1492–1800 - cloud object storage | store & retrieve …€¦ · as the map at the right...

The Atlantic World,1492–1800

By the start of the 18th century, Spain ruled a vast empire in the

Americas. As the map at the right shows, Spanish territory

covered much of North and South America and was divided into

two large provinces called viceroyalties. Use the map to help you

answer the questions that follow.

1. What lands were included in the viceroyalty of New Spain in 1700?

2. What two major Native American empires did the Spanish conquer?

3. Why do you think Spain didn’t conquer all of North and South America?

Connect History and Geography

1492Columbus makesfirst voyage.

1521Cortés conquers Aztec Empire.

For more information aboutAmerican colonization . . .

CLASSZONE.COM

480

In 1533, the Spanish, led byFrancisco Pizarro, conqueredthe mighty Inca Empire inPeru. This illustration by aNative American, FelipeGuamán Poma de Ayala,depicts the Indians’ view ofthe conquering Spaniards.

The Italian sea captainChristopher Columbusreached the Americasin 1492.

1533Pizarro conquersInca Empire.

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http://www.classzone.com/books/wh_survey/page_build.cfm?id=research_link&ch=20

PACIFICOCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

Gulf ofMexico

Mexico City Santo Domingo

QuebecMontreal

Jamestown

Plymouth

Santa Fe

BuenosAires

Santiago

CuzcoLima

Cajamarca

S O U T HA M E R I C A

C E N T R A LA M E R I C A

W E S TI N D I E S

N O R T H A M E R I C A

0°0°

30°N

Tropic of Cancer

30°S30°S

30°N

120°W 90°W 60°W 30°W

30°W

Tropic of Capricorn

Equator

Aztecs

Incas

B R A Z I L

VICEROYALTY OFNEW SPAIN

VICEROYALTYOF PERU

N

0 1000 Miles500

0 1000 Kilometers500Robinson Projection

Viceroyalty of Peru

Viceroyalty of New Spain

1608Champlain claimsQuebec for France.

1754French and Indian War begins.

Spanish Claims in America, 1700

1607English foundJamestown.

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You know very littleabout the invadingSpanish and what they have in mind for you.

The Spaniards’advantages includesuperior weapons,armor, dogs, and horses.

Some of your friends,embittered by yearsof mistreatment bythe Aztecs, havechosen to fight onthe side of theSpanish.

The Aztecs are more familiarwith the land and can easilyoutmaneuver the Spaniards.

Interact with History

Which side wouldyou choose?

EXAMINING the ISSUES

• What risks are involved insupporting the invaders, whomyou know almost nothing about?

• Does the fact that the Aztecs sharea similar culture and heritage withyou make a difference in yourdecision?

• What are the advantages and dis-advantages of not fighting at all?

Discuss these questions with yourclassmates. In your discussion, examinewhether invading armies throughouthistory have made life better or worsefor people in the areas they conquer.

As you read about colonization in theAmericas, see what course many nativestook and learn the outcome of the battlebetween the Aztecs and Spanish.

482 Chapter 20

T he year is 1520. You are a Native Americanliving in central Mexico, and you are

suddenly faced with a decision that may changeyour life forever. A group of white invaders, knownas the Spanish, are engaged in fierce battle withthe nearby Aztecs. You and many others have longhated the powerful Aztecs, who rule the land with

a harsh and cruel hand. However, you are frightened of these newcomers who ride on large beasts and fire loud weapons.

Many of your friends are joining differentsides of the fight. You can choose not to fight atall. However, if you do decide to fight, you mustchoose a side.

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The Atlantic World 483

SETTING THE STAGE As you read in the previous chapter, competition for wealth inthe East among European nations was fierce. This competition prompted sea captainChristopher Columbus to make a daring voyage for Spain in 1492. Instead of sailingeast, Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic in search of an alternate trade route toAsia and its riches. Columbus never reached Asia. Instead he stepped onto an island inthe Caribbean. That event set in motion a process that would bring together the peoplesof Europe, Africa, and the Americas. And the world would change forever.

Columbus’s Voyage Paves the WayNo one paid much attention as the Niña, Pinta, and Santa María slid outof a Spanish port around dawn on August 3, 1492. In a matter ofmonths, however, Columbus’s fleet would make history. It would reachthe shores of what was to Europeans an astonishing new world.

First Encounters In the early hours of October 12, 1492, thelong-awaited cry came. A lookout aboard the Pinta caught sight ofa shoreline in the distance. “Tierra! Tierra!” he shouted. “Land!Land!” By dawn, Columbus and his crew were ashore. Thinking hehad successfully reached the East Indies, Columbus called the surprised inhabitants who greeted him, los indios. The term translated into “Indian,” a word mistakenly applied to all the nativepeoples of the Americas. In his memoirs, Columbus recounted his firstmeeting with the native peoples:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TI presented them with some red caps, and strings of glass beads to wear upon the neck,and many other trifles of small value, wherewith they were much delighted, andbecame wonderfully attached to us. Afterwards they came swimming to the boatswhere we were, bringing parrots, balls of cotton thread, javelins, and many other thingswhich they exchanged for the articles we gave them . . . in fact they accepted anythingand gave what they had with the utmost good will. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, Journal of Columbus

Columbus, however, had miscalculated where he was. He had not reached the EastIndies. Scholars believe he landed instead on an island in the Bahamas in theCaribbean Sea. The natives there were not Indians, but a group who called them-selves the Taino. Nonetheless, Columbus claimed the island for Spain. He named itSan Salvador, or “Holy Savior.”

Columbus, like other explorers, was interested in gold. Finding none on SanSalvador, he explored other islands throughout the Caribbean, staking his claim toeach one. “It was my wish to bypass no island without taking possession,” he wrote.

In early 1493, Columbus returned to Spain. The reports he relayed about his journeydelighted the Spanish monarchs. Spain’s rulers, who had funded his first voyage, agreed

This portrait of ChristopherColumbus waspainted by theSpanish artistPedro Berruguete,who lived at thesame time. It isbelieved to be themost accuratedepiction of theItalian sea captain.

Spanish Conquestsin the Americas

1TERMS & NAMES

• ChristopherColumbus

• colony• Hernando Cortés• conquistadors• Montezuma II• Francisco

Pizarro• mestizo• encomienda

MAIN IDEA

The voyages of Columbus prompted theSpanish to carve out the first Europeancolonies in the Americas.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Throughout the Americas, Spanishculture, language, and descendants are the legacy of this period.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. ClarifyingWhy did Columbusrefer to NativeAmericans as Indians?A. Possible AnswerBecause he thoughthe had reached theEast Indies.

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A T L A N T I CO C E A NP A C I F I C

O C E A N

ENGLAND

SPAIN

PORTUGAL

FRANCE

G u l fo f M e x i c o

HudsonBay

C a r i b b e a n S e a

CUBA

HISPANIOLA

CANARY

ISLANDSMADEIRA

AZORES

ICELAND

GREENLAND

Tenochtitlan(Mexico City)

St. Augustine

Jamestown

Plymouth

Santa Fe

Santo DomingoVeracruz

Columbus 1492

Verrazzano 1524

Cartier 1534-35

Cabot 1497

Hudson 1609Hudson 1610

Balboa1510-13

Pizarro1530-33

Ponce de León1512-13

Cortés 1519

Vespucci 1499

Columbus 1502-03Columbus 1493-95

Mag

ella

n15

19

Cabr

al15

00

Cabrillo1542-43

Coronado 1540-42

Cabeza de Vaca 1528-36

Spanish

Explorers’ Routes

French

English

Portuguese

Dutch

LaSalle 1682Mar

qu

ette1673

De Soto1539-42

N O R T H

A M E R I C A

S O U T H

A M E R I C A

A F R I C A

E U R O P E

Smith 1606-07, Mayflower 1620

Columbus 1498

Magellan's Crew

1522

120˚

W

0˚

40˚W

80˚W

40˚ N

Tropic of Cancer

0˚ Equator

0

0

1,000 Miles

2,000 Kilometers

European Explorationof the Americas, 1492–1682

to finance three more trips. Columbus embarked on his second voyage to theAmericas in September of 1493. He journeyed no longer as an explorer, but as anempire builder. He commanded a fleet of some 17 ships and several hundred armedsoldiers. He also brought 1,000 settlers. The Spanish intended to transform theislands of the Caribbean into colonies, or lands that are controlled by another nation.

Columbus and his followers began a process of colonization that would reach near-ly every corner of the Americas. Over the next two centuries, other European explor-ers began sailing across the Atlantic in search of unclaimed lands.

Other Explorers Take to the Seas In 1500, Portuguese explorer Pedro ÁlvaresCabral reached the shores of modern-day Brazil and claimed the land for his country. A year later, Amerigo Vespucci (vehs•POO•chee), an Italian in the service of Portugal,also traveled along the eastern coast of South America. Upon his return to Europe, heclaimed that the newly discovered land was not part of Asia, but a “new” world. In 1507,a German mapmaker named the new continent America in honor of Vespucci.Eventually, America become the name for both continents in the Western Hemisphere.

In 1519, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan led the boldest exploration yet.Several years earlier, Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa had marched throughmodern-day Panama and had become the first European to gaze upon the PacificOcean. Soon after, Magellan convinced the king of Spain to fund his voyage into thenewly discovered ocean.

With about 230 men and five ships, Magellan sailed around the southern end ofSouth America and into the mysterious waters of the Pacific. The fleet sailed formonths without seeing land. Food supplies soon ran out. “We were eating biscuits

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G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps 1. Movement How many different voyages did Columbus make to the

Americas?2. Region Which general region did the Spanish and Portuguese explore?

