(15) section 11 - dec 2004

AIR QUALITY ASSESSMENTSECTION 11

Environmental Assessment Certificate Application for the Richmond•Airport•Vancouver Rapid Transit Project

11-1 December 2004

11 Air Quality Assessment

This section presents the results of an assessment of air quality impacts associated with construction and operation of the RAV Project, completed by RWDI West Inc. in November 2003. 11.1 Executive Summary

Current air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley, potential impacts of the RAV Project on local and regional air quality, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are reviewed. In addition, measures for mitigating common air contaminant emissions during the project construction and operation are outlined.

11.1.1 Impacts on Local Air Quality

The principal air quality impacts of the RAV Project are expected to occur in the immediate vicinity of the transportation corridor through which the proposed rail rapid transit line will run. During the construction phase, the potential exists for short-term air quality impacts along this corridor. The two major sources of emissions possible from the RAV development are dust emissions from non-combustion sources and exhaust emissions from construction vehicles and stationary combustion sources. Although the potential for localized air quality impacts of these activities may be significant, it is important to note that they will be temporary and localized. Taking into account the emissions from electrical power generation, RAV operation is expected to reduce emissions overall by between 168 and 235 tonnes per year of common air contaminants in 2010, and between 33 and 40 tonnes per year in 2025. These reductions arise from the expected displacement of both diesel buses and private vehicles. Reductions in fine particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen are expected to be particularly significant on the local scale, especially along the Cambie Street corridor.


December 2004 11-2

11.1.2 Impacts on Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Due to the displacement of diesel buses and automobiles, significant amounts of GHG emissions will be avoided during the operational phase of the RAV Project. These reductions are expected to far outweigh any short-term, temporary increase of GHG emissions during the construction phase. During the construction phase, direct and indirect GHG emissions are expected to be consistent with those of other projects of this scale (e.g., Millennium Line, Sea-to-Sky Highway Upgrade Project). The direct major source of GHG emissions is expected to be fossil-fuelled construction equipment. During RAV line operation, reductions of between 16 and 21 kilotonnes of carbon dioxide- (CO2) equivalent GHG emissions per year by 2021 are expected. These numbers take into account the anticipated increase in GHG emissions from electrical power generation to supply the energy demand of the line. 11.1.3 Impacts on Regional Air Quality

The RAV line will help to reduce air pollutant emissions in the Lower Fraser Valley through the displacement of the diesel buses that are currently being operated in the corridor and by providing an alternative to the use of private vehicles. The only significant source of emissions attributable to RAV system operation will be the generation of electricity. The reduction in vehicle emissions that occurs as a result of RAV line operation will more than offset the emissions associated with generation of the system’s electrical power supply. This reduction of air emissions will contribute to improvements in air quality, with corresponding reductions in health impacts throughout the region. Like other mass transit projects, the RAV Project will provide an alternative to the use of private motor vehicles.


11-3 December 2004

11.1.4 Mitigation of Air Quality Impacts and Greenhouse Gas Emissions during Construction

This assessment recommends best management practices to be adopted during construction to minimize dust and combustion exhaust emissions. Significant recommendations include the use of electrically-powered equipment rather than gas- or diesel-powered equipment, wherever possible, including the tunnel boring machines and equipment to be used during cut-and-cover tunnel excavations. These best practice recommendations have been applied in similar projects (e.g., Millennium Line SkyTrain extension) and other recent large-scale infrastructure construction projects in BC as requirements for contractors, typically as defined in environmental specifications released with requests for proposals. This will be the approach taken with respect to the RAV Project.

11.2 Introduction

This section describes air quality impacts of the proposed RAV Project. Air quality issues addressed below include: • air pollutant emissions from activities associated with RAV line construction • changes in air contaminant emissions from RAV line operation • changes in GHG emissions attributable to RAV line operation This section also provides brief background information on air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley, to put into perspective the potential air quality impacts of the RAV Project. Prior to submission of this air quality impact assessment, RWDI prepared two other air quality/GHG technical reports for the RAV Project. The first report, entitled “Preliminary Air Quality of the Richmond/Airport/Vancouver Rapid Transit Project” (April 2003) provided a preliminary assessment of the air quality and GHG reduction benefits for RAVCo. The second report, entitled “Air Quality and Greenhouse Gas Emission Benefits of the Richmond•Airport•Vancouver Rapid Transit Project” was prepared in collaboration with Global Change Strategies


December 2004 11-4

International, GCSI, May 2003 as a background paper on the project’s air quality and GHG reduction benefits for the information of potential funding agencies. Additional background for this assessment may be found in an earlier air quality report undertaken during the environmental assessment of the Millennium Line Skytrain extension by Cirrus Consultants Ltd. (1999). Among its findings, the Cirrus report concluded that the Millennium Line would act as an alternative to the use of private motor vehicles.

11.3 Air Quality in the Lower Fraser Valley

11.3.1 Definition of the Study Area and Airshed

The proposed RAV Project is located in the cities of Vancouver and Richmond, in the lower mainland region of BC. These cities are contained in the Lower Fraser Valley Airshed, defined as the area bounded by the Coast and Cascade mountain ranges and the Strait of Georgia (see Figure 11.1). Figure 11.1 Lower Fraser Valley Airshed

Source: GVRD and Fraser Valley Regional District (FVRD). 2002.


11-5 December 2004

Transportation-related emissions in Vancouver and Richmond affect air quality adjacent to the street and highway systems and also contribute to overall regional air quality as the urban plume is transported throughout the Lower Fraser Valley. The effects of the RAV Project will be felt principally in the immediate urban areas serviced by the line (i.e., the project study area). The most significant improvements in air quality attributable to the RAV Project are expected to occur along the Cambie Street corridor, starting at the downtown Vancouver waterfront. 11.3.2 Climatology and Meteorology

The Lower Fraser Valley Airshed is a self-contained region that receives little pollution input from outside. The airshed is characterized by relatively cool, wet weather during much of the year. During summer and early fall, warmer, drier weather can lead to episodes of elevated pollution levels when stagnant air masses spread pollutants emitted in the urbanized western part of the airshed throughout the region. In recent years, a trend toward improved ventilation of the airshed has lowered the pollution potential in the airshed, as evidenced by the significant increase in the mean wind speed documented in the annual air quality reports from the GVRD. The most recent report is for data collected in 2001 (see SECTION 11.3.3). This trend has not been analyzed in detail, and it is not known whether it is one of long duration or whether regional ventilation will revert to its more normal pattern of the 1980s and 1990s, in which more frequent periods of stagnation produced conditions conducive to episodes of poor air quality. 11.3.3 Regional Air Quality

Significant gains have been made in improving air quality in the Lower Fraser Valley, and air quality management in the Lower Fraser Valley is further advanced than anywhere else in Canada. According to the 2001 Lower Fraser Valley Ambient Air Quality Report (GVRD 2002), regional air quality as defined in terms of ambient concentrations of common air pollutants has improved markedly over the past 20 years. This trend has, however, levelled off for all of the major pollutants, beginning in 1995.


