13(21) money in times of war

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Money in Times of War War figures prominently in the history of money. After all, money and war are closely linked: money has often been created precisely in order to wage a war. And money is an ideal medium for propaganda. Thus it is no surprise to observe that issuing money has thrived during times of war.


Ionia, Miletus, Stater, c. 560 BC

Denomination: Stater Mint Authority: City of Miletus Mint: Miletus Year of Issue: -‐560 Weight (g): 14.01 Diameter (mm): 23.0 Material: Electrum Owner: Sunflower Foundation The reason for the first development of coins is unknown: they might initially have been made as sacrifices in temples, or for official recompenses like the pays of soldiers and public officials. For the facilitation of trade, they were used only later, at any rate. The standard coin was the stater from electrum (a natural alloy from gold and silver), which corresponded to a soldier's monthly pay.

This stater was minted in the town of Miletus, which was the most important city of the Greek world during the 7th and 6th centuries, and one of the first towns to start the issue of coins.


Sicily, Syracuse, Dionysius I (405-‐367 BC), 20 Litrae, 405-‐380 BC

Denomination: 20 Litrae Mint Authority: City of Syracuse Mint: Syracuse Year of Issue: -‐405 Weight (g): 1.16 Diameter (mm): 12.0 Material: Gold Owner: Sunflower Foundation The last decades of the 5th century BC were a troublesome time for Sicily. The Phoenicians from the North African city of Carthage destroyed several of the flourishing Greek cities during that time. In the course of this crisis, the war lord Dionysius I came to power in Syracuse.

To pay his armed forces and to cover other war-related expenses, Dionysius began to issue the first Sicilian gold coins. They bore on the obverse the head of the hero Heracles, the strongest man of Greek mythology. The reverse showed a little head of Arethusa, the nymph of Syracuse's most important sweet water spring.


Kingdom of Macedon, Alexander III the Great (336-‐323 BC) in the Name of Philip II, Stater, c. 324 BC, Colophon

Denomination: Stater Mint Authority: King Alexander III of Macedon Mint: Colophon Year of Issue: -‐324 Weight (g): 8.6 Diameter (mm): 19.0 Material: Gold Owner: Sunflower Foundation Through decades of warfare, King Philip II had turned Macedon into the leading power of the Greek world. In the summer of 336 BC he was assassinated, however, and succeeded by his son Alexander, who would later be known as "the Great." This coin was minted one year before Alexander's death. It bears a beautiful image of Apollo.

The coin is a so-called Philip's stater, as Alexander's father Philip had already issued them for diplomatic purposes (bribery thus) and for the pay of his mercenaries. These mercenaries, among them many Celts from northern and central Europe, later brought the Philip's staters into circulation in their homelands. The coins became so popular that they were minted long after Philip's death – not only by his son Alexander and his successors, but also by diverse Celtic tribes.


Sicily, Mamertinoi, Hexas, c. 270-‐220 BC

Denomination: Hexas Mint Authority: Mamertine Mercenaries Mint: Messana? (Messina) Year of Issue: -‐270 Weight (g): 8.64 Diameter (mm): 252.0 Material: Bronze Owner: Sunflower Foundation The issuers of this hexas were the Mamertines who played a decisive role in the outbreak of the First Punic War between Carthage and Rome (264-241 BC). The Mamertines were mercenaries of Agathokles, the tyrant of Syracuse. After Agathokles' death (289 BC) idle, unemployed, and unpaid, they captured the city of Messana and began preying the lands. Eventually they became a nuisance even for powerful Syracuse. Hieron, the new tyrant of Syracuse, prepared for war against them, but withdrew when the Mamertines received help from Carthage.

After their success, however, the Carthaginians were unwilling to leave Messana again. Hence the Mamertines appealed to Rome for help, and the two entered into an alliance. With both Rome and Carthage battling for Messina, the situation quickly escalated to war.

On their coins the Mamertines celebrated their martial qualities. The obverse of this hexas depicts the Italic war god Mamers (the Roman Mars), whose name the Mamerines had adopted. The reverse shows the Greek goddess Athena in battle.