Where did the English, Dutch, and French explore?

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that were no longer biscuits but crumbs full of weevils [beetles],” one crew memberwrote. “We also often ate sawdust.”

After exploring the island of Guam, Magellan and his crew eventually reached thePhilippines. Unfortunately, Magellan became involved in a local war there and waskilled. His crew, greatly reduced by disease and starvation, continued sailing westtoward home. Out of Magellan’s original crew, only 18 men and one ship arrived backin Spain in 1522—nearly three years after they had left. They were the first persons to circumnavigate, or sail around, the world.

Spain Builds an American EmpireIn 1519, as Magellan embarked on his historic voyage, a Spaniard named HernandoCortés landed on the shores of Mexico. After colonizing several Caribbean islands, theSpanish had turned their attentionto the American mainland. Cortésmarched inward, looking to claimnew lands for Spain. Cortés and themany other Spanish explorers whofollowed him were known as conquistadors (conquerors). Luredby rumors of vast lands filled withgold and silver, conquistadors carvedout colonies in regions that wouldbecome Mexico, South America,and the United States. The Spanishwere the first European settlers inthe Americas. As a result of theircolonization, the Spanish greatlyenriched their empire and left amark on the cultures of North andSouth America that exists today.

Cortés Conquers the AztecsSoon after landing in Mexico,Cortés learned of the vast andwealthy Aztec Empire in theregion’s interior. (See Chapter 16.)After marching for weeks throughdifficult mountain passes, Cortésand his force of roughly 600 menfinally reached the magnificentAztec capital of Tenochtitlan(teh•nawch•tee•TLAHN). TheAztec emperor, Montezuma II,was convinced at first that Cortéswas an armor-clad god. He agreedto give the Spanish explorer ashare of the empire’s existing goldsupply. The conquistador was notsatisfied. Cortés, who admitted that he and his comrades had a “disease of the heart that only gold can cure,” forced the Aztecs to mine more gold and silver. In the spring of 1520, the Aztecs rebelled against the Spanish intruders and drove out Cortés’s forces.

The Spaniards, however, struck back. Despite being greatly outnumbered, Cortésand his men conquered the Aztecs in 1521. Several factors played a key role in the

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. MakingInferences Whatwas the significanceof Magellan’s voyage?B. Possible AnswerIt proved once and for all that the worldwas round.

Hernando Cortés1485–1547

To look at Hernando Cortés, it mayhave been difficult to guess he wasa daring conquistador. According toone description, Cortés stood onlyabout five feet, four inches tall andhad a “deep chest, no belly tospeak of, and was bow-legged. Hewas fairly thin.”

But what Spain’s firstconquistador may have lacked inphysical strength, he more thanmade up for in determination,courage, and ruthlessness. Uponarriving in Mexico, for example,Cortés reportedly burned his shipsto keep his men from turning back.The Aztecs also experiencedCortés’s toughness when theyrefused to surrender after monthsof fierce fighting. In response,Cortés ordered that the Azteccapital, Tenochtitlan, be destroyed.

Montezuma II1480?–1520

While Cortés was a feared leader,Montezuma was a much belovedruler who showed particular talentas an orator. “When he spoke,”commented one historian, “he drewthe sympathy of others by his subtlephrases and seduced them by hisprofound reasoning.”

His words, however, wouldultimately fail him. During a speech in which he tried toconvince his subjects to makepeace with the Spanish, the crowddenounced him as a traitor. “Whatis that which is being said by thatscoundrel of a Montezuma . . .”shouted Montezuma’s own cousin,Cuauhtémoc. “. . . We must give him the punishment which we giveto a wicked man.”And with that, the crowd stoned to death theAztec ruler.

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■HISTORY MAKERS

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486 Chapter 20

stunning victory. First, the Spanish had the advantage of supe-rior weaponry. Aztec arrows were no match for the Spaniards’muskets and cannons.

Second, Cortés was able to enlist the help of various nativegroups. With the aid of a native woman translator namedMalinche, Cortés learned that some natives resented the Aztecs.They hated their harsh practices, including human sacrifice.Through Malinche, Cortés convinced these natives to fight onhis side.

Finally, and most important, the natives could do little to stopthe invisible warrior that marched alongside the Spaniards—disease. Measles, mumps, smallpox, and typhus were just some ofthe diseases Europeans had brought with them to the Americas.Native Americans had never been exposed to these diseases.Thus, they had developed no natural immunity to them. As aresult, they died by the hundreds of thousands. By the timeCortés launched his counterattack, the Aztec population had been greatly reduced by smallpox and measles. In time, Europeandisease would truly devastate the natives of central Mexico.

Pizarro Subdues the Inca In 1532, another conquistador,Francisco Pizarro, marched an even smaller force into SouthAmerica. He conquered the mighty Inca Empire. (See Chapter16.) Pizarro and his army of about 200 met the Inca ruler,Atahualpa (Ah•tuh•WAHL•puh), near the city of Cajamarca.Atahualpa, who commanded a force of about 30,000, broughtseveral thousand mostly unarmed men for the meeting. TheSpaniards crushed the Inca force and kidnapped Atahualpa.

Atahualpa offered to fill a room once with gold and twicewith silver in exchange for his release. However, after receivingthe ransom, the Spanish strangled the Inca king. Demoralized

by their leader’s death, the remaining Inca force retreated from Cajamarca. Pizarrothen marched on the Inca capital, Cuzco. He captured it without a struggle.

As Cortés and Pizarro conquered the once mighty civilizations of the Americas, fellowconquistadors defeated other native peoples. Spanish explorers also conquered the Mayain Yucatan and Guatemala. By the middle of the 16th century, Spain had created a wide-reaching American empire. It included New Spain (Mexico and parts of Guatemala), aswell as other lands in Central and South America and the Caribbean.

Spain’s Pattern of Conquest In building their new American empire, the Spaniardsdrew from techniques used during the reconquista of Spain. When conquering theMuslims, the Spanish lived among them and imposed upon them their Spanish culture.The Spanish settlers to the Americas, known as peninsulares, were mostly men. As a result,marriage between Spanish settlers and native women was common. These marriages cre-ated a large mestizo—or mixed Spanish and Native American—population. Their descen-dants live today in Mexico, other Latin American countries, and the United States.

Although the Spanish conquerors lived among and intermarried with the native people, they also oppressed them. In their effort to exploit the land for its preciousresources, the Spanish forced Native Americans to labor within a system known asencomienda. Under this system, natives farmed, ranched, or mined for Spanish landlords.These landlords had received the rights to the natives’ labor from Spanish authorities. Theholders of encomiendas promised the Spanish rulers that they would act fairly and respectthe workers. However, many abused the natives and worked many laborers to death, espe-cially inside dangerous mines. The Spanish employed the same system in the Caribbean.

BackgroundThe Aztecs practice ofhuman sacrifice wasbased on the beliefthat if they did notfeed human blood tothe sun, it would failto rise.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. Analyzing IssuesWhat factors enabledthe Spanish to defeatthe Aztecs?C. Possible AnswerSuperior weaponry,help from othernatives, and thespread of Europeandiseases.

BackgroundBeginning around1100, the reconquistawas a centuries-longeffort to drive theMuslims out of Spain.

486 Chapter 20

Native Population of Central Mexico

Source: The Population of Latin America

S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Graphs1. By what percentage did the native

population decrease between 1519and 1605?

2. How did the sharp decline in thenative population—due greatly todisease—affect the Spaniards’attempts to conquer the region?

Popu

latio

n (in

mill

ions

)

0

5

10

15

20

25

1620160015801560154015201500

1519: 25.3 million

1523: 16.8 million

1605: 1.0 million

1548: 6.3 million

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The Portuguese in Brazil One area of South America that remained outside ofSpanish control was Brazil. In 1500, Cabral claimed the land for Portugal. During the1530s, colonists began settling Brazil’s coastal region. Finding little gold or silver, thesettlers began growing sugar. Clearing out huge swaths of forest land, the Portuguesebuilt giant sugar plantations. The demand for sugar in Europe was great, and thecolony soon enriched Portugal. In time, the colonists pushed further west into Brazil.They settled even more land for the production of sugar.

Along the way, the Portuguese—like the Spanish—conquered Native Americansand inflicted thousands of them with disease. Also like the Spanish, the Portugueseenslaved a great number of the land’s original inhabitants.

Spain Expands Its InfluenceSpain’s American colonies helped make it the richest, most powerful nation in theworld during much of the 16th century. Ships filled with treasures from the Americascontinually sailed into Spanish harbors. This newfound wealth helped usher in a gold-en age of art and culture in Spain. (See Chapter 21.)

Throughout the 16th century, Spain also increased its military might. To protect itstreasure-filled ships, Spain built a powerful navy. The Spanish also strengthened theirother military forces, creating a skillful anddetermined army. For a century and a half,Spain’s army never lost a battle. Meanwhile,Spain enlarged its American empire by settlingin parts of what is now the United States.

Conquistadors Push North Dreams of new conquests prompted Spain to back a series of expeditions into the southwestern UnitedStates. The Spanish actually had settled in partsof the United States before they even dreamedof building an empire on the American main-land. In 1513, Spanish explorer Juan Ponce deLeón wandered through modern-day Floridaand claimed it for Spain.

By 1540, after building an empire thatstretched from Mexico to Peru, the Spanishonce again looked to the land that is now the United States. That year, FranciscoVásquez de Coronado led an expedition throughout much of present-day Arizona,New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. He was searching for another wealthyempire to conquer. Coronado found little gold amidst the dry deserts of theSouthwest. As a result, the Spanish monarchy assigned mostly priests to explore andcolonize the future United States.