December 2004 11-6

11.3.3.1 Pollutants of Concern

The study addresses the principal common air contaminants: • Particulate matter (PM) and its inhalable (PM10) and respirable (PM2.5)

fractions • Oxides of nitrogen (NOX) • Sulphur oxides (primarily SO2) • Carbon monoxide (CO) • Volatile organic compounds (VOC) • Ozone (O3) Other toxic air pollutants, many of which are included in the generic category VOC, as well as the toxic metallic compounds in PM, also might have been considered to be of concern. The major effect on emissions of a rail-based rapid transit line is the displacement of motor vehicles (i.e., cars and buses). Such displacement would reduce emissions of both the common air contaminants listed above and a number of toxic air pollutants, such as benzene, 1,3-butadiene and diesel particulate matter. Since the emission reductions of these pollutants were expected to make a small contribution to estimated benefits, based on a number of earlier studies, they are not addressed explicitly in this section in terms of the air quality benefits of the RAV Project. Similarly, since the overall effect of RAV Project implementation would be to reduce emissions from the transportation system, it was not deemed to be necessary to model the air quality impacts of the transportation corridor emission changes. The benefits are expressed in terms of emission reductions and implied effects on air quality, as well as a very approximate monetized valuation (see SECTION 11.4.3). Ozone and PM2.5 are especially important as priority contaminants in BC, in part because of the implementation of the Canada-Wide Standards1 (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) 2000).

1 Canada-Wide Standards are intended to be achievable targets that will reduce health and environmental risks within a specific timeframe. They are considered Environmental Quality Objectives under the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) (Health Canada 2001).


11-7 December 2004

In terms of health impact levels, both ozone and fine particulate levels in the Lower Mainland region often approach or exceed levels at which respiratory and cardiovascular effects are known to occur. The relationships between air quality and health impacts have been assessed in a recent report from the BC Lung Association (2003). Fine particles (i.e., a combination of directly-emitted primary particles and indirectly-formed secondary particles) are generally evenly spread across the airshed, but primary emissions, hence ambient concentrations of directly emitted fine particles, are believed to be elevated along transportation corridors, based on studies conducted elsewhere. If an episode lasts for several days, pollutants become mixed throughout the airshed by re-circulating aloft westward at night and re-entering the prevailing daytime eastward movement the next day, leading to a general build-up of pollutants in the form of smog. The atmospheric conditions that produce extended periods of smog have been relatively rare in recent years. 11.3.3.2 Fine Particulate Matter

The origins of fine particulate matter, consisting of airborne particles smaller than 2.5 micrometers (µm) – also known as PM2.5, includes both primary and secondary formation sources. A related parameter, PM10, is called the inhalable fraction and comprises somewhat larger particles than PM2.5 – up to 10 µm in diameter. The smaller particles – PM2.5 – are generally thought at present to be of greater concern regarding health effects than the larger particles, but the environmental health community is still debating this issue. Primary particulate matter includes direct emission sources such as re-suspended road dust, particulate emissions from internal combustion engines, space heating, industrial processes and other combustion sources. Combustion sources emit particles in the fine size range (PM2.5) and within this category, vehicle emissions are a major contributor. Environmental health scientists have suggested that transportation-related emissions appear to be a significant factor in urban air quality effects, and among these, diesel particulate matter (DPM) may be of greater concern than other types of fine particles.


December 2004 11-8

The latter point is important in considering the effect of RAV, which, as shown in SECTION 11.4.1.2, would lead to a reduction in DPM and other vehicle-related fine particle emissions. Secondary formation of particulate matter occurs through chemical reactions of air pollutants in the atmosphere. An example of secondary particulate matter is the formation of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulphate particles. Acids formed from the gaseous sulphur and nitrogen oxides emitted primarily from vehicles and industry in the western part of the airshed drift into the Fraser Valley and react with ammonia from agriculture (e.g., animal manure) to form very fine solid particles of ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate. Both of these kinds of particles are effective at scattering light, thus reducing the clarity of the air (i.e., visibility), especially in the eastern part of the Valley – producing the ‘white haze’ that often obscures views of nearby mountains. Figure 11.2 shows the trend for inhalable particles (PM10) from 1985 to the present and as forecast to 2020, based on trends in the regional emission inventory.


11-9 December 2004

Figure 11.2 Monitored and Forecast PM10 Levels in the Lower Fraser Valley

PM10 Monitored and Forecast:Annual average Lower Fraser Valey (LFV) network concentrations

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009

2011

2013

2015

2017

2019

Year

PM10

(µg/

m3 )

Western LFV Actual + Forecast

Eastern LFV Actual

Trend (Actual & Forecast)

AQMP begins: 1995

Forecast

Actual: 1985-2000Forecast: 2001-2020(Assumes 1998 dispersion conditions for forecast period)

Trendline series includes GVRD measures + new vehicle emission standards

Source: Updated from a report prepared by Alchemy Consulting Inc. et al. 2000. The downward trend in PM10 levels from 1985 to 2001, the most recent year for which final data have been published, has been quite significant. The particulate matter concentration shown (i.e., the inhalable or PM10 fraction) is the weight of particles (mass, in micrograms (µg)) in a given volume of the atmosphere, measured in cubic meters (m3). For reference, an adult person breathes about 20 m3 of air each day. Mass concentration is not a good measure of the number of very fine particles that are implicated in visibility degradation. Thus, although the mass concentration of particulate matter in ambient air (i.e., the usual measure of impact) has decreased, the number of very fine particles, which have a greater relative effect on visibility impairment, is not believed to have changed appreciably. That is, the air now has a much smaller loading of larger particles but may also have an equal or larger number of very small particles than previously, so that visibility has not improved in the region in step with the marked decrease in PM10 levels.