Roman Republic, 60 Asses, 211-‐209 BC, Sicilian Mint

Denomination: 60 Asses Mint Authority: Roman Republic Mint: Undefined in Sicily Year of Issue: -‐211 Weight (g): 3.36 Diameter (mm): 15.0 Material: Gold Owner: Sunflower Foundation Italy suffered heavily in the Second Punic War against Carthage (218-201 BC). The Carthaginians spent fourteen years on the Peninsula, fighting the Romans in countless skirmishes and battles. If they were not fighting, the soldiers of both sides burned fields and orchards, slaughtered livestock, and destroyed villages in the attempt to starve the respective enemy. By the end of the war, Italy was fundamentally impoverished.

The extreme financial tensions brought about by the war even changed Roman coinage. Around 211 BC, the currency was converted from the traditional bronze as to the new silver denarius: bronze hadbecome indispensable for armament and weapons. Soon thereafter, Rome also had to touch the national gold reserves; this war coin shows the head of Mars, the god of war, and Jupiter's eagle sitting on a thunderbolt.


Roman Republic, Q. Minucius Thermus (?), Denarius, 103 BC

Denomination: Denarius Mint Authority: Moneyer Q. Minucius Thermus Mint: Rome Year of Issue: -‐103 Weight (g): 3.87 Diameter (mm): 19.0 Material: Silver Owner: Sunflower Foundation The obverse of this denarius depicts the head of Mars, the Roman god of war. On the reverse is a Roman legionnaire fighting a barbarian soldier over a fallen comrade.

The issue of this denarius fell into the time of decisive military encounters between the Romans and the Cimbri, a Germanic tribe. The coin design cis mere propaganda: Mars as the protector of the Roman legions, and the fighting scene as commemoration of previous Roman victories.


Roman Republic, Anonymous for the Marsic Confederation, Denarius, 90-‐88 BC, Corfinium

Denomination: Denarius Mint Authority: Anonymous for the Marsic Confederation Mint: Corfinium Year of Issue: -‐90 Weight (g): 4.23 Diameter (mm): 20.0 Material: Silver Owner: Sunflower Foundation In 91 BC began a war in Italy between the upcoming city of Rome and her Italian allies. The most prominent group of the revolt were the Marsi, after whom the rebellion is called Marsic Confederation. The Confederates issued coins with deeply symbolic designs.

This piece – it is the imitation of a Roman denarii bearing the goddess Roma – depicts the head of Italia, the personification of Italy. This was to express the Confederates political and economical independence from Rome. On the reverse is a Marsic warrior trampling a Roman standard; next to him rests the Italic bull.

The Marsic Confederation posed a serious threat to Rome as the allies were trained in the Roman way to fight. In the end, the Romans achieved victory only by granting citizenship to the Confederates.


Kingdom of Pontus, Mithridates VI (120-‐63 BC), Stater (Imitation of the Stater of Lysimachus), 88-‐86 BC, Tomis

Denomination: Stater Mint Authority: King Mithridates VI of Pontus Mint: Tomis (Constanta) Year of Issue: -‐88 Weight (g): 8.3 Diameter (mm): 21.0 Material: Gold Owner: Sunflower Foundation King Mithridates VI of Pontos followed in the footsteps of Alexander the Great: his ambition was the unification of all Greek speaking peoples. This plan, however, brought him inevitably in conflict with the aspirations of the powerful Roman Republic. The result were the three Mithridatic Wars from 89 to 63 BC.

To fight Rome Mithridates had to recruit mercenaries, who wanted to be paid with money they could also spend at home, in other words: with an "international" currency. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean, this was the money of King Lysimachus during the last century BC. Mithridates thus started to issue such coins. They bore the image of Alexander the Great on the obverse and on the reverse the goddess Athena with a tiny winged Nike, the personification of victory.