Catholic priests had accompanied conquistadors from the very beginning ofAmerican colonization. The conquistadors had come in search of wealth. The priestswho accompanied them had come in search of converts. In the winter of 1609–1610,Pedro de Peralta, governor of Spain’s northern holdings—called New Mexico—ledsettlers to a tributary on the upper Rio Grande. Together they built a capital calledSanta Fe, or “Holy Faith.” In the next two decades, a string of Christian missionsarose among the Pueblo, the native inhabitants of the region. Scattered missions,forts, and small ranches dotted the lands of New Mexico. These became the head-quarters for advancing the Catholic religion.

Opposition to Spanish Rule Spanish priests worked to spread Christianity in theAmericas. They also pushed for better treatment of Native Americans. Priests spokeout against the cruel treatment of natives. In particular, they criticized the harsh

D. Possible AnswerNew Mexico offeredlittle in the way ofwealth, so theSpanish were moreconcerned there withspreading the Catholicreligion.THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. Contrasting Howdid Spain’s colony inNew Mexico differfrom its colonies inNew Spain?

BackgroundIn 1494, the Treaty ofTordesillas betweenSpain and Portugalgave the Portuguesethe rights to Brazil.


In this 19th-centuryillustration,Coronado leads hisarmy back toMexico after failingto find wealth in thesouthwest UnitedStates. During hisreturn, Coronadofell from his horseand had to travelpart of the way on a stretcher.

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pattern of labor that emerged under the encomienda system. “There is nothing moredetestable or cruel,” Dominican monk Bartolomé de Las Casas wrote, “than thetyranny which the Spaniards use toward the Indians for the getting of pearl [riches].”

Largely in response to the writings of Las Casas and others, the Spanish govern-ment abolished the encomienda system in 1542. To meet the colonies’ desperate needfor labor, Las Casas suggested the use of Africans. “The labor of one . . . [African] . . .[is] more valuable than that of four Indians,” Las Casas declared. The priest laterchanged his view and denounced African slavery. However, many others promoted it.The Spanish, as well as the other nations that colonized the Americas, would soonenslave Africans to meet their growing labor needs.

Native Resistance Opposition to the Spanish method of colonization came not onlyfrom Spanish priests, but from the natives themselves. Resistance to Spain’s attemptat domination began shortly after the Spanish arrived in the Caribbean. In Novemberof 1493, Columbus encountered resistance in his attempt to conquer the present-dayisland of St. Croix. Before finally surrendering, the inhabitants defended themselvesby firing poison arrows. Efforts to control the Taino on Hispaniola were even more difficult. After several rebellions, the Taino submitted to Columbus for several years.They revolted yet again in 1495.

As late as the end of the 17th century, natives in New Mexico fought againstSpanish rule. While there were no silver mines to work in the region, the nativesthere still felt the weight of Spanish force. In converting the natives to Christianity,Spanish priests and soldiers often burned their sacred objects and prohibited many

native rituals. The Spanish also forced natives to work for them and some-times abused them physically. Native Americans who practiced their

own religion were beaten.In 1680, Popé, a Pueblo ruler, led a well-organized uprisingagainst the Spanish. The rebellion involved some 17,000 warriors from villages all over New Mexico. The native fight-

ers drove the Spanish back into New Spain. For the next 12years—until the Spanish regained control of the area—

the southwest region of the future United Statesonce again belonged to its original inhabitants.

By this time, however, the rulers of Spainhad far greater concerns. Nearly 80 yearsbefore Popé ran the Spanish out of NewMexico, the other nations of Europe hadbegun to establish their own colonies in

the Americas.

This Europeandrawing of the1600s depictsIndians takingrevenge on aSpanish colonist—by pouring golddown his throat.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYE. Analyzing CausesWhy did the nativesof New Mexico revolt against Spanishsettlers?E. Possible AnswerSpanish attempts todestroy their cultureand repressive measures, includingbeatings.

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2. TAKING NOTES

Using a diagram like the onebelow, trace the major events inthe establishment of Spain’sempire in the Americas beginningwith Columbus’s arrival.

3. RECOGNIZING BIAS

Reread “A Voice from the Past“onpage 483. How might Columbus’sview of the Taino Indians have ledthe Spanish to think they couldtake advantage of and imposetheir will on the natives?

THINK ABOUT• the Taino’s desire for Spanish

items even of “small value”• the Taino’s willingness to give

whatever they had to the Spanish• the Taino’s appearance as a

peaceful people

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Empire Building Working in small groups, debate the meritsof Spain’s colonization of theAmericas. Have one half of thegroup take the position ofconquistadors, and the other takethe position of Native Americans.

THINK ABOUT• how colonization of the

Americas affected Spain• what effect colonization had

on the Native Americans

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Christopher Columbus• colony• Hernando Cortés• conquistadors• Montezuma II• Francisco Pizarro• mestizo• encomienda

Section Assessment1

Columbus arrives in Americas

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CD-ROM

differentPERSPECTIVESdifferentPERSPECTIVES

The Legacy of ColumbusIn the years and centuries since his historic journeys, people still debate the legacy ofChristopher Columbus’s voyages. Some argue they were the heroic first steps in thecreation of great and democratic societies. Others claim they were the beginnings of anera of widespread cruelty and bloodshed.

H I S T O R I A N ’ S C O M M E N T A R Y

Samuel Eliot MorisonMorison, a strong supporter of

Columbus, laments that the sea captain died withoutrealizing the true greatness of his deeds.

One only wishes thatthe Admiral might

have been afforded thesense of fulfillment that

would have come from foreseeing allthat flowed from his discoveries; thatwould have turned all the sorrows ofhis last years to joy. The whole historyof the Americas stems from the FourVoyages of Columbus; and as theGreek city-states looked back to thedeathless gods as their founders, sotoday a score of independent nationsand dominions unite in homage toChristopher, the stout-hearted son ofGenoa, who carried Christiancivilization across the Ocean Sea.

E S S A Y

E Y E W I T N E S S A C C O U N T

Bartolomé de Las CasasLas Casas was an early Spanish

missionary who watched fellowSpaniards unleash attack dogson Native Americans. Hepredicted that Columbus’slegacy would be one of disaster

for America’s originalinhabitants.

. . . Their otherfrightening weapon after the horses:twenty hunting greyhounds. Theywere unleashed and fell on theIndians at the cry of Tómalo! [“Getthem!”] Within an hour they hadpreyed on one hundred of them. Asthe Indians were used to goingcompletely naked, it is easy toimagine what the fierce greyhoundsdid, urged to bite naked bodies andskin much more delicate than that ofthe wild boars they were used to. . . .This tactic, begun here and invented

by the devil, spread throughoutthese Indies and will end when

there is no more land norpeople to subjugate and destroyin this part of the world.

E S S A Y

Suzan Shown HarjoHarjo, a Native American,

disputes the so-called benefitsthat resulted from Columbus’svoyages and the Europeancolonization of the Americasthat followed.

Alphonse Lamartine

Lamartine, a French writer and politician, praises Columbus

for bringing the virtues of civil society to the Americas.

All of the characteristics of a truly great

man are united in Columbus. Genius,

labor, patience, obscurity of origin,

overcome by energy of will; mild but

persisting firmness . . . fearlessness of

death in civil strife; confidence in the

destiny—not of an individual but of the

human race. . . . He was worthy to

represent the ancient world before that

unknown continent on which he was the

first to set foot, and carry to these men of

a new race all the virtues, without any of

the vices, of the elder hemisphere. So

great was his influence on the destiny of

the earth, that none more than he ever

deserved the name of Civilizer.

“We will be asked to buy into thethinking that . . .genocide and ecocideare offset by thebenefits of horses,cut-glass beads,pickup trucks, andmicrowave ovens.”

Contrasting What opposingideas are presented on this page?

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R7

Supporting an OpinionFind several opinions aboutColumbus in 1992—the 500thanniversary of his discovery ofAmerica. Choose the opinion youagree with most and write a briefpaper explaining why.

For another perspectiveon the legacy of

Columbus, see World History: ElectronicLibrary of Primary Sources.

Connect to Today

Connect to History

CD-ROM


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490 Chapter 20

SETTING THE STAGE Spain’s successful colonization efforts in the Americas did notgo unnoticed. Other European nations soon became interested in obtaining their ownvaluable colonies across the Atlantic. The Treaty of Tordesillas had divided the newlydiscovered lands between Spain and Portugal. However, other European countriesignored the treaty. They set out to build their own empires in the Americas.

European Nations Settle North AmericaMagellan’s voyage showed that ships could reach Asia by way of the Pacific Ocean.Spain claimed the route around the southern tip of South America. Other Europeancountries hoped to find an easier and more direct route to the Pacific. If it existed, anorthwest route through North America to Asia would become a highly profitabletrade route. Not finding the route, the French, English, and Dutch instead estab-lished colonies in North America.

Explorers Establish New France Just as Columbus had beforethem, the early French explorers sailed west with dreams of reachingthe East Indies. One such explorer was Giovanni da Verrazzano(vehr•uh•ZAHN•noh), an Italian in the service of France. In 1524, hesailed to North America in search of a possible sea route to the Pacific.While he did not find the route, Verrazzano did discover what is todayNew York Harbor. Ten years later, the Frenchman Jacques Cartier(kahr•TYAY) reached a gulf off the eastern coast of Canada that led toa broad river. Cartier named the river the St. Lawrence. He followed itinward until he reached a large island dominated by a hill. He namedthe island Mont Royal, which later became known as Montreal. In1608, another French explorer, Samuel de Champlain, sailed up the St. Lawrence. He laid claim to a region he called Quebec. The settlement grew. It eventually became the base of France’s colonialempire in North America, known as New France.

