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Themes RERUM

NOVARUM

Mater et

Magistra Pacem in Terris

Human Dignity That the spirit of

revolutionary change,

which has long been

disturbing the nations of

the world, should have

passed beyond the sphereof politics and made its

influence felt in the

cognate sphere of

practical economics is not

surprising. The elements

of the conflict now raging

are unmistakable, in the

vast expansion of

industrial pursuits and the

marvelous discoveries of

science; in the changed

relations between masters

and workmen; in theenormous fortunes of

some few individuals, and

the utter poverty of the

masses.

Mother and Teacher of all

nations--such is the

Catholic Church in the

mind of her Founder,

Jesus Christ; to hold the

world in an embrace oflove, that men, in every

age, should find in her

their own completeness in

a higher order of living,

and their ultimate

salvation. She is "the pillar

and ground of the

truth."[1] To her was

entrusted by her holy

Founder the twofold task

of giving life to her

children and of teaching

them and guiding them--both as individuals and as

nations--with maternal

care. Great is their dignity,

a dignity which she has

always guarded most

zealously and held in the

highest esteem.

Christianity is the

meeting-point of earth

and heaven. It lays claim

to the whole man, body

and soul, intellect ant will,

inducing him to raise his

mind above the changing

conditions of this earthly

existence and reach

upwards for the eternal

life of heaven, where one

day he will find his

unfailing happiness and

peace.

Human Rights venerable brethren, as on

former occasions when it

seemed opportune to

refute false teaching, Wehave addressed you in the

interests of the Church

and of the common weal,

and have issued letters

bearing on political power,

Clearly, this sort of

development in social

relationships brings many

advantages in its train. itmakes it possible for, the

individual to exercise

many of his personal

rights, especially those

which we call economic

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human liberty, the

Christian constitution of

the State, and like

matters, so have We

thought it expedient now

to speak on the condition

of the working classes.

and social and which

pertain to the necessities

of life, health care,

education on a more

extensive and improved

basis, a more thorough

professional training,housing, work, and

suitable leisure and

recreation. Furthermore,

the progressive perfection

of modern methods of

thought-diffusion--the

press, cinema, radio,

television--makes it

possible for everyone to

participate in human

events the world over.

At the same time,

however, this

multiplication and daily

extension of forms of

association brings with it a

multiplicity of restrictive

laws and regulations in

many departments of

human life. As a

consequence, it narrows

the sphere of a person's

freedom of action. The

means often used, the

methods followed, theatmosphere created, all

conspire to make it

difficult for a person to

think independently of

outside influences, to act

on his own initiative,

exercise his responsibility

and express and fulfill his

own personality.

Human Freedom It is surely undeniable

that, when a man engages

inremunerative labor, the

impelling reason and

motive of his work is to

obtain property, and

thereafter to hold it as his

very own. If one man hires

out to another his

strength or skill, he does

Small wonder, then, that

the Catholic Church, in

imitation of Christ and in

fulfillment of His

commandment, relies not

merely upon her teaching

to hold aloft the torch of

charity, but also upon her

own widespread example.

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so for the purpose of

receiving in return what is

necessary for the

satisfaction of his needs;

he therefore expressly

intends to acquire a right

full and real, not only tothe remuneration, but

also to the disposal of

such remuneration, just as

he pleases.

This has been her course

now for nigh on two

thousand years, from the

early ministrations of her

deacons right down to the

present time. It is a charity

which combines theprecepts and practice of

mutual love. It holds fast

to the twofold aspect of

Christ's command to give,

and summarizes the

whole of the Church's

social teaching and

activity.

An outstanding instance of

this social teaching and

action carried on by the

Church throughout the

ages is undoubtedly that

magnificent encyclical on

the christianizing of the

conditions of the working

classes, Rerum Novarum,

published seventy years

ago by Our Predecessor,

Leo XIII.

Humans as social being What is of far greater

moment, however, is the

fact that the remedy they

propose is manifestly

against justice. For, everyman has by nature the

right to possess property

as his own. This is one of

the chief points of

distinction between man

and the animal creation,

for the brute has no

power of self direction,

but is governed by two

main instincts, which keep

his powers on the alert,

impel him to develop

them in a fitting manner,

and stimulate and

determine him to action

without any power of

choice.

Seldom have the words of

a Pontiff met with such

universal acclaim. In the

weight and scope of his

arguments, and in theforcefulness of their

expression, Pope Leo XIII

can have but few rivals.

Beyond any shadow of

doubt, his directives and

appeals have established

for themselves a position

of such high importance

that they will never,

surely, sink into oblivion.

They opened out new

horizons for the activity of

the universal Church, and

the Supreme Shepherd, by

giving expression to the

hardships and sufferings

and aspirations of the

lowly and oppressed,

made himself the

champion and restorer of

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their rights.The impact of

this remarkable encyclical

is still with us even today,

so many years after it was

written. It is discernible in

the writings of the Popes

who succeeded Pope Leo.In their social and

economic teaching they

have frequent recourse to

the Leonine Encyclical,

either to draw inspiration

from it and clarify its

application, or to find in it

a stimulus to Catholic

action.