December 2004 11-10

As shown in Figure 11.2, even with the improvements in on-road vehicle technology that are scheduled to be introduced over the next few years, PM10 levels are anticipated to begin to increase again after 2005 to 2010. PM2.5 levels are also expected to increase, although more detailed analysis would be necessary to demonstrate this. 11.3.3.3 Ozone

Elevated levels of ozone generally occur during hot spells in the summer, and generally peak in the eastern part of the Lower Fraser Valley. Peak ozone levels have declined by a factor of two to three across the region since the early 1980s, although average levels have increased slowly in recent years. Ozone is not emitted directly but is formed from secondary atmospheric reactions of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (more specifically, VOCs), and its levels in the air are dependent on the relative emissions of these precursor gases, as well as atmospheric conditions. Nitrogen dioxide levels have shown more modest reductions and also have changed little in the past five years, which may explain why the peak ozone levels have not changed recently. 11.3.3.4 Other Pollutants

Ambient concentrations of sulphur dioxide (SO2) have also declined to about one-third of the values of the early 1980s, although they have changed little in the past five years. Fine sulphate particles that are formed in the atmosphere by reactions of SO2, however, apparently have increased in recent years (based on sparse monitoring data). Declines in ambient levels of carbon monoxide have shown similar reductions since the early 1980s and have continued to drop slowly in the past 10 years, changing relatively little in the past five years. In summary, regional air quality, as measured by the concentrations of common air pollutants, has improved markedly over the past 20 years. The current levels are characterized generally as ‘good’ a very high percentage of the time (i.e., more than 98% of total hours annually in recent years). The impacts of the remaining levels of contamination, however, are still of concern because it is not known whether effects on human health persist at these low


11-11 December 2004

concentrations. The health risk has been reduced significantly, but not to zero. As well, the problem of impaired visibility, especially in the eastern Lower Fraser Valley, continues with little change over many years2. The relevance of the current and forecast air quality for the region (see SECTION 11.3.4 for more detail about the inventory forecast) to the RAV Project is that the anticipated deterioration of air quality over the next 20 years requires that new emission reduction measures be implemented to offset the growth in emissions from some sectors. 11.3.4 2000 Lower Fraser Valley Emissions Inventory

An emission inventory is a summary of all sources of air pollution within a defined area. The GVRD develops and publishes an emission inventory every five years, with annual updates; the most recently released inventory was for the year 2000. This inventory is for the Lower Fraser Valley and includes Whatcom County in Washington State. Both common air contaminants and greenhouse gases were inventoried. 11.3.4.1 Common Air Contaminants

Common air contaminants inventoried in the 2000 Lower Fraser Valley Emissions Inventory are: • Total particulate matter (PM) • Nitrogen oxides (NOX) • Sulphur oxides (SOX) • Volatile organic compounds (VOC) • Carbon monoxide (CO) • Ammonia (NH3)

In addition, the inventory breaks down total particulate matter into two size fraction categories: • PM10 – particles smaller than 10 µm; and • PM2.5 – particles smaller than 2.5 µm.

2 Two visibility field studies, know as REVEAL were conducted between 1993 and 1995. The results suggest that the “white haze” and reduced visibility episodes in the central-eastern Fraser Valley appear to occur after a period of elevated ozone concentrations, are influenced by meteorology, and are attributable in large part to elevated levels of secondary particulates.


December 2004 11-12

PM2.5 is of interest for the RAV Project because it is generally associated with combustion (such as from mobile sources or space heating), can be breathed deep into the lungs, and is particularly harmful to human health. Table 11.1 provides a summary of the 2000 emission inventory for common air contaminants for mobile sources in the GVRD. Table 11.1 2000 Common Air Contaminant Emission Inventory for

GVRD (excluding road dust)

Pollutants (tonnes per year) Pollutant Source Carbon

Monoxide Nitrogen Oxides

Volatile Organic

Compounds

Sulphur Oxides

Fine PM

Light-duty vehicles 228,517 17,364 19,668 587 200 Heavy-duty vehicles 4,397 9,730 526 219 217 Aircraft 6,112 1,018 817 50 138 Rail 478 2,963 72 34 56 Marine 4,447 18,049 1,524 5,139 897 Non-road

72,466 12,312 5,934 546 940

Mobile sub-total 316,417 61,436 28,541 6,575 2,449 Lower Fraser Valley Total 326,340 70,857 54,112 8,382 5,383 % Mobile 97% 87% 53% 78% 45%

Source: GVRD, 2002

The current regional emission inventory in the Lower Fraser Valley is dominated by vehicle and other mobile source emissions. Mobile source emissions are the majority source for four out of five common air contaminants. Furthermore, light-duty vehicles (i.e., passenger cars) contribute significantly in most categories.


11-13 December 2004

11.3.4.2 Greenhouse Gases

In addition to common air contaminants, the following greenhouse gases were addressed by the 2000 emissions inventory (GVRD and FVRD 2002): • carbon dioxide • methane • nitrous oxide. In the inventory, these pollutants are aggregated into a “CO2 equivalent value”, which represents an equivalent quantity of CO2 that would have an equal global warming potential as the combined gases. Table 11.2 summarizes the 2000 greenhouse gas emissions inventory for mobile sources in the GVRD. Table 11.2 2000 GVRD Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventory

Pollutant Source Greenhouse Gas Emissions

(tonnes per year, CO2 equivalent) Light-duty vehicles 4,530,663 Heavy-duty vehicles 859,829 Aircraft 231,597 Rail 154,781 Marine 601,448 Non-road 1,130,614 Mobile sub-total 7,508,932 Lower Fraser Valley Total 17,434,127 % Mobile 43%

Source: GVRD and FVRD. 2002.

Mobile sources contributed 43% of GHG emissions, with light-duty vehicles contributing to over 60% of the mobile emissions total. Compared to other large urban centres across Canada, the Lower Fraser Valley has relatively little heavy industrial activity. This is the main reason that mobile sources are one of the major emission sources for both common air contaminants and greenhouse gases in the airshed.


December 2004 11-14

11.3.5 Forecast of Emissions in Lower Fraser Valley

GVRD recently released a forecast/backcast of the 2000 emission inventory for the Lower Fraser Valley Airshed (GVRD 2003). The forecast/backcast predicts that “smog-forming pollutants”, which include SOX, NOX, VOC, NH3 and PM, have been steadily declining since 1985. It also indicates that the trend is currently levelling off, and is expected to increase after 2015. The preliminary results of the forecast/backcast indicate that, over the next 20 years, the relative pollutant contributions from different sources to the total regional emission inventory are projected to change materially. Significant changes are expected in the overall contribution of the on-road light- and heavy-duty vehicle fleet. It is expected that these vehicles will contribute as little as 5% to15% of total emissions in 2025, as a result of fuel and vehicle regulations and technology improvements leading primarily to reductions in NOx, SO2, and PM emissions. This is mainly due to new regulations scheduled to be implemented in the US and Canada. Marine sources are projected to increase in relative contribution to the regional total, up to approximately 39% for NOx by 2025, for example. With this change in balance of contribution, mobile sources, including the off-road portion - marine, rail, aircraft and off-road equipment - can still be expected to contribute on the order of 77% of regional emissions by 2025. 11.3.6 Ambient Air Quality Criteria and Monitoring Results