After establishing Quebec, the French penetrated the heart of theNorth American continent. In 1673, French priest JacquesMarquette and trader Louis Joliet explored the Great Lakes and theupper Mississippi River. Nearly 10 years later, Sieur de La Salleexplored the lower Mississippi. He claimed the entire river valley for

France. He named it Louisiana in honor of the French king, Louis XIV. By the early1700s, New France covered much of what is now the midwest United States and eastern Canada. (See the map on page 493.)

A Trading Empire France’s North American empire was immense. But it wassparsely populated. By 1760, the European population of New France had grown toonly about 65,000. A large number of French colonists had no desire to build townsor raise families. These settlers included Catholic priests who sought to convert

# Competing Claimsin North America

2TERMS & NAMES

• New France• Jamestown• Pilgrims• Puritans• New Netherland• French and

Indian War• MetacomMAIN IDEA

Several European nations fought forcontrol of North America, and Englandeventually emerged victorious.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

The English settlers in North Americaleft a legacy of law and governmentthat guides the United States today.

Cajun Culture

French culture still thrives inLouisiana due in large part to theinfluence of people known as Cajuns.Cajuns are the descendants of Frenchcolonists who in 1604 settled theregion known as Acadia in easternCanada. Battles with the British ledthousands of Acadians to move toFrench settlements in Louisiana,where their legacy lives on.

Today, more than 1 millionLouisianans speak French. Inaddition, Cajun food, such as aspicy, thick soup called gumbo, ispopular not only in the Bayou regionbut also throughout the UnitedStates. Also popular around thenation are the fast-paced sounds ofCajun zydeco music.

CONNECT to TODAY

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The first Englishcolonists arrive atJamestown in 1607,as depicted in this19th-centuryengraving.

BackgroundPuritans took theirname from theirdesire to “purify” theEnglish church.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. ContrastingIn what ways did the colonies atJamestown andMassachusetts Bay differ?B. Possible AnswerJamestown: economicmotivation; early suf-fering; mostly male.Massachusetts Bay:religious motivation;stable; numerous families

Native Americans. They also included young, single men engaged in what hadbecome New France’s main economic activity: fur trade.

By the late 1500s, one of the hottest fashion trends in Europe was hats made ofbeaver skin. Beavers were almost extinct in Europe but plentiful in North America.This led to a thriving trade in furs. Unlike the English, the French were less interested in occupying territories than they were in making money off the land.

The English Settle at Jamestown The explorations of the Spanish andFrench fired the imagination of the English. In 1606, a company ofLondon investors obtained from King James a charter to found acolony in North America. In 1607, the company’s three ships—andmore than 100 settlers—pushed out of an English harbor. Fourmonths later, the North American shore rose along the horizon.After reaching the coast of Virginia, the vessels slipped into abroad coastal river. They sailed inland until they reached a smallpeninsula. There, the colonists climbed off their ships andclaimed the land as theirs. They named the settlementJamestown in honor of their king.

The colony’s start was disastrous. The settlers were more inter-ested in finding gold than planting crops. They soon fell victim totheir harsh surroundings. During the first few years, seven out ofevery ten people died of hunger, disease, or fighting with the NativeAmericans. After several months in this hostile environment, one settlerdescribed the terrible situation:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TThus we lived for the space of five months in this miserable distress . . . our men nightand day groaning in every corner of the fort, most pitiful to hear. If there were any con-science in men, it would make their hearts to bleed to hear the pitiful murmuring andoutcries of our sick men for relief, every night and day for the space of six weeks: somedeparting out of the World, many times three or four in a night; in the morning theirbodies trailed out of their cabins like dogs, to be buried.A JAMESTOWN COLONIST, quoted in A New World

Despite their nightmarish start, the colonists eventually gained a foothold in theirnew land. Jamestown became England’s first permanent settlement in North America.The colony’s outlook improved greatly after farmers there discovered tobacco. Highdemand in England for tobacco turned it into a profitable cash crop, or a crop grownprimarily for sale. The colony, however, continued to struggle financially. Jamestown’sinvestors finally let King James take over the colony. As a royal colony, Jamestownslowly grew and prospered.

Puritans Create a “New England” In 1620, as the colonists at Jamestown werestruggling to survive, a group known as Pilgrims founded a second English colony,Plymouth, in Massachusetts. Persecuted for their religious beliefs in England, thesecolonists sought religious freedom. Eight years later, a group known as Puritans alsosought religious freedom from England’s Anglican Church. They established a largercolony at nearby Massachusetts Bay.

The Puritans wanted to build a model community that would set an example forother Christians to follow. Although the colony experienced early difficulties, it gradu-ally took hold. This was due in large part to the numerous families in the colony,unlike the mostly single, male population in Jamestown. Family life created a sense oforder among the settlers. It also ensured that the population would reproduce itself.

The Dutch Found New Netherland Following the English and French into NorthAmerica were the Dutch. The Dutch had established the Dutch East India Companyin 1602 to compete for trade in the Indian Ocean. Several years later, they turned

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. SummarizingWhy were France’sNorth American holdings so sparselypopulated?A. Possible AnswerBecause most of thesettlers were priests orfur trappers who hadno desire to buildtowns or start families.

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their attention to the Americas. In 1609, Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the serviceof the Netherlands, sailed west. He was searching for a northwest sea route to Asia.Hudson did not find a route. He did, however, explore three waterways near present-day New York that were later named for him—the Hudson River, Hudson Bay, andHudson Strait.

The Dutch claimed the region along these waterways. They established a fur tradewith the Iroquois Indians. They also built trading posts along the Hudson River at FortOrange (now Albany) and on Manhattan Island, at the mouth of the river. Dutch merchants quickly formed the Dutch West India Company. In 1621, the Dutch govern-ment granted the company permission to colonize the region and expand the thrivingfur trade. The Dutch holdings in North America became known as New Netherland.

Although the Dutch company profited from its fur trade, it was slow to attractDutch colonists. To encourage settlers to come and stay, the colony opened its doorsto a variety of peoples. Gradually, more Dutch, as well as Germans, French,Scandinavians, and other Europeans settled the area. The colony’s population was soethnically diverse that one visitor called it a great “confusion of tongues.” The Dutchreputation for religious tolerance also drew people of many faiths, including Protestants,

Catholics, Muslims, and Jews.

Colonizing the Caribbean During the 1600s, the nations of Europe alsocolonized the Caribbean. The French seized control of several Caribbean

islands, including present-day Haiti, Guadeloupe, and Martinique. The Englishsettled Barbados and Jamaica. In 1634, the Dutch captured what are now the

Netherlands Antilles and Aruba from Spain.On these islands, the Europeans built huge tobacco and sugar plantations. These

products, although profitable, demanded a large and steady supply of free labor.Enslaved Africans eventually would supply this labor.

The Fight for North AmericaAs they expanded their settlements in North America, the nations of France, England, and the Netherlands battled each other for colonial supremacy. After years of skirmishes and war, the Englishgained control of much of the continent.

The English Oust the Dutch To the English, New Netherland hadbecome a “Dutch wedge” separating its northern and southerncolonies. In 1664, the English king, Charles II, granted his brother,the Duke of York, permission to drive out the Dutch. When theduke’s fleet arrived at New Netherland, the Dutch surrendered without firing a shot. The Duke of York claimed the colony forEngland and renamed it New York.

With the Dutch gone, the English continued to colonize the Atlanticcoast of North America. By 1750, about 1.3 million English settlerslived in 13 colonies stretching from New Hampshire to Georgia.

England Battles France The English soon became hungry formore land to suit their growing colonial population. So they pushedfurther west into the continent. By doing so, however, they collidedwith France’s North American holdings. France and England, long-time enemies, had brought their dislike for one another with them toNorth America. As their colonies expanded, they began to interferewith each other. It seemed that a major conflict was on the horizon.

That conflict began in 1754. That year a dispute over land claimsin the Ohio Valley led to a war between the British and French onthe North American continent. The conflict became known as

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. ContrastingHow were the Dutchand French coloniesdifferent from theEnglish colonies inNorth America?C. Possible AnswerThe English colonieswere more populated;while the Dutch andFrench colonies wereestablished mainly forcommercial reasons,New England wasbegun for religiousreasons.

BackgroundIn 1707, Englandunited with Scotlandto become the UnitedKingdom of GreatBritain.

Pirates

The battle for colonial supremacyoccurred not only on land, but alsoon the sea. Acting on behalf of theirgovernment, privately owned armedships, known as privateers,attacked merchant ships of enemynations and sank or robbed them.

Also patrolling the high seaswere pirates. Unlike privateers,pirates were not licensed by anycountry. They attacked ships for theirgold and did not care what nationthe vessels represented. Pirateswere ruthless men who did nothesitate to kill for treasure.

One of the most well-knownpirates was Edward B. Teach, whoseprominent beard earned him thenickname Blackbeard (above).According to one account,Blackbeard attempted to frighten hisvictims by sticking “lighted matchesunder his hat, which appeared onboth sides of his face and eyes,naturally fierce and wild. . . .”

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the French and Indian War. The war became part of a larger conflict known as theSeven Years’ War. Britain and France––along with their European allies––also battledfor territorial and colonial supremacy in Europe and the West Indies.

In North America, the British colonists, with the help of the British Army, defeatedthe French in 1763. The French surrendered most of their colonial holdings on thecontinent. As a result of the French and Indian War, the British seized control ofnearly the entire eastern half of North America.