Roman Republic, Imperatorial Issue, Octavian, Denarius, 42 BC

Denomination: Denarius Mint Authority: Imperator Octavian Mint: Undefined in Italy (Traveling Military Mint) Year of Issue: -‐42 Weight (g): 4.07 Diameter (mm): 19.0 Material: Silver Owner: Sunflower Foundation The last years of the Roman Republic were overshadowed by civil war. Two years after the assassination of Julius Caesar (44 BC), the three most powerful men in Rome – Octavian, Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus – formed a rule of three men, the Triumvirate.

This denarius was issued by Octavian, the later Emperor Augustus. It was struck in a military mint somewhere in Italy. The obverse depicts Octavian and calls him "triumvir for the reestablishing of the republic." With this Octavian propagated his fidelity to the Roman Republic. The reverse shows a Curule chair with a wreath and the legend CAESAR DIC PER, which alludes to the murdered Caesar, who had been the adoptive father of Octavian.


Israel, Jewish Coins of the Bar Kokhba War, Year 2 (133/134), Denar or Zuz

Denomination: Denarius or Zuz Mint Authority: Rebel Simon bar Kokhba Mint: Jerusalem Year of Issue: 133 Weight (g): 2.81 Diameter (mm): 18.0 Material: Silver Owner: Sunflower Foundation When the Jewish people rose against Roman rule under the leadership of Shimon Bar Kokhba in 132 AD, angry Jews overstruck the circulating Roman denarii with the motto "Freedom for Israel." This was an affront against Rome, not only because of the Zionistic slogan, but for the fact of minting coins itself: Whoever issued coins in the Roman Empire without permission of the emperor declared war on Rome. Of all the peoples living under Roman rule, the Jews were the only ones who ever dared to do this.


Abbasid Empire, al-‐Mamun (813-‐833 AD), Dirham, 196 AH (811 AD), Herat

Denomination: Dirham Mint Authority: Caliph al-‐Mamun Mint: Madinat Herat Year of Issue: 811 Weight (g): 3.06 Diameter (mm): 23.0 Material: Silver Owner: Sunflower Foundation Al-Mamun ascended to the Abbasid throne over the dead body of his brother al-Amin. Their father, Caliph Harun al-Rashid, had divided the empire among his three sons: al-Mamun, the eldest, son of an Iranian slave, had gotten the Iranian territories. Al-Amin, the second son whose mother was a freeborn Arab and the legitimate wife of the caliph, was bestowed with the Arab countries; besides, after the death of the caliph, he was to follow him on the throne. The third son, al-Mutasim, the child of a Turkish slave, was put in charge of the Byzantine border territories. Should al-Amin die before his brother al-Mamun, thus the bequest of the father, then the latter was to follow him on the throne; the third in the succession was to be al-Mutasim.

The intentions of Harun al-Rashid's legacy had been to prevent squabbles among the brothers; the opposite happened, however. When al-Amin took measures to change the succession to the throne in favor of his own son, war broke out among the brothers.

This coin was struck in the city of Herat in the region of Khorasan, the stronghold of al-Mamun. This territory, today spanning over the states of Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan, repeatedly played a decisive role in the history of the Islamic Caliphate. Here the movement against the Arab Umayyads had started in 747, which had brought the Abbasid dynasty to power. During the war between al-Amin and al-Mamun, the Khorasan army was crucial once again; thanks to its superior art of warfare it defeated al-Amin's Arabic and Syrian troops and conquered the whole of Iran. Then it laid siege on Baghdad, where the caliph sat. When the city was finally taken, al-Amin was imprisoned and executed. Al-Mamun ascended to the throne.


Netherlands, Leyden Besieged by the Spaniards, Guilder (= 28 Stuivers) 1574 (Emergency Issue)

Denomination: 20 Stuivers Mint Authority: City of Leyden Mint: Leyden Year of Issue: 1574 Weight (g): 1.73 Diameter (mm): 38.0 Material: Paper Owner: Sunflower Foundation Although the Dutch provinces had been under foreign rule since the 14th century, they had managed to remain largely autonomous. This changed in 1555, however, when Philip II ascended to the throne. The rigorously catholic king did not intend to govern over his subjects merely nominally, but was willing to oppress any political and particularly any religious independence. This harsh politic led to an upheaval in 1566, which escalated into a bloody war for freedom. The rebellious Dutch occupied the provinces of Holland and Zeeland, and in 1581 founded their own republic.

