

Shore Western White Pine Black Cottonwood Trembli Aspen Trembli Aspen

st las r Western

tern Western

Ki nni nni Western Red Osier Dogwood Scotch Broom Salal Creambush, Oceanspray Western Swamp Kalmia Common Tea Twi Honeysuckle Honeys e Tall Oregon-Grape

1 Sweet Gale Devil 1

S Club Boxwood

p

il i ng Blackberry

umbia. Roy l. or and

42

Symphoricar>pos albus var>. "laev1:gatus Syrrrphor>-Z:carrpos mol Us var>. hesper>ius

alaskaense Vaccinium ovalifoliwn Vaccinium Vacciniwn parvifolium Vaccinium uliginosvffi svhsp. occidentale

rbs

A chi Uea mil Achlys triphy Antennm'ia spp. Athyriwn filix-femina Blechnum Calamagrostis canadensis

miUefoUwn Ua

Calypso subsp. occidentalis Car>ex spp. CastiUeja spp. Chim~?hila wnbellata BLWsp. occidentalis Cor>nus canadensis Cor>nuB unalaschkensis Dicent.ra formosa

nigr>um nigPWn F'e s -tuca p • F'r>agaria chiloensis subsp. lucida Fragaria vir>g~n~ana glauca F'r>agaria vir>g1:niana subsp. platypetala Galiwn sp. Geum macr>ophyllum var. macr>ophyllum Goodyer>a oblongifolia Leucanthemum vulgare Linnaea bor>ea"lis Lupinus nootkatensis Lupinus s pp. Lycopodium annotinwn Lysich-iton amer•icanum Osmor>hiza chilensis Polypodium Polystichum Pter>idium aqui"linum subsp. aquilinwn var.

pubescens Pyr>ola asar>ifolia Rubus pedatus Str>eptopus r>oseus var>. curvipes Tiarella trifoliata Tr>ientalis latifolia T1•i Z. ovabwn hibber>sonii

T.riUiwn ova-tum ovatwn

Common Snowberry Trailing Snowberry

askan Blueberry Oval-leaved Blueberry Bog Cranberry Red Huckleberry Bog Blueberry

Yarrow American Vanilla Leaf Pussytoes Common Lady Fern Deer Fern Bluejoint Small Reed Grass Fairysl ipper Sedges Indian Paintbrushes Common Western Pipsissewa Canadian Bunchberry Western Cordilleran Bunchberry Paci c Bl eedi nghea rt Spiny Shield Fern Black Crowberry Fescue Pacific Coast Strawberry Blue-leaved Wild Strawberry Broad-petaled Wild Strawberry Bedstraw Large-leaved Avens large-leaved Rattlesnake Orchid Oxeye Daisy Northern Twinflower Nootka Lupine Lupines Stiff Club-Moss American Skunk-Cabbage Mountain Sweetcicely Licorice Fern Sword Fern Western Bracken

Pink Pyrol a ve- eaved Creeping Raspberry mple-stemmed Twisted Stalk foliate-leaved Foamflower

Broad-leaved Starflower bberson 1 s Western White

Trillium Western White Trillium

Scientific Name

Mosses

Dicranum fuscescens Dicranum s~ Eurhynchium oreganum Hylocomium splendens Isotheciwn spicuUferum Leucolepis menziesii Mnium insigne Plagiothecium undulatum Polytrichum juniperinum Rhacomitrium canescens Rhizomnium glabrescens Rhytidiadelphus loreus Rhytidiadelphus triquetPus Rhytidiopsis robusta Sphagnum Sp·

Lichens

Cladom:a sp. Peltigera apthosa

43

Crane's-Bill Moss Crane's-Bill Moss Oregon Beaked Moss

Palm-tree Moss Badge Mnium

Grey-frayed Cap Moss

Little Shaggy Moss

Robust Moss Peat Moss

Reindeer Lichen Dog Lichen

44

APPEND C FOR ICROMORPHOLOGICAL DESCRIPTIONS

The summarizi

logy begin with a brief paragraph crofabric in general terms. The relative

voids and nodules are The technical name of

Brewer's and Pawluk's (1975) termin­On some occasions only the

ptive is used.

ng abbreviations are used to

plane light X polarizers -partly X ari zers

a) 25x - for colour, and arrangement of large peds and/or aggregates b) 63x - for t smaller units and more detailed description c) 125x - for i c features.

a) cutans more (F) >5% the area 5-2%

occasional (0) 2-0.5% rare {R) rare but easily located and identified very rare ( ) section must be searched to positively identify them.

b) nodules (F) >20% of the area (C) 1 20% (0) 5-10% ( R) 5% (VR) <2%

DescriRtion of overall porosity

Using only those voids greater than 25~m in diameter <5% - very dense

IYP.es

l. 2. 3. 4.

10% - dense 10-25% - moderately porous or moderately packed

40% - y porous or loosely packed >40% - y porous or very loosely packed

a zon consists of well packed fine sand and silt at low magni-fication is sila c porphyroskelic while at higher magnification it is granular. some occasions, both fabrics will be stated along with the applicable magni cation.

of banded fabrics - after Dumans and St. Arnaud (1966)

isoband banded fabric A

c B banded c c

45

References

Brewer, R. 1964. Fabric and mineral analysis of soils. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.