Native American ReactionAs in Mexico and South America, the arrival of Europeans in the present-day UnitedStates had a great impact on Native Americans. European colonization broughtmostly disaster for the lands’ original inhabitants, as many fell to disease and warfare.

A Strained Relationship French and Dutch settlers developed a mostly cooperativerelationship with the Native Americans. This was due mainly to the mutual benefits ofthe fur trade. Native Americans did most of the trapping and then traded the furs to theFrench for such items as guns, hatchets, mirrors, and beads. The Dutch also cooperatedwith Native Americans in an effort to establish a fur-trading enterprise.

The groups, however, did not live together in complete harmony. Dutch settlersengaged in fighting with various Native American groups over land claims and tradingrights. In 1643, for example, the Dutch and Wappinger tribe fought a bloody battle inwhich hundreds died. For the most part, however, the French and Dutch colonistslived together peacefully with their North American hosts.

The same could not be said of the English. Early relations between English settlersand Native Americans were cooperative. However, they quickly worsened—mostly over

D. Possible AnswerBecause both groupsbenefited from theircooperation in the furtrade: the Indians didthe trapping and thentraded the furs to theFrench and Dutch fornumerous desiredgoods.THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. Analyzing IssuesWhy were the Dutchand French able tocoexist in relativepeace with the NativeAmericans?

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Holdings after 1763Europeans in N. America, 1754

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Region Which nation claimed the largest area of the present-day United States in 1754?2. Place How did Britain’s North American empire change after 1763?

BackgroundThe name French andIndian War was thecolonists‘ name forthe war. The Frenchand many Indianswere allied againstthe British and thecolonists.

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the issues of land and religion. Unlike the French and Dutch, the English sought topopulate their colonies in North America. This meant pushing the natives off their land.The English colonists seized more and more land for their swelling population—andto grow more tobacco. As a result, tensions between the two groups rose.

Misunderstandings over religion also heightened tensions. The English settlers,particularly the Puritans, considered Native Americans heathens—people without afaith. Over time, many Puritans viewed Native Americans as agents of the devil and asa threat to their godly society. For their part, Native Americans developed a similarlyhard view toward the white invaders.

Settlers and Native Americans Battle The hostility between the English settlersand Native Americans led to warfare. As early as 1622, the Powhatan tribe attacked

colonial villages around Jamestown and killed about 350 settlers. Thecolonists eventually struck back and massacred hundreds of Powhatan.

One of the bloodiest battles colonists and Native Americans wagedwas known as King Philip’s War. It began in 1675 when the NativeAmerican ruler Metacom (also known as King Philip) led an attackon 52 colonial villages throughout Massachusetts. In the months thatfollowed, both sides massacred hundreds of victims. After a year offierce fighting, the colonists defeated the natives. Throughout the17th century, many more smaller skirmishes erupted throughoutNorth America. While the Native Americans fought fiercely, theywere no match for the colonists’ rifles and cannons.

Natives Fall to Disease More destructive than the Europeans’weapons were their diseases. Like the Spanish in Central and SouthAmerica, the Europeans who settled North America brought withthem several diseases. And just as had happened in Mexico and Peru,the diseases devastated the native population in North America.

In 1616, for example, an epidemic of smallpox ravaged NativeAmericans living along the New England coast. The population ofone tribe, the Massachusett, dropped from 24,000 to 750 by 1631.Thousands of other natives throughout the region also perished.

“They died on heapes, as they lay in their houses,” observed one eyewitness. From SouthCarolina to Missouri, nearly whole tribes fell to smallpox, measles, and other diseases.

Throughout the Americas, the loss of native life due to disease was incredible. One ofthe effects of this loss was a severe shortage of labor in the colonies. In order to meettheir growing labor needs, European colonists from South America to North Americasoon turned to another group: Africans, whom they would enslave by the millions.

King Philip’s Warwas one of thebloodiest battlesfought betweenEnglish colonistsand NativeAmericans. About600 colonists and3,000 Indians werekilled during thefighting.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYE. IdentifyingProblems Why didthe issues of land andreligion cause suchstrife between theNative Americans andEnglish settlers?E. Possible AnswerThe settlers continu-ally wanted more landfor their growing pop-ulation as well astheir crops; they alsoviewed the natives asgodless devils.

BackgroundTo celebrate their victory over Metacom,the Puritans cut off his head and dis-played it at Plymouthfor many years.

2. TAKING NOTES

Copy this chart and fill in thelocation of each settlement and themain reasons for its establishment.

Write a letter convincing someoneto settle in one of the settlements.

3. MAKING INFERENCES

What may have been one reasonthe English eventually beat theFrench in North America?

THINK ABOUT• how England’s colonies

differed from those of the French

• English and French colonialpopulations on the eve of theFrench and Indian War

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Cultural InteractionImagine that you have been askedto settle a dispute between agroup of English colonists andNative Americans. Summarizeeach side’s grievances and offerpossible solutions.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• New France• Jamestown• Pilgrims• Puritans• New Netherland• French and Indian War• Metacom

Section Assessment2

Name ofSettlement

New France

NewNetherland

MassachusettsBay

GeneralLocation

Reasons forEstablishment

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SETTING THE STAGE Sugar plantations and tobacco farms required a large supply ofworkers to make them profitable for their owners. European owners had planned touse Native Americans as a source of cheap labor. But millions of Native Americansdied from disease and warfare. Therefore, the Europeans in Brazil, the Caribbean,and the southern colonies of North America soon turned to Africa for workers.

The Evolution of African Slavery Beginning around 1500, European colonists began enslaving Africansin the Americas in order to meet their great demand for large num-bers of people to work as cheap labor.

Slavery in Africa As it had in other parts of the world, slavery hadexisted in Africa for many years. In most regions, however, it was a relatively minor institution. The spread of Islam into Africa during theseventh century, however, ushered in an increase in slavery and theslave trade. African rulers justified enslavement with the Muslim beliefthat non-Muslim prisoners of war could be bought and sold as slaves.As a result, between 650 and 1600, black as well as white Muslimstransported as many as 4.8 million Africans—mostly prisoners of warand criminals—to the Muslim lands of Southwest Asia. Once there,these enslaved Africans worked primarily as domestic servants.

In most African and Muslim societies, slaves had some legal rightsand opportunity for social mobility. In the Muslim world, slaves evenoccupied positions of influence and power. Some served as generals in the army. Others bought large estates and even owned slaves of their own. In African societies, slaves could escape their bondage innumerous ways, including marrying into the family they served.Furthermore, slavery in Africa was not hereditary. Thus the sons anddaughters of slaves were considered free.

The Desire for Africans The first Europeans to explore Africawere the Portuguese during the 1400s. Initially, Portuguese traderswere more interested in trading for gold than for captured Africans.That changed, however, with the colonization of the Americas. Atfirst, European colonists in the Americas forced Native Americans towork their profitable mines and plantations. As natives began dying by the millions from disease, Europeans became desperate for new workers.

To resupply their labor force, colonists in the Americas soon looked to Africa.Europeans saw several advantages in using Africans. First, many Africans had beenexposed to various European diseases and had built up some immunity to them.Second, many Africans had experience in farming and thus could be taught large-scaleplantation work. Third, Africans—strangers to the Americas—had little knowledge of

The AtlanticSlave Trade

3TERMS & NAMES

• Atlantic slavetrade

• triangular trade• middle passage

MAIN IDEA

To meet their growing labor needs,Europeans enslaved millions of Africansin forced labor in the Americas.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

Descendants of enslaved Africansrepresent a significant part of theAmericas’ population today.

A. Possible AnswerIn Muslim society,slaves had legal rightsand opportunities forsocial mobility; inAfrica, slaves couldescape their bondagein numerous ways,and slavery was nothereditary.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. SummarizingWhat were somecharacteristics ofMuslim and Africanslavery?

Slavery

The enslavement of human beingsby others is believed to be as oldas civilization itself. Slaveryprobably began with the develop-ment of farming about 10,000 yearsago. Farming gave people the needto force prisoners of war to workfor them.

Slavery has existed innumerous societies around theworld. People were enslaved incivilizations from Egypt to China toIndia, as well as among Indians inAmerica, and in Greece and Rome.

Race was not always a factor in slavery. Often, slaves werecaptured prisoners of war, orpeople of a different nationality or religion. In ancient Rome, forexample, both owners and slaveswere white.

However, the slavery thatdeveloped in the Americas wasbased largely on race. Europeansviewed black people as naturallyinferior. Because of this, slavery in the Americas was hereditary—children of slaves were also slaves.

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the land and had no familiar tribes in which to hide. As a result, they were less likelyto try to escape.

In time, the buying and selling of Africans for work in the Americas—known as theAtlantic slave trade—became a massive enterprise. Between 1500 and 1600, nearly

300,000 Africans were transported to the Americas. During the next century, thatnumber climbed to almost 1.5 million. By the time the Atlantic slave trade endedaround 1870, Europeans had imported about 9.5 million Africans to the Americas.

Spain and Portugal Lead the Way The Spanish took an early lead in import-ing Africans to the Americas. As early as 1511, a small number of Africans wereworking in the copper mines on Hispaniola. In time, Spain moved on from theCaribbean and began to colonize the American mainland. As a result, the Spanishimported and enslaved thousands more Africans. By 1650, nearly 300,000 Africanslabored throughout Spanish America on plantations and in gold and silver mines.