The common air pollutants that are regulated in the Lower Fraser Valley and that are relevant to this study are NOX, SOX, CO, PM10 and ozone. Except for ozone, each of these pollutants is directly released by mobile sources. Ozone is formed through secondary photochemical reactions, mainly the combination of NOX and VOCs, during times of high ambient temperatures (i.e., above 25 ºC), and stagnant air conditions. The applicable air quality objectives that are used to assess air quality in the region are the current national and provincial (Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection (MWLAP)) ambient air quality guidelines and objectives, as well as the CCME Canada-Wide Standards, and ambient air quality guidelines


11-15 December 2004

recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO). These are outlined in Table 11.3. Table 11.3 Ambient Air Quality Objectives

Nitrogen Dioxide (µg/m3)

Level 1-Hour 24-Hour

Annual

National Maximum Desirable Maximum Acceptable Maximum Tolerable

- 400 1100

- 200 300

60 100

-

Provincial BC MWLAP/GVRD(a)

Maximum Desirable Maximum Acceptable Maximum Tolerable

- 400 1100

- 200 300

60 100

-

World Health Organization

Proposed Guideline(b) 200 - -

Carbon Monoxide (mg/m3)

Level 1-Hour 8-Hour

National Maximum Desirable Maximum Acceptable Maximum Tolerable

15 35 -

6 15 20

Provincial BC MWLAP/GVRD(a)


15 35 -

6 15 20

World Health Organization

Proposed Guideline(b) 30 10

Particulate Matter (µg/m3)

Level 24-Hour Annual

National (total suspended particulate)


120 400

GVRD Objectives (PM10)

Acceptable 50 30

Provincial BC MWLAP (PM10)(a)

Objective 50

Canada-Wide Standards (PM2.5)

Target(c) 30


December 2004 11-16

Ozone (ppb)

Level 1-hour 8-hour 24-hour Annual

National Maximum Desirable Maximum

Acceptable

100

160

- -

30

50

30

Canada-Wide Standard

Target(d) 127

Sources & Notes: a. MWLAP. 1995 b. WHO. 2000. c. 98th percentile annual ambient measurement, averaged over three consecutive

years d. 4th highest annual measurement, averaged over three consecutive years In 2001, the GVRD operated 20 continuous monitoring stations throughout the Fraser Valley that monitored ozone levels, and 12 that continuously monitored fine particulate matter (PM10) levels throughout the year. 2001 is the latest year for which monitoring data is publicly available. In 2001, the federal 1-hour Maximum Desirable Objective for ozone was met 99.6% of the time at all stations. The exceedences (0.4% of the time) primarily occurred in the eastern region of the Lower Fraser Valley. The Canada-Wide Standard for ozone was not exceeded for any of the monitoring sites over the most recent three-year averaging period (as specified in the Standard) (CCME 2000). For PM10, the GVRD’s 24-hour Acceptable Objective was exceeded for a 19-hour period at one eastern station. These were the only exceedences of the objective observed in 2001. The region is also in compliance with the Canada-Wide Standard for PM2.5

over the most recent three-year averaging period. The regional monitoring network does not necessarily reflect air quality in areas that are affected by transportation-related emissions. When site locations for network monitoring stations are chosen, attempts are made to avoid the influence of specific emission sources, so as to better reflect overall community air quality. Consequently, air quality is very likely worse than indicated by the network results at locations near streets and highways. This


11-17 December 2004

has been shown in a number of recent studies in the US and Europe (see BC Lung Association 2003). As described below, the RAV line will lead to a reduction in overall emissions of several common air contaminants along its corridor and connecting transportation routes, resulting in improvements in local and regional air quality. Thus, detailed analysis with respect to the air quality objectives is not warranted. 11.3.7 Health and Visibility Impacts of Air Pollution

In addition to the health risk posed by continued exposure to ambient levels of air pollution, especially particulate matter, the impact on visibility that arises due to the release of common air pollutants is an issue of growing importance in the Lower Mainland region. Reduced visibility in the form of haze arises due to the number of fine particles in the lower atmosphere, many of which form through secondary chemical reactions from gaseous substances that are emitted to the air, in addition to the fine particles emitted directly (mainly from combustion of fossil fuels). The fine particles that contribute most to visibility impairment also appear to be of greatest concern with respect to health effects. The evidence for associations between exposure to particulate pollution is strong for particles that can be inhaled (PM10) and even stronger for fine particles (PM2.5) that can be respired deep into the lung. Some recent evidence suggests that even smaller particles (PM1) may have the greatest effect in producing a variety of health effects. Such evidence focuses the need to reduce particulate levels in the smallest particle size range to address both health effects and visibility mitigation. Figure 11.3 illustrates the hierarchy of health effects – both illness (morbidity) and death (mortality) – that are associated with air pollution based on evidence from the literature. There is no known lower exposure threshold below which health effects do not occur. Reducing exposure to air pollutants will reduce all of the effects shown in Figure 11.3.


December 2004 11-18

Figure 11.3 Hierarchy of Air Pollution Health Effects

As indicated in Figure 11.3, a relatively small number of severe health effects are accompanied by a larger number of less severe health effects. This fact is often overlooked in public discussions of health impacts of air pollution. A study of the public health impacts associated with ambient air pollution in the Lower Mainland using 1994 -1998 data (Brauer et al. 2000) concluded the following: • In comparison with Western US cities of comparable population, average

concentrations of major air pollutants measured in the Vancouver region were quite low, although occasionally short-term peak concentrations are reached that are as high as or higher than peak concentrations reached in other cities and above health guideline values.

• Mortality estimates indicating the potential for air pollution to be associated with numbers of deaths was comparable to that attributable to causes of death such as motor vehicle traffic accidents, suicides and HIV/AIDS, but much lower than the numbers of deaths attributable to smoking.

Life shortening

hospital admissions

emergency room visits chronic bronchitis

increased number of cases

restricted activity days

asthma symptom days

acute respiratory symptoms

bronchitis in children

increased severity of effect


11-19 December 2004

11.4 Evaluation of Air Quality Impacts of Proposed Project

The air quality and greenhouse gas emissions report prepared by RWDI in collaboration with GCSI (2003) estimated the reduction in air pollutants and GHG emissions that would result due to RAV line operation. This report provided the basis for the following analysis of the air quality impacts during the operation phase of the RAV Project. In addition, the following sections address the air quality impacts of the project’s construction phase. The impact of construction activities on air quality was not addressed in the GCSI/RWDI report.