Acting for justice So strong and convincing

are these arguments that

it seems amazing that

some should now be

setting up anew certain

obsolete opinions in

opposition to what is here

laid down. They assert

that it is right for private

persons to have the use of

the soil and its various

fruits, but that it is unjust

for any one to possess

outright either the land on

which he has built or the

estate which he hasbrought under cultivation.

Common Good The rights here spoken of,

belonging to each

individual man, are seen

in much stronger light

when considered in

relation to man's social

and domestic obligations.

In choosing a state of life,

it is indisputable that all

are at full liberty to follow

the counsel of Jesus Christ

as to observing virginity,

or to bind themselves by

the marriage tie.

As is well known, the

outlook that prevailed on

economic matters was for

the most part a purely

naturalistic one, which

denied any correlation

between economics and

morality. Personal gain

was considered the only

valid motive for economic

activity. In business the

main operative principle

was that of free and

unrestricted competition.

Interest on capital, prices-

-whether of goods or of

services--profits and

wages, were to be

determined by the purely

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mechanical application of

the laws of the market

place.

Race and Culture It is a most sacred law of

nature that a father

should provide food and

all necessaries for thosewhom he has begotten;

and, similarly, it is natural

that he should wish that

his children, who carry on,

so to speak, and continue

his personality, should be

by him provided with all

that is needful to enable

them to keep themselves

decently from want and

misery amid the

uncertainties of this

mortal life.

Work and employment In like manner, the other

pains and hardships of life

will have no end or

cessation on earth; for the

consequences of sin are

bitter and hard to bear,

and they must accompany

man so long as life lasts.

To suffer and to endure,

therefore, is the lot of

humanity; let them strive

as they may, no strengthand no artifice will ever

succeed in banishing from

human life the ills and

troubles which beset it.

Pope Leo XIII also

defended the worker's

natural right to enter into

association with his

fellows. Such associations

may consist either of

workers alone or of

workers and employers,

and should be structured

in a way best calculated to

safeguard the workers'

legitimate professionalinterest. And it is the

natural right of the

workers to work without

hindrance, freely, and on

their own initiative within

these associations for the

achievement of these

ends. Finally, both

workers and employers

should regulate their

mutual relations in

accordance with the

principle of human

solidarity and Christian

brotherhood. Unrestricted

competition in the liberal

sense, and the Marxist

creed of class warfare, are

clearly contrary to

Christian teaching and the

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nature of man. These,

Venerable Brethren, are

the basic principles upon

which a genuine social and

economic order must be

built.

Industrial relations the following bind theproletarian and the

worker: fully and faithfully

to perform the work

which has been freely and

equitably agreed upon;

never to injure the

property, nor to outrage

the person, of an

employer; never to resort

to violence in defending

their own cause, nor to

engage in riot or disorder;

and to have nothing to do

with men of evil

principles, who work upon

the people with artful

promises of great results,

and excite foolish hopes

which usually end in

useless regrets and

grievous loss. The

following duties bind the

wealthy owner and the

employer: not to look

upon their work people astheir bondsmen, but to

respect in every man his

dignity as a person

ennobled by Christian

character.

Concerning the use ofmaterial goods, Our

Predecessor declared that

the right of every man to

use these for his own

sustenance is prior to

every other economic

right, even that of private

property. The right to the

private possession of

material goods is

admittedly a natural one;

nevertheless, in the

objective order

established by God, the

right to property cannot

stand in the way of the

axiomatic principle that

"the goods which were

created by God for all men

should flow to all alike,

according to the principles

of justice and charity." On

the subject of work, Pius

XII repeated the teaching

of the Leonine encyclical,maintaining that a man's

work is at once his duty

and his right. It is for

individuals, therefore, to

regulate their mutual

relations where their work

is concerned. If they

cannot do so, or will not

do so, then, and only then,

does "it fall back on the

State to intervene in the

division and distribution of

work, and this must be

according to the form and

measure that the common

good properly understood

demands."

Property and Wealth those whom fortune

favors are warned that

riches do not bring

Enormous riches

accumulated in the hands

of a few, while large

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freedom from sorrow and

are of no avail for eternal

happiness, but rather are

obstacles;(9) that the rich

should tremble at the

threatenings of Jesus

Christ - threatenings sounwonted in the mouth of

our Lord(10) - and that a

most strict account must

be given to the Supreme

Judge for all we possess.

The chief and most

excellent rule for the right

use of money is one the

heathen philosophers

hinted at, but which the

Church has traced out

clearly, and has not only

made known to men's

minds, but has impressed

upon their lives.

numbers of workingmen

found themselves in

conditions of ever-

increasing hardship.

Wages were insufficient

even to the point of

reaching starvation level,and working conditions

were often of such a

nature as to be injurious

alike to health, morality

and religious faith.