During this war, some unusual coins were issued in the besieged towns, as money was needed to pay the troops. In Leyden, after all the available metal had been used, the authorities used manuscript and cardboard covers of old church books to punch their coins. There were two denominations issued: quarter guilders (= 5 stuivers) and guilders (= 20 stuivers). These emergency issues were stamped with the symbols of the city – a standing lion wearing a liberty cap. Soon, however, counterfeits of these paper coins came into circulation. The city council of Leyden therefore decided to have all the authentic coins countermarked with a little lion punch – as can be seen on the upper left of the obverse of this coin.


Holy Roman Empire, City of Nuremberg, Kipper worth 15 Kreuzer 1622

Denomination: 15 Kipper Kreuzers Mint Authority: City of Nuremberg Mint: Nuremberg Year of Issue: 1622 Weight (g): 3.3 Diameter (mm): 27.0 Material: Silver Owner: Sunflower Foundation From 1618, Germany was the battleground of the Thirty Years' War between the basically Protestant north and the Catholic south. Soon after the outbreak of the war, money-changers moved through the lands, buying up high-quality coins and paying for them in poor-quality small coins. The good coins were later smelted down and reminted into less precious small coins, the so-called "kipper coins."

Kipper coins were thus coins whose intrinsic value lay far below their face value. To pay for the costs of warfare more or less all princes and even the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire himself participated in the practice of issuing debased money. But in 1622 and 1623, unrest arose among the suffering population: trade and industry had come to a halt because nobody wanted to exchange his goods against depreciated money. In the cities, people were starving. Most minting authorities returned to the issue of good money then.


Chinese Empire, Ming Dynasty, Rebels under General Wu Sangui, Candareen, c. 1678

Denomination: Candareen Mint Authority: General Wu Sangui Mint: Undefined Year of Issue: 1678 Weight (g): 10.7 Diameter (mm): 35.0 Material: Copper Owner: Sunflower Foundation In 1644 China was reigned by anarchy. In Manchuria the Manchu people had risen and conquered most of the province; other uprisings waged in the east and in the west of the empire, and when people were hit by severe famines after years of drought in the north of China, they started to rebel there, too. One of the leaders was Li Zicheng, who conquered Beijing in April 1644.

At that time Wu Sangui, the issuer of our coin, was the only remaining commander of the Ming. He moved against Li Zicheng, thereby allying with the Manchu, who were on their way to Beijing to conquer the capital on their part. The battle ended in favor of the Manchu, who established the new Qing dynasty in Beijing.

Over the next years, Wu Sangui fought against the remaining forces of the former Ming rulers, yet he soon became so powerful that he posed a threat to the Qing emperor Kangxi. In 1673, after Kangxi had ordered him to dissolve his troops, Wu Sangui turned against the emperor. In 1678 he adopted the title of emperor for himself and proclaimed a new dynasty, but died some months later. This coin was minted shortly before his death.


United States of America, 5 Dollars 1779

Denomination: 5 Dollars Mint Authority: United States of North America Mint: Philadelphia Year of Issue: 1779 Weight (g): Diameter (mm): 95.0 Material: Paper Owner: Sunflower Intl In 1775, a paper currency was created in Philadelphia, to finance the American War of Independence against Great Britain (1776-1783). The notes of this so-called Continental Currency were soon issued in such quantities, however, that they became worthless after a few years already. This was on the one hand the fault of the Americans themselves, because they printed too much money to cover the increasing costs of war. On the other hand the Continental Currency was extensively counterfeited, and that by the Brits, the enemies of the American freedom fighters thus.

The idea of the Brits was to bring the already desolate American economy to a total standstill. The British printing machines were on board of a boat anchored in the harbor of New York, which was at that time occupied by Great Britain. The forgeries were deceptive enough to induce the American government in 1779 to issue bicolor printed notes in red and black. By then the Continental Currency notes had become virtually worthless, whether they were genuine or counterfeit.