11.4.1 Effects on Local Air Quality

The impacts on air quality of the proposed RAV line are assessed in two separate phases: impacts from construction and impacts from operation. The construction phase is characterized by short-term air emissions from construction equipment, and activities associated with large-scale construction projects. Emissions from the operational phase are minimal, with anticipated net improvements in local air quality due to the displacement of other types of vehicles by the transit line. Emissions from the operational phase will come primarily from the electrical power generation that will be necessary to power the trains. 11.4.1.1 Air Quality Impacts from Construction

The potential exists for air quality impacts during the construction phase, although these will be relatively short-term in duration. The two major types of emissions possible from this development are: • dust emissions from non-combustion sources; and • exhaust emissions from construction vehicles and stationary combustion

sources Dust emissions generally consist of large particles that settle out relatively close to the source, whereas exhaust emissions generally consist of fine particles that can drift further away from the source. The design of the final transit project had not been finalized at the time this assessment was


December 2004 11-20

prepared. It is expected, however, that the final design may include above-, below- and at-grade components. In addition, construction of the below-grade components is expected to include both tunnel boring and cut-and-cover tunnelling techniques. This assessment has been structured to address the types of emissions that could reasonably be expected from the RAV Project, taking into account the types of construction techniques used for similar projects. Dust Emission Sources For large transportation construction projects, dust tends to be the emission with the greatest potential impact. Sources of dust emissions for the RAV Project include: • open blasting (expected to be absent or minimal); • earth excavating activities; • vehicle travel on gravel and dusty roads; • fugitive dust from dump trucks and ocean-going barges; and • transfer of spoils from dump trucks to ocean-going barges. The potential for dust emissions will occur wherever any of these activities are taking place; in the RAV Project, the most likely points of impact include: • at openings to tunnel boring sections; • along lengths of the route where major excavation will occur, including

sections where cut-and-cover tunnelling techniques will be used; • areas where blasting may be required; and • locations where excavation spoils are transferred from dump trucks to

ocean-going barges. Combustion Exhaust Emissions Combustion emission sources typically associated with this type of project include: • diesel exhaust emissions from mobile sources, including earth-moving

equipment, dump trucks and barging operations;


11-21 December 2004

• exhaust from stationary combustion sources, including generators, heaters, and possibly off-site construction and fabrication (including concrete-casting facilities); and

• exhaust from tunnel boring machines, either directly, in the case of diesel-powered tunnel boring machines, or indirectly, in the case of electric tunnel boring machines powered by diesel generators at the surface.

It is anticipated that electrically-driven tunnel boring machinery powered from an electricity grid substation will be used, thus mitigating local exhaust emissions. Without having details on the level of activity for each of these types of combustion emission sources, it is not possible to provide a quantitative estimate of the total emissions that will occur. Although the potential air quality impacts from these activities can be significant, it is important to note that they will be temporary and localized. Also, since the construction equipment to be used on the RAV Project will likely be sourced from other parts of the Lower Mainland and because much of it is operated on a daily basis, there should be no net increase in regional air quality impacts. SECTION 11.5 of this assessment presents best practices to be employed during the construction phase of the RAV Project to mitigate localized impacts due to combustion exhaust emissions. 11.4.1.2 Air Quality Impacts from Operation

As described in the previous report prepared by RWDI on behalf of RAVCo (2003) and the report prepared in association with GSCI (2003), the RAV Project will result in a net reduction of air pollutant emissions in the Lower Fraser Valley, and will improve local air quality in the vicinity of the project. The RAV line will displace diesel buses currently used by TransLink and is also expected to displace passenger vehicles, in addition to those already displaced by bus service. The project will also provide a long-term alternative to private passenger vehicle use, in the same way the existing Expo and Millennium lines have provided this alternative.


December 2004 11-22

To assess the air quality impacts of the proposed RAV line, the following forecasts of modal shift and number of passengers from previous studies were used: • Richmond/Airport - Vancouver Rapid Transit Multiple Account Evaluation.

(IBI Group et al. 2001) (document and technical appendices available at: http://www.translink.bc.ca/Transportation_Plans/RAV_Rapid_Transit.asp)

• RAV Richmond/Airport/Vancouver Rapid Transit Project Definition Phase,

Final Report on Ridership & Revenues. (Halcrow Group Ltd. with TSi Consultants 2003). Available at: http://www.translink.bc.ca/Transportation_Plans/RAV_Rapid_Transit.asp)

The IBI Group report (2001) is a preliminary study, and the second report (Halcrow Group Ltd. and TSi Consultants 2003) is an “investment grade” study which is much more thorough and detailed in its analysis. The latter report used a more sophisticated system model and produced the system parameters that were used in the current analysis. Estimate of Train Travel Table 11.4 shows the route and vehicle volume parameters used in the analysis. The different types of trains considered are “partial-grade separation” (articulated two-car trains, similar to the Calgary C-trains) and full-grade separation (SkyTrain-style trains). Based on assumptions provided by TransLink, the full-grade separation option offers significantly greater ridership and other advantages that affect the overall system operation, hence greater emission displacement from the replaced services. Table 11.4 Route and Vehicle Volume Parameters - RAV Equipment

Partial Grade Separation

Full Grade Separation

2010 2021 2010 2021 Vehicle type Articulated 2-car train SkyTrain Route length A (km) 15.1 15.1 15.1 15.1 Route length B (km) 14.8 14.8 14.8 14.8 Mean return route length (km) 29.9 29.9 29.9 29.9 Fleet requirement (daily peak) 32 38.4 40 48


11-23 December 2004



2010 2021 2010 2021 AM expansion factor 10 10 10 10 Daily # of cars 320 384 400 480 Daily vkmt1 9,568 11,482 11,960 14,352 Annual vkmt 2,966,080 3,559,296 3,707,600 4,449,120

1. vkmt = ‘vehicle kilometers traveled’ – a statistic that indicates total activity based on number of vehicles and total length of travel for each vehicle

Estimate of Reductions in Bus and Passenger Vehicle Travel To estimate the effect of the project on bus and trolley use, the Halcrow/TSi study (2003) simulated the entire TransLink system without and with the RAV line. Table 11.5 describes the estimated change in service requirements with the RAV line in place in 2010 and 2021. Table 11.5 Change in Bus and Trolley Fleet Requirements with RAV

(either partial-grade or full-grade separation) Year Fleet Requirement Change 2010 2021 40-foot diesel -9 0 60-foot diesel -11 -36 40-foot trolley -14 -20 Express coach -21 -22 Annual Km Change 2010 2021 40-foot diesel (includes express coach) -754,200 -1,461,148 60-foot diesel -2,745,079 -4,110,941 40-foot trolley 205,533 -101,343 Total (Net Change) -3,293,745 -5,673,432

Based on GVTA. 2003.

The RAV line will displace road vehicle traffic from the transit corridor along both the main route and the airport roadways. Emission reduction estimates were made for private car and taxicab trips that would be avoided with RAV.