Especially inhuman were

the working conditions to

which women and

children were sometimes

subjected. There was also

the constant specter of

unemployment and the

progressive disruption of

family life. The natural

consequence of all this

was a spirit of indignation

and open protest on the

part of the workingman,

and a widespread

tendency to subscribe to

extremist theories far

worse in their effects than

the evils they purported

to remedy.

Rich and Poor As for those who possessnot the gifts of fortune,

they are taught by the

Church that in God's sight

poverty is no disgrace, and

that there is nothing to be

ashamed of in earning

their bread by labor. This

is enforced by what we

see in Christ Himself, who,

"whereas He was rich, for

our sakes became

poor";(18) and who, being

the Son of God, and God

Himself, chose to seem

and to be considered the

son of a carpenter - nay,

did not disdain to spend a

great part of His life as a

carpenter Himself. "Is not

this the carpenter, the son

It was at such a time andunder pressure of such

circumstances as these

that Leo XIII wrote his

social encyclical, Rerum

Novarum, based on the

needs of human nature

itself and animated by the

principles and spirit of the

Gospel. His message, not

unnaturally, aroused

opposition in some

quarters, but was received

by the majority of people

with the greatest

admiration and

enthusiasm.

It was not, of course, the

first occasion on which the

Apostolic See had come

out strongly in defense of

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of Mary?" the earthly interests of the

poor; indeed, Leo himself

had made other

pronouncements which in

a sense had prepared the

way for his encyclical. But

here for the first time wasa complete synthesis of

social principles,

formulated with such

historical insight as to be

of permanent value to

Christendom. It is rightly

regarded as a

compendium of Catholic

social and economic

teaching.

Peace Violence War If Christian precepts

prevail, the respective

classes will not only be

united in the bonds of

friendship, but also in

those of brotherly love.

For they will understand

and feel that all men are

children of the same

common Father, who is

God; that all have alike

the same last end, which

is God Himself, who alone

can make either men or

angels absolutely andperfectly happy; that each

and all are redeemed and

made sons of God, by

Jesus Christ, "the first-

born among many

brethren"; that the

blessings of nature and

the gifts of grace belong

to the whole human race

in common, and that from

none except the unworthy

is withheld the inheritance

of the kingdom of Heaven.

Family Life We have said that the

State must not absorb the

individual or the family;

both should be allowed

free and untrammelled

action so far as is

consistent with the

It must be determined in

accordance with justice

and equity; which means

that workers must be paid

a wage which allows them

to live a truly human life

and to fulfill their family

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common good and the

interest of others. Rulers

should, nevertheless,

anxiously safeguard the

community and all its

members; the community,

because the conservationthereof is so emphatically

the business of the

supreme power, that the

safety of the

commonwealth is not only

the first law, but it is a

government's whole

reason of existence; and

the members, because

both philosophy and the

Gospel concur in laying

down that the object of

the government of the

State should be, not the

advantage of the ruler,

but the benefit of those

over whom he is placed.

obligations in a worthy

manner. Other factors too

enter into the assessment

of a just wage: namely,

the effective contribution

which each individual

makes to the economiceffort, the financial state

of the company for which

he works, the

requirements of the

general good of the

particular country--having

regard especially to the

repercussions on the

overall employment of the

working force in the

country as a whole--and

finally the requirements of

the common good of the

universal family of nations

of every kind, both large

and small. The above

principles are valid always

and everywhere. So much

is clear. But their degree

of applicability to concrete

cases cannot be

determined without

reference to the quantity

and quality of available

resources; and these can--and in fact do--vary from

country to country, and

even, from time to time,

within the same country.

Ecology Many excellent results will

follow from this; and, first

of all, property will

certainly become more

equitably divided. For, the

result of civil change and

revolution has been to

divide cities into two

classes separated by a

wide chasm. On the one

side there is the party

which holds power

because it holds wealth;

which has in its grasp the

whole of labor and trade;

which manipulates for its

In economically developed

countries, relatively

unimportant services, and

services of doubtful value,

frequently carry a

disproportionately high

rate of remuneration,

while the diligent and

profitable work of whole

classes of honest, hard-

working men gets scant

reward. Their rate of pay

is quite inadequate to

meet the basic needs of

life. It in no way

corresponds to the

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own benefit and its own

purposes all the sources of

supply, and which is not

without influence even in

the administration of the

commonwealth. On the

other side there is theneedy and powerless

multitude, sick and sore in

spirit and ever ready for

disturbance. If working

people can be encouraged

to look forward to

obtaining a share in the

land, the consequence will

be that the gulf between

vast wealth and sheer

poverty will be bridged

over, and the respective

classes will be brought

nearer to one another. A

further consequence will

result in the great

abundance of the fruits of

the earth

contribution they make to

the good of the

community, to the profits

of the company for which

they work, and to the

general national economy.

We therefore consider itOur duty to reaffirm that

the remuneration of work

is not something that can

be left to the laws of the

marketplace; nor should it

be a decision left to the

will of the more powerful.