By this time, however, the Portuguese had surpassed the Spanish in theimportation of Africans to the Americas. During the 1600s, Brazil dominatedthe European sugar market. As the colony’s sugar industry grew, so too didEuropean colonists’ demand for slaves. During the 17th century, more than40 percent of all Africans brought to the Americas went to Brazil. By the

time the slave trade ended, Brazil had received more than 3.6 million Africans.That was nearly 10 times the number of Africans who would arrive in North America.

Slavery Spreads Throughout the Americas As the other European nations estab-lished colonies in the Americas, their demand for cheap labor grew. Thus, they alsobegan to import and enslave large numbers of Africans. A majority of these slaveslabored on sugar, tobacco, and coffee plantations in the Dutch, French, and Englishcolonies in the Caribbean.

As England’s presence in the Americas grew, it came to dominate the Atlantic slavetrade. From 1690 until the nation abolished the slave trade in 1807, England was theleading carrier of enslaved Africans. By the time the slave trade ended, the Englishhad transported nearly 1.7 million Africans to their colonies in the West Indies.

A much smaller number of enslaved Africans eventually arrived in what is now theUnited States. In all, nearly 400,000 Africans were imported to Britain’s NorthAmerican colonies. Once in North America, however, the slave population steadilygrew. By 1830, roughly 2 million slaves toiled in the United States.

African Cooperation and Resistance Many African rulers and merchants playeda willing role in the Atlantic slave trade. Those African leaders who had been sellingAfricans as slaves to Muslims and other African rulers saw little difference in sellingthem to Westerners. Most European traders, rather than travel inland, waited in portsalong the western and eastern coasts of Africa. African merchants, with the help oflocal rulers, captured Africans to be enslaved. They then delivered them to theEuropeans in exchange for gold, guns, and other goods.

As the slave trade grew, some African rulers voiced their opposition to the practice.One such ruler was King Nzinga Mbemba of Congo in west-central Africa. Mbemba,also known as Affonso, had originally participated in the slave trade. However, he soonrealized its devastating effect on African societies. In 1526, he wrote a letter to theking of Portugal in which he protested the taking of Africans for enslavement:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TAnd we cannot reckon how great the damage is, since . . . merchants are taking every dayour natives, sons of the land and the sons of our noblemen and vassals and our relatives,because the thieves and men of bad conscience grab them . . . they grab them and getthem to be sold; and so great, Sir, is the corruption . . . that our country is being completelydepopulated, and Your Highness should not agree with this nor accept it. . . . it is our willthat in these Kingdoms there should not be any trade of slaves nor outlet for them.KING AFFONSO, quoted in African Civilization Revisited

The development ofsugar, shown herein its cane form,helped spur thegrowth of slavery in the Americas.

BackgroundBy 1690, the slavepopulation on theBritish island ofBarbados was60,000—three timesthat of the white population.

496 Chapter 20

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. AnalyzingMotives Whatadvantages didEuropeans see inenslaving Africans?

BackgroundThe total number ofArricans taken fromAfrica during theAtlantic slave trade isthought to be evenhigher. Scholarsbelieve that manyAfricans perished dur-ing the voyage to theAmericas. Thus, theywere unaccounted for.

B. Possible AnswerSlaves had built upimmunity to many diseases, they wereexperienced in farm-ing and were in analien environmentwhich made them lesslikely to escape.

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Despite Affonso’s plea, the slave trade continued and steadily grew. Lured by itsprofits, many African rulers continued to participate. As for African merchants, theysimply developed new trade routes to avoid rulers who refused to cooperate.

A Forced JourneyAfter being captured, African men and women were shipped to the Americas as partof a profitable trade network. Along the way, millions of captured Africans endured adehumanizing voyage across the Atlantic. Many died on the way.

The Triangular Trade Africans transported to the Americas were part of a transatlantic trading network known as the triangular trade. Over one trade route,Europeans transported manufactured goods to the west coast of Africa. There, tradersexchanged these goods for captured Africans. The Africans were then transported acrossthe Atlantic Ocean and sold in the West Indies. Merchants then bought sugar, coffee,and tobacco in the West Indies and sailed back to Europe to sell these products.

On another triangular route, merchants carried rum and other goods from the New England colonies to Africa. There they exchanged their merchandise for Africans.The traders then transported the Africans to the West Indies and sold them for sugarand molasses. They then sold these goods to rum producers in New England.

Various other transatlantic routes existed. In fact, the “triangular” trade encom-passed a network of trade routes crisscrossing the Northern and Southern colonies, theWest Indies, England, Europe, and Africa. The network carried a variety of tradedgoods. These included furs, fruit, tar, and tobacco, as well as millions of African people.

The Middle Passage The voyage that brought captured Africans to the West Indiesand later to North and South America was known as the middle passage. It was sonamed because it was considered the middle leg of the transatlantic trade triangle.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. Analyzing IssuesWhy did many Africanrulers participate in theAtlantic slave trade?C. Possible AnswerIt was profitable, andthey saw little differ-ence between tradingAfrican slaves toMuslims and otherAfricans andWesterners.

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GEOGRAPHY SKILLBU ILDER : Interpreting Maps 1. Movement What items were transported to Africa and traded for

captured Africans?2. Region According to the graph, what region of the Americas imported

the most Africans? Which imported the second most?

Africans Enslaved in theAmericas, 1451–1870Total Number Imported: 9.5 Million*

16% Spanish Americaand Spanish Caribbean

38% Portuguese Brazil

40% Caribbean Islands(Dutch, French, British)

2% Europe, Asia

4% British North America

* Estimated Source: The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census


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Sickening cruelty characterized this journey. In the bustling ports along the Africancoasts, European traders packed Africans into the dark holds of large ships. On board aslave ship, Africans fell victim to whippings and beatings from merchants, as well as diseases that swept through the vessel. The smell of blood, sweat, and excrement filledthe hold. African captives often lived in their own vomit and waste. One African,Olaudah Equiano, recalled the inhumane conditions on his trip from West Africa to the

West Indies at age 11 in 1756:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S T I was soon put down under the decks, and there I received such a salutation [greet-ing] in my nostrils as I never experienced in my life; so that, with the loathsome-ness of the stench, and crying together, I became so sick and low that I was notable to eat . . . but soon, to my grief, two of the white men offered me eatables;and on my refusing to eat, one of them held me fast by the hands, and laid meacross . . . the windlass, and tied my feet, while the other flogged me severely.

OLAUDAH EQUIANO, quoted in Eyewitness: The Negro in American History

Numerous Africans died aboard the slave ships from disease or from crueltreatment by merchants. Many others committed suicide by plunging into the

ocean rather than be enslaved. Scholars estimate that roughly 20 percent of theAfricans aboard each slave ship perished during the brutal trip to the Americas.

Slavery in the AmericasAfricans who survived their ocean voyage entered a difficult life of bondage in theAmericas. Forced to work in a strange land, enslaved Africans coped in a variety of ways.Many embraced their African culture, while others rebelled against their enslavers.

A Harsh Life Upon arriving in the Americas, captured Africans usually were auctionedoff to the highest bidder. A British minister who visited a slave market in Brazil commented on the process: “When a customer comes in, they [the slaves] are turnedbefore him; such as he wishes are handled by the purchaser in different parts, exactlyas I have seen butchers feeling a calf.”

After being sold, slaves worked in mines or fields or as domestic servants. Whatevertheir task, slaves lived a grueling existence. Many lived on little food in small, drearyhuts. They worked long days and often suffered whippings and beatings. In much ofthe Americas, slavery was a lifelong condition, as well as a hereditary one. This meantthat the sons and daughters of slaves were born into a lifetime of bondage.

Resistance and Rebellion To cope with the horrors of slavery, Africans developeda way of life based strongly on their cultural heritage. They kept alive such things astheir musical traditions as well as the stories of their ancestors.

Enslaved Africans also found ways to resist their bondage. They made themselvesless productive by breaking hoes, uprooting plants, and working slowly. This resistancehurt their owners’ profit. Although they were unfamiliar with the land, thousands ofslaves also ran away.

Some slaves pushed their resistance to open revolt. As early as 1522, about 20slaves on Hispaniola attacked and killed several Spanish colonists. Larger revolts

Background After working forsome time in theWest Indies, Equianowas freed. He eventu-ally went to England,where he crusadedagainst slavery.

This design of aBritish slave shipoffers a glimpse of what life waslike for enslavedAfricans duringtheir trip to theAmericas.

Olaudah Equiano

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occurred throughout Spanish settlements during the 16th century. In Colombia, for example, enslaved Africans destroyed the town of Santa Marta in 1530.

Occasional uprisings also occurred throughout Brazil, the West Indies, and NorthAmerica. In 1739, a group of slaves in South Carolina led an uprising known as theStono Rebellion. They killed several colonists and then engaged the local militia in battle. Many slaves died during the fighting. Those who were captured were executed.Despite the ultimate failure of slave revolts, uprisings continued into the 1800s.

Consequences of the Atlantic Slave TradeThe Atlantic slave trade had a profound impact on both Africa and the Americas. In Africa, numerous cultures lost generations of theirfittest members—their young and able—to European traders andplantation owners. In addition, countless African families were tornapart. Many of them were never reunited. The slave trade devastatedAfrican societies in another way: by introducing guns into the conti-nent. More effective than spears, guns were in great demand byAfrican rulers seeking to conquer new territory. Firearms, whichAfrican chiefs and kings traded for potential slaves, helped spread warand conflict throughout Africa.

While they were unwilling participants in the growth of the colonies,African slaves contributed greatly to the economic and cultural develop-ment of the Americas. Their greatest contribution was their labor.Without their back-breaking work, colonies such as those on Haiti andBarbados may not have survived. In addition to their muscle, enslavedAfricans also brought their expertise, especially in agriculture. Africansfrom the Upper Guinea region in West Africa, for example, broughttheir rice-growing techniques to South Carolina. There, they helpedmake that colony a profitable rice producer. Africans also brought withthem their culture. Aspects of their culture—including art, music, andfood—continue to influence American societies.