December 2004 11-24

Table 11.6 summarizes the annual reductions in kilometres traveled by road vehicles due to displacement by RAV. Table 11.6 Annual Reduction in Distance Traveled by Road and Airport

Traffic with RAV Project

Partial Grade Separation Full Grade Separation

2010 2021 2010 2021 Cambie Street Corridor

Cars 16,872,984 20,519,008 28,137,440 32,792,616 Vancouver International Airport

Cars 2,333,636 3,152,727 2,565,455 3,461,818 Taxis 8,922,727 12,054,545 9,809,091 13,236,364

Total Car Traffic 28,129,347 35,726,280 40,511,986 49,490,798 Based on Halcrow/Tsi. 2003.

The reduction in distance traveled by road vehicles (i.e., cars and buses) shown in Tables 11.5 and 11.6 ranges from 43 to 55 million km for the full grade separation version of the RAV line and from 31 to 42 million km for the partial-grade separation version. These reductions translate directly into emission reductions for both common air pollutants and greenhouse gases using conventional emission factors. The reduced distances traveled will reduce direct tailpipe emissions from the vehicles as well as re-suspended street dust – a significant contributor to urban PM loadings. Each kilometre traveled by an on-road vehicle re-suspends about 1.5 grams of settled street dust (0.3 g/km PM10) by the force of friction between tires and dusty pavement and air advected by the movement of the vehicle. There is also a reduction in PM emissions from less brake and tire wear (assumed to be included in the emission factor for street dust for the purposes of the emission reduction estimates below). Estimate of Changes in Emissions The above analysis assessed the air quality impacts of the proposed RAV Project in the years 2010 and 2021. Longer term effects were extrapolated from these points in time, assuming that the system would change as defined in the Halcrow/TSi report (2003) and that the electricity supply for RAV would consist, on average over the entire time period, of 50% emission-free ‘green’


11-25 December 2004

power and 50% combined-cycle gas turbine-generated power. The latter is generally considered to be the least cost marginal source of future supply, although many alternatives are now price-competitive with it. The core analysis included only the direct effects of the RAV Project on air emissions within the transit corridor: Cambie Street from Waterfront Station to Richmond Centre and an extension to Vancouver International Airport. Implications of potential ‘ripple’ effects outward into the wider region are discussed below. Emissions attributable to the RAV line are associated with the generation of the electricity used to power the system. Table 11.7 compares the estimated electrical energy usage by the partial grade separation vs. full grade separation project versions in 2010 and 2021. Table 11.7 Electrical Energy Usage by RAV System



2010 2021 2010 2021

Energy Use Factors (kWh/km)1

4.2 4.2 3.05 3.05

Annual Km 2,966,080 3,559,296 3,707,600 4,449,120

Annual GWh2 12.5 15.0 11.3 13.6 1. Kilowatt hours per kilometre 2. Gigawatt hours Table 11.8 shows the estimated reduction in air pollutant emissions due to displaced traffic in tonnes per year using the current set of operating parameters and assumptions. Note that positive values and negative values (-) indicate increased and decreased emissions, respectively.


December 2004 11-26

Table 11.8 Summary of Air Pollutant Emissions



Emissions (tonnes per year)

2010 2021 2010 2021

RAV line Emissions PM 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.07 Street dust 0 0 0 0 NOx 0.14 0.17 0.13 0.16 CO 0.10 0.12 0.09 0.11 Diesel Bus Emissions Exhaust PM -0.3 -0.2 -0.3 -0.2 Street dust (PM10) -1 -2 -1 -2 NOx -15 -12 -15 -12 CO n/a n/a n/a n/a Cars (including airport traffic) Exhaust PM -0.2 -0.3 -0.2 -0.4 Street dust (PM10) -8 -11 -12 -15 NOx -10 -1 -14 -2 CO -133 -7 -191 -9 Net Emissions Exhaust PM -0.5 -0.4 -0.5 -0.5 Street dust (PM10) -9 -12 -13 -17 NOx -25 -13 -30 -14 CO -133 -7 -191 -9 Total Net Emissions -168 -33 -235 -40

The analysis assumed that the scheduled improvements in light- and heavy-duty vehicle emission standards over the period 2004 to 2007 will be implemented. Therefore, the future emission factors for light- and heavy-duty on-road vehicles were assumed to be lower emitters, so as to appropriately account for the displaced on-road vehicles. Although the reductions in emissions presented in Table 11.8 are not very significant on a regional scale, it is important to note that they will be disproportionately beneficial on a local scale. This is particularly true for the


11-27 December 2004

Cambie Street corridor, where there is currently substantial transit bus traffic. Reductions in emissions along traffic corridors are especially important in reducing exposure of people living near them. For example, exposures of people living within 100 m of a major roadway or heavily traveled street may be exposed to two to three times the levels of fine PM (PM2.5) than indicated by general regional air quality monitors. Depending on the location of the power generation source in the power grid, the small emission attributable to the RAV line would occur elsewhere in the region, remote from the Cambie Street corridor, or outside the region (i.e., airshed) altogether. 11.4.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions

As documented in the report prepared by GCSI and RWDI (2003), significant amounts of GHG emissions will be avoided as a result of the RAV Project during the operational phase, due to the displacement of diesel buses and automobiles. These reductions are expected to far outweigh any short-term increase in GHG emissions that will be experienced during the construction phase. 11.4.2.1 Impacts of Construction on Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions associated with the construction phase of the RAV Project are expected to be consistent with other projects of this scale. In large-scale construction projects, the major sources of GHG emissions are: • Direct sources – fossil-fuelled construction equipment (mobile and

stationary); and • Indirect sources – production of cement for use in concrete. The amount of GHG emissions produced by fossil-fuelled construction equipment is directly proportional to the quantity of fuel used. Greenhouse gas emissions associated with concrete production depend on the amount of cement used; for each tonne of cement produced, approximately one tonne of CO2 is released. The direct emissions attributable to the RAV Project in this phase are those associated with construction equipment only.