Brewer, R. and Pawluk, S. 1975. Investigations of some soils developed in hummocks of the Canadian Sub-Arctic and Southern-Arctic regions. 1 Morphology and micromorphology. Can. J. Soil Sci. 55:301-319.

Dumanski, J. and St. Arnaud, R.J. 1966. A micropedological study of eluvial soil horizons. Can. J. Soil Sci. 46:287-292.

Stace, H.C.I., Hubble, G.D .• Brewer, R., Northcote, K.H., Sleeman, J.R., Mulcahy, M.J., and Hallsworth, E.G. 1968. A Handbook of Australian Soils. Rellim Technical Publications, Glenside, Australia.

IX D CANAD SYSTEM OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION

a erarchical system developed asses in all of the five categories: series, are based upon observable c properties at high categorical

env 1 factors that i uence alphabetically, are defined in

are lis

t lacking the horizons y n su d to humid forested Great groups are· Melanic ( ) and is not strongly acid; not strongly acid; Sombric

ic isol - lacks a 1-

slands; they have a well-developed base-izon ). The four great groups are based

reflects soil ima Brown. Dark

frost zone that includes about l/3 of Canada; neral or organic material having permafrost

are three great groups: Turbic Cryosol -mineral soils as indicated by microrelief or by mixed

neral soils that are not strongly cryoturbated; permafrost n l m.

i drab colors, prominent mottling or other features or permanent water table and reduction. They occur

depressions l areas that either receive runoff water or are discharge areas. There are three great groups: Humic Gleysol -

well-developed mineral ic surface horizon (Ah); Gleysol - lacks a well-Ah; ic eysol - has a B horizon (Btg) of significant clay accu-

.~~~~~~~~-- Soils usually in forested regions, in which leaching has ocation of clay from the A to the B horizon (Bt).

uvial zon (Ae). The great groups are: soi climate and forest mull Ah; Gray Luvisol - cold usually less than 5 em Ah.

y of organic materials (more than 17% s (usually 60 em for fibric materials

Fi sol - mainly fibres that are F brisol; Humisol - highly de­

mainly of ick leaf litter over rock.

id soils developed forest and heath; they have a B in fied organic rna and Al and Fe weathering products,

a light gray, weathered Ae horizon. Great groups are: ~umic

47

Podzol - B depleted of Fe; Ferro-Humic Podzol B rich in organic matter com-bined with Al Fe; Humo-Ferric - B contains less ic matter than Ferro-Humic Podzol.

Development t groups are:

horizon ( ); Regosol

zons is absent or very weakly s a dark~ mineral-organic

s a n Ah.

associated with saline materials and having prismatic s ri , B zons that are when dry and nearly when wet. occur mainl in grass! s associated th soils. Great groups are: onetz - lac a well-developed eluvial

Ae; Solodized-Solonetz - has a well ; Solod - has an Ae and an AB in which the structure of sintegrated.

Subgroups are formed arrangement of horizons i ca great group, intergrading to other ilies are differentiated from acteristics, soil climate factors from families on the basis of detailed

great groups according to kind and ty to the central concept of the

, or itional special horizons. Fam-the basis of parent material char­reaction. Series are differentiated

soil features.

CLASSIFICATION CORRELATION

Canadian

Brunisolic Chernozemic Cryosolic Gleysolic Luvisolic Podzolic Organic Solonetzic

us

Inceptisol Mollisol Pergelic subgroups Aqu suborders Alfisol Spodoso1 His 1 Natric great groups

FAO

Kastanozem, Chernozem, Rendzina Gelic subgroups Gl • Planosol Luv sol Podzol Hi stosol Solonetz

'+0

APPENDIX E METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Soil descriptions - follow the standard conventions outlined in the Canadian System of Soil Classi cation (Canada Soil Survey Committee, 1977).

Analytical Methods -are described in the Manual on Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis (Canada Soi Survey ttee, 1976).

General procedures are as follows:

pH: saturated paste (H20) and neutral salt (0.01 M CaCl 2) Total C: induction furnace method CaC03 equiv: calcimeter method Total N: semi-micro Kjelda Exchangeable ca ons:

a. neutral salt - extracting with 2N NaCl b. pH 7 - buffered ammonium acetate

Iron and aluminum: a. dithionite - citrate - bicarbonate b. acid ammonium oxalate (pH 3) c. sodium pyrophosphate (0. 1M)

Water soluble salts: ions were determined on the saturated extracts. Available nutrients:

a. N - modified P2 Bray (NH4F-H2S04) extract. b. P - modified Bray (NH4F-H2S04) extract c. K - ammonium acetate (lN) d. S- 0.1 M CaCl2

Organic matter: classical NaOH/Na4P207 extractions Mineralogy: x-ray diffraction of the <2~m soil fraction Fibre content: syringe method for fibres retained on 100 mesh sieve Bulk density: saran-coated clod method, coarse fragments included Water holding capacity: pressure plate method Atterberg limits: standard procedure

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