Kingdom of France, Assemblée Nationale and Louis XVI (1774-‐1792), Assignat of 500 Livres 1790

Denomination: Assignat de Cinq Cents Livres Mint Authority: Assemblée Nationale and King Louis XVI Mint: Paris Year of Issue: 1790 Weight (g): 0 Diameter (mm): 200.0 Material: Paper Owner: Sunflower Foundation Even a revolution costs money. To cover the expenses of the French Revolution, the French National Assembly decided in December 1789 to confiscate the properties of the church in support of the state, and to use the means to pay for the enormous debts burdening France. Since there was no hope to sell the seized possessions at a profitable prize in short time, the lenders were paid in assignats representing the value of these church properties.

The first assignats were issued in December 1789 as bonds initially bearing five percent interest. They could be exchanged for the available properties. Soon, however, the assignats came into circulation and were used as legal tender. As there was no control over the number of printed assignats, more and more of them came in circulation. Additionally there were many forgeries. This caused the nominal of the assignats value to drop. By February 1796, the assignats were only worth 0.5 percent of their face value and had to be demonetized.


City of Maastricht Besieged by the French, Siege Coin of 100 Stuivers 1794

Denomination: Siege Coin of 100 Stuivers Mint Authority: City of Maastricht Mint: Maastricht Year of Issue: 1794 Weight (g): 30.02 Diameter (mm): 41.0 Material: Silver Owner: Sunflower Foundation Maastricht is considered to be the oldest city in the Netherlands. Located in the southeastern part of the Netherlands between Belgium and Germany, the city's history was violent and often bloody.

The French showed interest in Maastricht again and again. In 1673, French troops under the personal guidance of the Sun King, Louis XIV, attacked the city. The French occupation lasted five years; then the French withdrew. During the War of Austrian Succession, however, they reappeared (1748), and towards the end of the 18th century, Maastricht became French once again: in 1794, the French revolutionary army besieged Maastricht and eventually occupied it. In that year, this siege coin was issued.


Chinese Empire, Qing Dynasty, Taiping Rebels, "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace," 1 Ch'ien (Cash)

Denomination: 1 Ch'ien Mint Authority: Taiping Rebels Mint: Undefined Year of Issue: 1851 Weight (g): 3 Diameter (mm): 21.0 Material: Copper Owner: Sunflower Foundation In 1850 China was shaken by the Taiping Rebellion. Its leader was Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ. Hong wanted to convert the Chinese to Christianity and at the same time liberate China from the rule of the Qing dynasty.

In 1851 Hong founded the "Taiping Tianguo," the "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace," in his hideaway in the mountains. He introduced a new calendar, starting in 1851 with the year 1 of the Taiping era. That year, the rebels began to conquer their "Heavenly Kingdom." In the year 3 of the Taiping era they captured the city of Nanjing, from where the "Heavenly Kingdom" was reigned over the next eleven years.

During that time, the Taiping also issued coins; the obverse of this piece has the characters for "tai ping," "peace," above and below the square hole, and the characters "tian guo," meaning "Heavenly Kingdom," to the right and left. The reverse has the characters "Sheng bao" for "holy coin" on the right and left.

Hong died in 1864, whereupon the "Heavenly Kingdom" disintegrated. However, it finally took more than half a decade to put down all remnants of the rebellion. Altogether between 20 and 50 million people paid for the "Heavenly Kingdom" with their lives.


Grand Duchy of Baden-‐Durlach, Frederick I (1856-‐1907), 1 Kreuzer 1871

Denomination: 1 Kreuzer Mint Authority: Grand Duke Frederick I of Baden Mint: Karlsruhe Year of Issue: 1871 Weight (g): 4.26 Diameter (mm): 22.0 Material: Copper Owner: Sunflower Foundation This kreuzer is a commemoration coin on the victory of Germany in the war of 1870-1871 against France. In this war stood France under its Emperor Napoleon III against the North German Confederation under the lead of Prussia. The war resulted in the foundation of the German and the fall of the French Empire.