December 2004 11-28

A possible mitigating measure would be the use of Ecosmart® concrete in place of conventional concrete. This product, which was used at one location during Millennium line construction, replaces some of the cement with alternate materials such as fly ash, thus avoiding up to 50% of the associated CO2 emission. The practicality of extensive use of Ecosmart® concrete or other similar mixtures in the RAV line is not known at this time. The determination of which types of concrete products are used for project construction will be subject to the discretion of the Concessionaire. 11.4.2.2 Impacts of Operation on Greenhouse Gas Emissions

RAV line operation is expected to prevent the release of between 16 and 21 kilotonnes of greenhouse gases per year by the year 2021, depending on the type of rail technology used. The reductions will arise due to the replacement of diesel buses and the increased displacement of private automobiles by the train service, relative to bus-only transportation. These reductions will be partly offset by the anticipated GHG emissions associated with additional electrical generation required to power the RAV line. The future marginal greenhouse gas intensity of electricity generation in BC is presented in Table 11.9. The estimate of future new electrical generation GHG intensity assumes that 50% of new electrical generation will be met by combined cycle gas turbines, and 50% will be met by “green” (i.e., net-zero GHG emissions) electrical generation, such as biomass, small-scale hydroelectric and wind power. Table 11.9 Greenhouse Gas Emissions Factor Estimates

Electrical Source Emission Factors

CO2 Emission Factors (kg/MWh)1

Current system average 26

Current CCGT technology 328

Future new generation2 164 1. kilograms per megawatt hour 2. Assumes 50% combined cycle gas turbine and 50% “green” (zero greenhouse

gas emissions) electrical generation


11-29 December 2004

Table 11.10 presents the estimates for avoided GHG emissions for 2010 and 2025 for both the partial grade and full grade separation RAV line alternatives. Table 11.10 Summary of Net Avoided Greenhouse Gas Emissions



CO2 (tonnes per year)

2010 2021 2010 2021

RAV line Emissions 2,043 2,452 1,854 2,225 Diesel Bus Emissions1 -5,151 -8,167 -5,151 -8,167 Cars (including airport traffic)2

-8,439 -10,718 -12,154 -14,847

Total Net Emissions -11,547 -16,433 -15,450 -20,789 1. Bus average fuel efficiency of 50 L/100 km (1,365 g/km for 40’ bus and 1,502 g/k

for 60’ bus) 2. Light-duty vehicle average urban fuel efficiency of 12.7 L/100 km (300 g/km) 11.4.3 Effects on Regional Air Quality in the Lower Fraser

Valley

The RAV line will reduce air pollutant emissions in the Lower Fraser Valley through the displacement of diesel buses and personal vehicle travel. This reduction of air emissions will contribute to improvements in air quality and a corresponding reduction in health impacts in the region. 11.4.3.1 Valuation of Avoided Damage

Several cost-benefit studies of air quality improvement in the Lower Fraser Valley have been carried out over the past 10 years. These studies have produced the best estimates of the monetized value of avoided damage costs attributable to emissions in the Lower Fraser Valley region. The values are airshed-specific because of the unique relationship between a quantity of emitted pollutant, its relative impact on air quality and the distribution of the exposed population in the airshed that experiences the effects of the exposure. Table 11.11 shows the avoided damage cost values that have been used in recent applications in the region: the Multiple Account


December 2004 11-30

Evaluation of RAV (IBI Group et al. 2001) and a cost-benefit study of operating the BC Hydro Burrard Thermal Plant (Marvin Shaffer & Associates 2001). These values are also summarized in a report prepared for the GVRD by The Sheltair Group (2001). These values comprise estimates of damage to human health (morbidity and premature mortality), agricultural crop damage and visibility impairment attributable to the individual pollutants and their atmospheric chemical reaction products (e.g., ozone). The results are dominated by the value of a shortened human life associated with exposure to PM. A commonly used global damage value for CO2 is $25/tonne, as shown in Table 11.11. Table 11.11 Summary of Indicative Pollutant Damage Values for the

Lower Fraser Valley

Nominal Current $CDN/tonne Value

PM (PM10) NOx CO2e Damage cost value, Lower Fraser Valley

$45,000 $2,000 $25

Marvin Shaffer and Associates. 2001.

Table 11.12 presents an estimate of avoided social damage cost of the emission reductions, using the values indicated in Table 11.11 and based on the net emission reductions shown in Table 11.8 and Table 11.10.

Table 11.12 Estimated Avoided Annual Damage Costs of RAV

Project Options

Partial Grade Separation Full Grade Separation Value 2010 2021 2010 2021

Avoided Damage Cost

$0.78 Million $1.01 Million $1.06 Million $1.32 Million

A net present value (NPV) stream can be estimated using these values for 2010 and 2021. It has been argued in the literature that NPV should not be discounted for ecosystem and health damages, but it is more customary to use a discount rate as if the future avoided damage stream were equivalent to an investment. Using a common discount rate of 5% and assuming that the


11-31 December 2004

avoided damages (i.e., benefits) begin in 2010 and level off at the 2021 value thereafter, the NPV of the benefits out to 2050 for the full grade separation system are estimated to be $15 Million (nominal 2004 dollars). Undiscounted, the total absolute avoided damage value over the period 2010 to 2050 is $50 Million. The benefit stream carries on beyond 2050, for the life of the system. 11.4.3.2 Wider System Benefits

The above estimated benefits refer to those for the emissions that will be directly displaced from the Cambie Street corridor operations by the RAV Project. The ripple effects of facilitation of urban form modification (i.e., densification) in the longer term can be considerably greater. It is reasonable to assume that these enhanced benefits to 2050 would be at least twice the values cited above, or about $30 Million in nominal 2003 dollars, discounted at 5%, or $100 Million undiscounted.

11.5 Mitigation of Air Quality Impacts and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Long-term air quality benefits will be realized from the RAV line. During line operation, the only significant source of emissions will be from electricity generation. The construction phase will produce short-term air quality impacts from a variety of sources. Mitigation options to reduce the impact of the project on air quality and GHG emissions are described below

11.5.1 During Operation

The only significant emissions, including air pollutants and greenhouse gases, that will be generated by the operation of the RAV line are emissions from electrical power generation. The project will more than offset the electrical power supply emissions by the displaced on-road vehicle emission reductions, as explained in SECTION 11.4.


December 2004 11-32

11.5.2 During Construction

Best practices for minimizing the impacts of combustion source exhaust and dust should be practiced during the construction phase of the RAV line. Best practices to minimize combustion source emissions and impacts include: • positioning any necessary stationary emission sources (e.g., portable

diesel generators, compressors, etc.) as far as is practical from sensitive receptors;

• specifying grid rather than generator set electrical power for equipment wherever possible, including the tunnel boring machine and equipment to be used during cut-and-cover tunnel excavations;

• specifying the use of clean fuels such as ultra-low sulphur diesel in dump trucks and other heavy-duty diesel vehicles and/or equipment, in conjunction with the use of particulate trap control devices, as well as catalytic converters, to avoid excessive diesel emissions; and

• proper maintenance and calibration of motors. Best practices to minimize fugitive dust emissions include: • construction of unpaved haul routes with an appropriate road base to

support heavy truck traffic; • on-site provision of a supply of water or other dust suppressant and

appropriate equipment for applying the suppressant (e.g., a tank truck with spray bars) during construction periods, to be used as needed to maintain moist surfaces on all unpaved haul routes and traffic areas to suppress visible dust emissions from these surfaces;

• provision of truck-washing facilities to prevent track-out of mud and dust onto city streets;

• daily cleaning of paved routes adjoining unpaved traffic areas with road-cleaning equipment during construction periods;

• transportation of bulk materials in covered vehicles; • covering or stabilizing any stockpiles of soil or aggregates; • daily visual inspections to identify and address potential areas of dust and

odour emissions; and


11-33 December 2004

• establishment of procedures for responding to complaints and documenting visual inspections, complaints and response(s) taken.