The influx of so many Africans to the Americas also has left its mark on the very population itself. From the United States to Brazil, many of the nations of the WesternHemisphere today have substantial African-American populations. Furthermore, manyLatin American countries—where intermarriage between slaves and colonists was muchmore common than in North America—have sizable mixed-race populations.

As the next section explains, Africans were not the only cargo transported across theAtlantic during the colonization of the Americas. The settlement of the Americasbrought many different items from Europe, Asia, and Africa to North and SouthAmerica. It also introduced items from the Americas to the rest of the world.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYD. Summarizing Inwhat ways didenslaved Africansresist their bondage?D. Possible AnswerThey cut down ontheir work productiv-ity, they ran away,and they sometimesrebelled.

E. Possible AnswerTheir labor and techniques helpedbuild many societies;many aspects of theirculture still influencethe American way oflife; they have influ-enced the racialmakeup of theAmericas.THINK THROUGH HISTORYE. RecognizingEffects What aresome of the contribu-tions that Africanshave made to theAmericas?

2. TAKING NOTES

Using a diagram like the onebelow, list the ways in which theAtlantic slave trade affected bothAfrica and the Americas.

3. CONTRASTING

How was slavery in the Americasdifferent from slavery in Africaand Muslim lands?

THINK ABOUT• the length of bondage • the children of slaves• opportunities for slaves within

each society• racial basis

4. THEME ACTIVITY

Cultural InteractionReread the excerpt from KingAffonso’s letter on page 496.Imagine you are an African ruler.Write your own letter to aEuropean leader in which you try to convince him or her to stop participating in the slavetrade. Include in your letter thevarious aspects of slavery and the slave trade you learned aboutin this section.

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Atlantic slave trade• triangular trade• middle passage

Section Assessment3

Gullah

One legacy of African slaves livesin the quick-paced words of Gullah.Gullah is a combination of Englishand colonial speech and thelanguages from several WestAfrican societies. Nearly 6,000African words have been identifiedin Gullah. The Americandescendants of slaves still speakGullah on the Sea Islands of SouthCarolina and Georgia and on themainland nearby.

Gullah speakers live in relativelyisolated communities. Over theyears they have contributed wordsto the language spoken in theUnited States. The words includegoober (peanut), juke (as injukebox), and voodoo (witchcraft).

CONNECT to TODAY

Consequences of the Slave Trade

In Africa1.

2.

3.

In the Americas1.

2.

3.

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500 Chapter 20

SETTING THE STAGE The colonization of the Americas dramatically changed theworld. It prompted both voluntary and forced migration of millions of people. It also ledto the establishment of new and powerful societies. European settlement of the Americasalso changed the world in less noticeable but equally important ways. It led to theexchange of new items that greatly affected the lives of people throughout the world.

The Columbian ExchangeThe global transfer of foods, plants, and animals during the colonization of theAmericas was known as the Columbian Exchange. Ships from the Americas broughtback a wide array of items that Europeans, Asians, and Africans had never beforeseen. They included such plants as tomatoes, squash, pineapples, tobacco, and cacao beans (for chocolate).

Perhaps the most important items to travel from the Americas to the rest of theworld were corn and potatoes. Corn and potatoes were inexpensive to grow and highlynutritious. Over time, both crops became an important and steady part of dietsthroughout the world. These foods helped people live healthier and longer lives. Thusthey played a significant role in boosting the world’s population. The planting of thefirst white potato in Ireland and the first sweet potato in China probably changedmore lives than the deeds of 100 kings.

Traffic across the Atlantic did not flow in justone direction, however. Europeans introduced various livestock animals into the Americas. Theseincluded horses, cattle, and pigs. Foods from Africa(including some that originated in Asia) migratedwest in European ships. They included bananas,black-eyed peas, and yams.

Some aspects of the Columbian Exchange had atragic impact on many Native Americans. Diseasewas just as much a part of the Columbian Exchangeas goods and food. The diseases Europeans broughtwith them, which included smallpox and measles,led to the death of millions of Native Americans.

A Commercial Revolution The establishment of colonial empires in the Americas influenced the nations of Europe in still other ways. New wealth from the Americas was coupled with a dramatic growth in overseas trade. These together prompted a wave of new business and trade practices in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. Thesepractices—many of which served as the root of today’s financial dealings—dramati-cally changed the economic atmosphere of Europe. Together they became known as the Commercial Revolution.

In this Spanishillustration, amedicine man tendsto an Aztec with smallpox.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYA. MakingInferencesWhy is the ColumbianExchange considereda significant event?A. Possible AnswerIt greatly improveddiets and lifestyles inEurope and Asia andhelped prompt anincrease in the world’spopulation; it also led to the death ofmillions of NativeAmericans by way ofdisease.

The Columbian Exchangeand Global Trade

4TERMS & NAMES

• ColumbianExchange

• CommercialRevolution

• capitalism• joint-stock

company• mercantilism• favorable

balance of trade

MAIN IDEA

The colonization of the Americasintroduced new and different items intothe Eastern and Western hemispheres.

WHY IT MATTERS NOW

This global exchange of goodspermanently changed Europe, Asia,Africa, and the Americas.

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GlobalImpact : Food Exchange


The ColumbianExchangeFew events transformed the world like the Columbian Exchange.This global transfer of plants, animals, disease, and especially food, brought together the Eastern and Western hemispheres and touched, in some way, nearly all the peoples of the world.

AMERICAS TO EUROPE, AFRICA, AND ASIA

EUROPE, AFRICA, AND ASIA TO AMERICAS

E U R O P E

A F R I C A

N O R T HA M E R I C A

A T L A N T I C O C E A N

Squash

Quinine

Tomato

Peppers

Turkey

Pumpkin

Avocado

Beans

CornPeanut Potato

Vanilla

Livestock• Cattle• Sheep• Pig• HorseGrains

• Wheat• Rice• Barley• Oats

Disease• Smallpox• Influenza• Typhus• Measles• Malaria• Diphtheria• Whooping Cough

Tobacco

Honeybee

Sugar CaneCitrus Fruits

Turnip

Banana

Olive

Onion Peach, PearCoffee Bean

Grape

Cassava

Cacao BeanSweet Potato

Pineapple

Forming Opinions Have stu-dents work in small groups topose and answer questions aboutthe beneficial and harmful aspectsof the Columbian Exchange.

SEE SKILLBUILDER HANDBOOK, PAGE R15

Researching Find out what arethe major items exchanged ortraded between the United Statesand either Asia, Africa, or Europe.Report your findings to the class.

Connect to Today

Connect to History

Early on, people thought the tomato was harmfulto eat. One German official warned that thetomato “should not be taken internally.”

VIDEO The Geography of Food: The Impact of Potatoes and Sugar

Patterns of InteractionThink about your favorite foods. Chances are that at least oneoriginated in a distant land. Throughout history, the introduction ofnew foods into a region has dramatically changed lives—for better andworse. Dependence on the potato, for example, led to a famine inIreland. This prompted a massive migration of Irish people to othercountries. In the Americas, the introduction of sugar led to riches forsome and enslavement for many others.

Frightening FoodsSeveral foods from the Americas that we now take for granted at first amazed and terrified Europeans.

In 1619, officials in Burgundy, France,banned the potato, explaining that “toofrequent use of them caused the leprosy.” In 1774,starving peasants in Prussia refused to eat the spud.

The culinary life we oweColumbus is a progressive dinner in which the wholehuman race takes part but no one need leave home to sample all the courses.

Raymond Sokolov

The Columbian Exchange

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The Rise of Capitalism One aspect of the EuropeanCommercial Revolution was the growth of capitalism.Capitalism is an economic system based on private ownershipand the investment of wealth for profit. No longer were govern-

ments the sole owners of great wealth. Due to overseas colonization and trade,numerous merchants had obtained great wealth. These merchants continued to investtheir money in trade and overseas exploration. Profits from these investments enabledmerchants and traders to reinvest even more money in other enterprises. As a result,businesses across Europe grew and flourished.

The increase in economic activity in Europe led to an overall increase in manynations’ money supply. This in turn brought on inflation, or the steady rise in the priceof goods. Inflation occurs when people have more money to spend and thus demandmore goods and services. Because the supply of goods is less than the demandrequires, the goods become both scarce and more valuable. Prices, then, rise. At thistime in Europe, the costs of many goods rose. Spain, for example, endured a crushingbout of inflation during the 1600s, as boatloads of gold and silver from the Americasgreatly increased the nation’s money supply.

Joint-Stock Companies Another business venture developed during this period was the joint-stock company. The joint-stock company worked much like the mod-ern-day corporation. It involved a number of people pooling their wealth for a com-mon purpose.

In Europe during the 1500s and 1600s, that common purpose was American colo-nization. It took large amounts of money to establish overseas colonies. Moreover,while profits may have been great, so were risks. Many ships, for instance, never com-pleted the long and dangerous ocean voyage. Because joint-stock companies involvednumerous investors, the individual members paid only a fraction of the total coloniza-tion cost. If the colony failed, investors lost only their small share. If the colonythrived, the investors shared in the profits. It was a joint-stock company that wasresponsible for establishing Jamestown, England’s first North American colony.

The Growth of Mercantilism During this time, the nations of Europe adopted anew economic policy known as mercantilism. The theory of mercantilism held that a country’s power depended mainly on its wealth. It was wealth, after all, that allowednations to build strong navies and purchase vital goods. As a result, the goal of everynation became the attainment of as much wealth as possible.