Frederick, the Great Duke of Baden, allied with the Prussian king Wilhelm against France shortly before the outbreak of the war in July 1870. Then Baden within a short time mobilized 13,500 men, 1,800 horses and 53 ordnances, which were carried to the French border by rail. The deployment of German troops happened fast and met the French troops unprepared, even though France itself had declared war. Napoleon had to capitulate in September.


Russian Empire, Nicholas II (1894-‐1917), Ruble 1912, Commemoration of the Patriotic War, St Petersburg

Denomination: 1 Ruble Mint Authority: Tsar Nicholas II Mint: St Petersburg Year of Issue: 1912 Weight (g): 20 Diameter (mm): 34.0 Material: Silver Owner: Sunflower Foundation In 1912, five years before he was overthrown by an insurrection, Tsar Nicholas II still believed in the power of propaganda by coins. This special issue commemorates the Patriotic War, the invasion of Russia by Napoleon and his army, and the Russian victory over the French in 1812.

The obverse depicts the Russian double eagle with the shield of Saint George on its chest and a scepter and an orb in its claws. Around it are the arms of important parts of the Russian Empire: The Great Duchy of Finland, the Khanate of Kazan, Siberia, and the cities of Kiev, Novgorod, and Astrakhan. The inscription on the reverse reads in translation: 1812 – this glorious year went by, but the heroic deeds done then did not.


Swiss Confederation, Cashier's Bill worth 5 Francs 1914 (in Circulation 1914-‐1926)

Denomination: Cashier's Bill worth 5 Francs Mint Authority: Swiss Confederation Mint: London Year of Issue: 1914 Weight (g): Diameter (mm): Material: Paper Owner: Sunflower Foundation In the days before the First World War (which started on July 28, 1914), many people began to hoard cash and foodstuff also in Switzerland. When the war actually started it came to a panic: masses of depositors rushed to the financial institutions to withdraw their savings; then they exchange them for gold and silver coins at the National Bank. Banknotes were not yet regarded as "real" money then; the accumulation of metals seemed safer.

Hence, in the summer of 1914, Switzerland underwent a coin crisis. In the last days of July, the Federal Council lifted the obligation of the Swiss National Bank to exchange banknotes for coined money. The very next day, the National Bank started to issue prepared banknotes worth 20 francs, a denomination that had not existed before. Some time later bills of 5 francs followed, and in August additional notes of remittance with various denominations were circulated. This piece was one of them. Its obverse shows Libertas, the personification of freedom, and Arnold Winkelried, a legendary Swiss hero.


German Empire, William II (1888-‐1918), German East Africa, 15 Rupees 1916 (Emergency Issue), Tabora

Denomination: 15 Rupees Mint Authority: Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany Mint: Tabora Year of Issue: 1916 Weight (g): 7.15 Diameter (mm): 23.0 Material: Gold Owner: Sunflower Foundation Until the end of the 19th century, the German colony of East Africa – roughly the modern countries of Tanzania, Rwanda and Burundi – did not have a standardized currency. The key currency there was the Indian rupee. Only in 1890 did the German East African Company begin to issue silver rupees and copper pesas for its "German protectorate."

The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 led to war in East Africa too, and as a result, the circulating silver coins quickly disappeared under the mattresses of the population. Since East Africa had no silver deposits, the German East African Bank could not mint new coins. The consequence was a shortage of money, which soon brought the German administration to the brink of bankruptcy. This was absurd, for the colonial administration possessed loads of gold ingots, because, due to the war, they could not be transported to Germany. This gold was available for coinage, and in 1916 the German East African Company began thus to issue golden emergency coins. They had a value of 15 rupees, which equaled 20 German gold marks. The obverse showed a German double eagle and the inscription DEUTSCH-OSTAFRIKA 15 RUPIEN. The reverse depicted an elephant in front of Mount Kilimanjaro, the date and the letter T for "Tabora."