Generally, these best practice recommendations have been applied as requirements, as appropriate, to contractors for recent projects (e.g., Millennium Line SkyTrain extension and other large-scale infrastructure projects in BC), as defined in the environmental specifications released with requests for proposals.

11.6 Conclusions

The air quality impacts of the proposed RAV line are expected to provide a net benefit to local air quality and prevent the release of significant amounts of GHG emissions by providing an alternative to private motor vehicle use. Total air pollutant emissions, especially particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide, will be reduced by the RAV line relative to the “no build” scenario. The emissions reductions are due to the displacement of diesel buses, as well as additional passenger vehicle trips that would not have been displaced by bus transit service alone. Although the reduction in air pollutant emissions is not significant on a regional scale, the impacts on local air quality will be significant, as the emissions reductions will occur primarily along specific transit corridors, such as Cambie Street. During the construction phase, the potential exists for air quality impacts, although these will be relatively short-term in duration. The two major sources of emissions possible from this development are dust emissions from non-combustion sources, and exhaust emissions from construction vehicles and stationary combustion sources. Although the potential for localized air quality impacts of these activities may be significant, it is important to note that they are temporary and localized. Taking into account the increased emissions from electrical power generation, RAV line operation is expected to reduce emissions overall by between 168 and 235 tonnes per year of common air contaminants in 2010, and between 33 and


December 2004 11-34

40 tonnes per year in 2021. These reductions arise from the expected displacement of both diesel buses and private vehicles. Reductions in fine particulate matter and oxides of nitrogen are expected to be particularly significant on the local scale, particularly along the Cambie Street corridor. Significant amounts of GHG emissions will be avoided by the RAV Project during the operational phase, due to the displacement of diesel buses and automobiles. These reductions are expected to far outweigh any short-term increase of greenhouse gas emissions that will be experienced during the construction phase. During the operation of the RAV line, reductions of between 16 and 21 kilotonnes of CO2 equivalent greenhouse gas emissions per year by 2021 are expected. These numbers take into account the anticipated increase in greenhouse gas emissions from increased electrical power generation. During construction, best practices for minimizing dust and exhaust emissions are proposed. Significant recommendations include the use of electrically-powered equipment rather than gas- or diesel-powered equipment, wherever possible, including the tunnel boring machines and equipment to be used during cut-and-cover tunnel excavations.

11.7 References

Alchemy Consulting Inc., Levelton Engineering Ltd., Constable Associates Consulting Inc. and S.C. Pryor. 2000. BC Clean Transportation Analysis Project. Prepared for Clean Transportation Analysis Project Steering Committee.

Brauer, M., J. Brumm and S. Ebelt. 2000. Evaluation of Ambient Air Pollution in

the Lower Mainland of British Columbia: Public Health Impacts, Spatial Variability, and Temporal Patterns. Prepared for Vancouver Richmond Regional Health Board.

British Columbia Lung Association. 2003. Health and Air Quality 2002 – Phase 1.

Methods for Estimating and Applying Relationships between Air Pollution and Health Effects.


11-35 December 2004

Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 2000. Canada-Wide Standards for Particulate Matter (PM) and Ozone. Ottawa, Ontario.

Cirrus Consultants Ltd. 1999. Regional Air Quality Evaluation of the Proposed

SkyTrain Extension Project. Prepared for Rapid Transit Project 2000 Ltd., Vancouver, B.C.

Global Change Strategies International and RWDI West Inc. 2003. Air Quality

and Greenhouse Gas Emission Benefits of the Richmond Airport Vancouver Rapid Transit Project. Prepared for Richmond Airport Vancouver Rapid Transit Project. Vancouver, B.C.

Greater Vancouver Regional District. 2003. Forecast and Backcast of the 2000

Emission Inventory for the Lower Fraser Valley, 1985-2025. Policy and Planning Department. Burnaby, B.C.

Greater Vancouver Regional District. 2002. Lower Fraser Valley Ambient Air

Quality Report, 2001. Burnaby, B.C. October 2002. Greater Vancouver Regional District and Fraser Valley Regional District. 2002.

2000 Emission Inventory for the Lower Fraser Valley Airshed. Burnaby, B.C.

Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority. 2003. RAV Bus Integration

Strategy. Available online at: http://www.ravprapidtransit.com/en/reports.php#technical

Halcrow Group Ltd. with TSi Consultants. 2003. RAV

Richmond/Airport/Vancouver Rapid Transit Project Definition Phase, Final Report on Ridership & Revenues. Available online at: http://www.translink.bc.ca/Transportation_Plans/RAV_Rapid_Transit.asp

Health Canada. 2001. Canada-Wide Standards (CWSS). Health and Air

Quality – Regulations. Available online at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hecs-sesc/air_quality/cws.htm


December 2004 11-36

IBI Group, Eric Vance and Associates, Alchemy Consulting Inc., Collings Johnston Inc., Steadman Associates Inc., Delcan Corp., N.D. Lea Consultants Ltd., Baker McGarva Hart Inc., Urbanics Consultants Ltd., Golder Associates Ltd. and TSI Consultants. 2001. Richmond / Airport - Vancouver Rapid Transit Multiple Account Evaluation. Final Report. April 16, 2001. Available online at http://www.translink.bc.ca/Transportation_Plans/RAV_Rapid_Transit.asp

Marvin Shaffer and Associates. 2001. Multiple Account Benefit-Cost Evaluation

of the Burrard Thermal Generating Plant. Prepared for Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations, Victoria, B.C. April 2001.

Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection. 1995. Ambient air quality objectives

for British Columbia and Canada. Available online at: http://wlapwww.gov-bc.ca/air/airquality/pdfs/airqual_1.pdf.

RWDI West Inc. 2003. Preliminary Air Quality of the Richmond / Airport /

Vancouver Rapid Transit Project. Prepared for Richmond Airport Vancouver Rapid Transportation Project. Vancouver, B.C. April 2003.

The Sheltair Group. 2001. Greater Vancouver and Fraser Valley Air Quality

Management Plan, Phase 2 Final Report: Harmonized Measures for Reducing Greenhouse Gases and Air Pollution in the Lower Fraser Valley. Prepared for Greater Vancouver Regional District, Fraser Valley Regional District, BC Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection and Environment Canada. September 2001.

World Health Organization. 2000. Air Quality Guidelines. Geneva. Available

online at: http://www.evro.who.int/air/Activities/20020620_1

(15) section 11 - dec 2004

Documents