According to the theory of mercantilism, a nation could increase its wealth andpower in two ways. First, it could obtain as much gold and silver as possible. Second,it could establish a favorable balance of trade, in which it sold more goods than itbought. A nation’s ultimate goal under mercantilism was to become self-sufficient, not

Vocabularyinvest: to spend time,money, or effort forfuture advantage orbenefit.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYB. MakingInferences Whywould a joint-stockcompany be popularwith investors in over-seas colonies?B. Possible AnswerBecause they paidonly a fraction of thetotal colonizationcost.

502 Chapter 20

Three Worlds Meet, 1492–1700

1511Africans begin workingas slaves in theAmericas.

1533The Inca Empire inSouth America falls to Francisco Pizarro.

1510 1530

1521The Aztec Empire inMexico is conquered by Hernando Cortés.

EuropeansAfricansAmericans

1492Columbus embarks on a voyage that will bring together the worlds of Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

1492

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dependent on other countries for goods. An English author of the timewrote about the new economic idea of mercantilism:

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TAlthough a Kingdom may be enriched by gifts received, or by purchases taken fromsome other Nations. . . . these are things uncertain and of small consideration when theyhappen. The ordinary means therefore to increase our wealth and treasure is by ForeignTrade, wherein we must ever observe this rule: to sell more to strangers yearly than weconsume of theirs in value.THOMAS MUN, quoted in World Civilizations

Mercantilism went hand in hand with colonization, for colonies played a vital role inthis new economic practice. Aside from providing silver and gold, colonies providedraw materials that could not be found in the home country, such as wood or furs. Inaddition to playing the role of supplier, the colonies under mercantilism also provided amarket. The home country could sell its goods to their colonies.

Changes in European Society The economic changes that swept through much of Europe during the age of American colonization also led to changes in European society. The Commercial Revolution spurred the growth of towns and the rise of themerchant class. Merchants—because they controlled great wealth—rose in status.

The changes in European society, however, only went so far. While towns and citiesgrew in size, much of Europe’s population continued to live in rural areas. Andalthough merchants and traders enjoyed a period of social mobility, a majority ofEuropeans remained poor. More than anything else, the Commercial Revolutionincreased the wealth of European nations. Also, as Chapter 21 will describe, the neweconomic practices helped to expand the power of European rulers.

THINK THROUGH HISTORYC. SummarizingWhat role didcolonies play in the policy of mercantilism?C. Possible AnswerThey provided goldand silver, as well asraw materials, andwere a market for thehome country to sellits goods.

2. TAKING NOTES

For each Columbian Exchange itemor aspect below, write where it orig-inated and explain its significance.

Write an explanation of one of theitems to someone who has neverencountered it.

3. MAKING INFERENCES

Why were colonies considered soimportant to the nations ofEurope?

THINK ABOUT• the philosophy of mercantilism• the notion of a favorable balance

of trade

4. ANALYZING THEMES

Economics Do you think theeconomic changes in Europeduring the era of Americancolonization qualify as arevolution? Why or why not?

THINK ABOUT• the legacy of the new business

and trade practices• how the economic changes

affected European society as a whole

1. TERMS & NAMES

Identify• Columbian Exchange• Commercial Revolution• capitalism• joint-stock company• mercantilism• favorable balance

of trade

Section Assessment4


Corn

Disease

Potato

1607Colonists found Jamestown,first permanent Englishsettlement in North America.

1628Puritans establish theMassachusetts BayColony in North America.

1675Native Americansbattle colonists in King Philip’s War.

1700The number of enslaved Africans imported to the

Americas reaches almost 1.5 million. It will climb tonearly 6 million by the end of the century.

1610 1630 1670

1650The number of Africans toiling inSpanish Americareaches 300,000.

1690

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Chapter Assessment20

REVIEW QUESTIONS

SECTION 1 (pages 483–488)

Spanish Conquests in the Americas11. Why did Columbus set sail on the Atlantic?

12. List three goals of the Spanish in the Americas.

13. Why did Popé lead a rebellion against the Spanish?


Competing Claims in North America14. What did the Europeans mostly grow in their Caribbean colonies?

15. What was the result of the French and Indian War?


The Atlantic Slave Trade16. What factors led European colonists to use Africans to resupply

their labor force?

17. Describe the conditions on board a slave ship.

18. Name several ways in which enslaved Africans resisted their position in the Americas.


The Columbian Exchange and Global Trade19. Why was the introduction of corn and potatoes to Europe and

Asia so significant?

20. Explain the economic policy of mercantilism.

TERMS & NAMESBriefly explain the importance of each of the followingin the European colonization of the Americas.

Interact with History

On page 482 you examined the choices some NativeAmericans faced during the invasion by Spanish conquistadors. Now that you haveread the chapter, rethink thechoice you made. If you chose to side with the Spaniards,would you now change yourmind? Why or why not? If you decided tofight with the Aztecs,what are your feelingsnow? Discuss your opinions with a small group.

1. conquistadors

2. Montezuma II

3. encomienda

4. Jamestown

5. French and IndianWar

6. Atlantic slave trade

7. triangular trade

8. Columbian Exchange

9. CommercialRevolution

10. mercantilism

Visual Summary

504 Chapter 20

• Between 1520 and 1533, the once mighty Aztec andInca empires fall to the invading Spanish.

• Throughout the Americas, the native population isdevastated by European conquests and diseases.

• In Central and South America, many Spanish settlersand Native Americans intermarry, creating a largemestizo population that thrives today.

The Atlantic World

Europeans

• Beginning around 1500, theSpanish and Portuguese colonizeCentral and South America andestablish prosperous overseasempires.

• Throughout the 1600s and 1700s,the English, French, and Dutchbattle for control of NorthAmerica, with the Englishemerging victorious.

• Over time, Europeans take control of nearly all of theAmericas and create newsocieties.

Africans

• Beginning around 1500, millions ofAfricans are taken from theirhomeland and forced to labor asslaves for Europeans in theAmericas.

• Numerous Africans perishduring the brutal ocean voyageto the Americas, known as themiddle passage.

• Africans eventually become animportant part of the Americas,as they populate the variousregions and lend aspects of theirculture to American societies.

Native Americans

GLOBALINTERACTION

504-505-0420ca 10/11/02 4:17 PM Page 504


CHAPTER ACTIVITIES1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project

Your unit portfolio project focuses on showinghow different cultures have interacted in history. (See page 387.) For Chapter20, you might use one of the following ideas.

• Draw a political cartoon that contrasts the Europeans’ and NativeAmericans’ view of American colonization.

• Write a newspaper editorial explaining how Africans helped create thesocieties that grew in the Americas.

• Imagine you are a Native American entering an English colony for the firsttime. Write a journal entry describing your encounter with the culture.

2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning

The Columbian Exchange marked the beginning ofworldwide trade. The plants, foods, and animals that traveled acrosshemispheres during the Columbian Exchange are now just some of the manyfoods and items that are traded around the globe today.

Work with a team to chart the global trade of a chosen food or item.

Using the Internet, magazines, or books, track the movement of the item from its country of origin to its various destinations

around the world.

• Determine how much of the item the various countries import. Comparethe cost of the item in these countries.

• Compare your team’s item with those of the other teams to determinewhich is the most popular.

3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE

Revisit the time line on pages 386–387. Examine the Chapter 20 time line.Which two events do you think had the most lasting effects on theAmericas? Explain why.

CRITICAL THINKING1. THE TOOLS OF CONQUEST

What things helped theEuropeans conquer the Americas? Which do youconsider to be the most important? Why?

2. EXPLORERS OF THE WEST

Copy the chart below. Write which nation sponsoredeach explorer and the regions he explored.

3. A HISTORIC VOYAGE

Explain the statement, “Columbus’s voyage began aprocess that changed the world forever.” Consider allthe peoples and places American colonizationimpacted and what effects it had on them.

4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES

In 1630, a Puritan minister, John Cotton, delivered a ser-mon to fellow Puritans as they embarked on their jour-ney to America. In it, Cotton tried to reassure the futurecolonists that they could legitimately claim a new land.

A V O I C E F R O M T H E P A S TWhere there is a vacant place, there is libertyfor . . . [Christians] . . . to come and inhabit,though they neither buy it nor ask theirleaves. . . . Indeed, no nation is to drive outanother without special commission fromHeaven . . . unless the natives do unjustlywrong them, and will not recompense thewrongs done in a peaceable fort [way]. Andthen they may right themselves by lawful warand subdue the country unto themselves.JOHN COTTON, quoted in The Annals of America

• What do you think Native Americans might havesaid about Cotton’s statement that America was a “vacant place”?

• How might the last part of Cotton’s statement havehelped the Puritans to justify taking land from theNative Americans?

• How is this passage an example of a biasedstatement?

FOCUS ON ART

This Aztec drawing depicts natives attacking several Spaniards, whoafter killing Indian nobles, took refuge in a nearby palace.

• How does the image depict the clash of cultures in the Americas?

• What is the drawing’s point of view regarding the Aztec warriors? TheSpanish?

Connect to History Of the factors that enabled the Spanish to defeatthe Aztecs, which one is visible in this drawing?

THEME CULTURAL INTERACTION

THEME ECONOMICS

THEME EMPIRE BUILDING

Explorer Nation Regions

Pedro Alvares Cabral

Ferdinand Magellan

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado

Jacques Cartier

Samuel de Champlain

Henry Hudson

CLASSZONE .COMTEST PRACTICEAdditional Test Practice,

pp. S1–S33

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