German Empire, Weimar Republic, Langenaltheim, Emergency Issue worth 1 Mark 1920, Augsburg

Denomination: Emergency Issue worth 1 Mark Mint Authority: City of Langenaltheim Mint: Augsburg Year of Issue: 1920 Weight (g): 0.92 Diameter (mm): 10.800000190734863 Material: Paper Owner: Sunflower Foundation Coins became scarce in Germany during World War I. The government had retracted gold coins within the first days of war; silver coins soon followed. And when copper and nickel became war-relevant metals in the course of combats, small coins were taken out of circulation as well. Moreover, increasing devaluation and the hoarding of coins by the people accelerated the disappearance of coins.

Despite extensive governmental emergency issues – coins from lead, aluminum and zinc were minted in great quantities – not enough coins could be provided. Therefore cities and communities started to give out emergency money. Although there was no legal basis for communal monies, the state tolerated them since it could not offer enough official currency itself.


Spain in Civil War, Nationalists under General Franco, 25 Centimos 1937, Vienna

Denomination: 25 Centimos Mint Authority: General Francisco Franco Mint: Vienna Year of Issue: 1937 Weight (g): 7 Diameter (mm): 25.0 Material: Nickel Alloy Owner: Sunflower Foundation In the last years of the 19th century, Span developed from an agrarian into an industrialized country. The economical changes precipitated millions of people into joblessness and poverty. Peasants abandoned their farms and moved into the industrial centers with their families, in the hope of work and an outcome. In those slums, an industrial proletariat built up, and the idea of anarchism emerged: the belief that political institutions are entirely unnecessary, and that society is based totally on the voluntary cooperation of its members. Over the following decades, social protest in Spain took on a more and more ominous character.

Social unrest did not stop after World War I – quite on the contrary: When the word economic crisis of the 1930s reached Spain, anarchistic ideas gained new influence. At the same time, fascist-nationalistic ideas became virulent. In June 1936, the army organized a coup d'état to reinstall law and order in the state. It was the beginning of the Spanish civil war (until 1939), and of the career of the Dictator Francisco Franco, who reigned Spain until 1975.

In the course of the civil war, both parties brought out their own money. The first coin of the nationalists under General Franco was a piece of 25 centimos. It bore the motto VNA GRANDE LIBRE (united, grand, free) together with IL AÑO TRIVNFAL (the year of thriumph).


German Third Reich, 5 Reichspfennig, Military Issue 1940, Hamburg

Denomination: 5 Reichspfennig Mint Authority: German Third Reich Mint: Hamburg Year of Issue: 1940 Weight (g): 2.5 Diameter (mm): 19.0 Material: Zinc Owner: Sunflower Foundation The German coins were demonetized shortly after the beginning of the Second World War (1939-1945). They were made from nickel or copper, two metals needed for the armament of the troops. As substitutes, surrogate coins from zinc were circulated.

Those surrogate coins had nothing to do with the old pfennig any more, even though the obverse bore the tiny letters "R" for "Reichs-" and "Pf" for "pfennig." Pfennig, from now on, was merely a name; it did not indicate a value any more. And because surrogate coins did not have any value, they were kept only exceptionally and accidentally. This piece is such a surrogate coin from 1940. As issuing office, the "Reichskreditkassen" (imperial credit office) is named.


France, Etat Français, Philippe Pétain (1940-‐1944), 2 Francs 1943

Denomination: 2 Francs Mint Authority: Etat Français Mint: Vichy Year of Issue: 1943 Weight (g): 2.18 Diameter (mm): 38.0 Material: Others Owner: Sunflower Foundation During the Second World War German tropps invaded France and conquered it within only a few weeks. For the next years, the land was divided: Paris and the north were under German occupation, while in the south around the city of Vichy, the so-called Etat Français under Marshall Pétain was established.

The obverse of this 2 francs-coin from the so-called Vichy Regime depicts the staff of Marshall Pétain in the form of a double axe – an ancient symbol of supremacy and power. The motto on the coin is the slogan TRAVAIL, FAMILLE, PATRIE – "Work, Family, Fatherland."

13(21) money in times of war

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