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TRANSCRIPT
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
16 The Nervous System: The Brain and Cranial Nerves
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by
Steven Bassett
Southeast Community College
Lincoln, Nebraska
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Introduction
• The brain is a complex three-dimensional
structure that performs a bewildering
array of functions
• Think of the brain as an organic computer
• However, the brain is far more versatile than a
computer
• The brain is far more complex than the spinal
cord
• The brain consists of roughly 20 billion
neurons
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Embryology of the brain
• The CNS begins as a neural tube
• The lumen of the tube (neurocoel) is filled with
fluid
• In the fourth week of development, the cephalic
area of the neural tube enlarges to form:
• Prosencephalon
• Mesencephalon
• Rhombencephalon
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 16.1 Development of the Human Brain
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Embryology of the brain (continued)
• Prosencephalon eventually develops to form:
• Telencephalon: forms the cerebrum
• Diencephalon: forms the epithalamus,
thalamus, and hypothalamus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Mesencephalon
• Does not subdivide
• Becomes the midbrain
• Rhombencephalon
• Eventually develops to form:
• Metencephalon: forms the pons and cerebellum
• Myelencephalon: forms the medulla oblongata
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.1 Major Divisions of the Brain
CEREBRUM
DIENCEPHALON
MESENCEPHALON
PONS
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
CEREBELLUM
• Coordinates complex
somatic motor
patterns
• Adjusts output of
other somatic motor
centers in brain and
spinal cord
Spinal
cord
Brain
stem
• Relays sensory information to thalamus and
to other portions of the brain stem
• Autonomic centers for regulation of visceral
function (cardiovascular, respiratory, and
digestive system activities)
• Relays sensory
information to
cerebellum and
thalamus
• Subconscious
somatic and visceral
motor centers
• Processing of visual
and auditory data
• Generation of reflexive
somatic motor
responses
• Maintenance of
consciousness
• Centers controlling
emotions, autonomic
functions, and hormone
production
• Relay and processing
centers for sensory
information
THALAMUS
HYPOTHALAMUS
• Conscious thought processes,
intellectual functions
• Memory storage and processing
• Conscious and subconscious regulation
of skeletal muscle contractions
Left cerebral
hemisphere
Gyri
Sulci
Fissures
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Major Regions and Landmarks of the Brain
• Medulla oblongata
• Pons
• Cerebellum
• Mesencephalon (midbrain)
• Diencephalon
• Cerebrum (telencephalon)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.13a Sectional Views of the Brain
Mesencephalon
Pons
Temporal lobe
Mamillary body
Optic chiasm
Anterior
commissure
Frontal lobe
Interventricular
foramen
Septum
pellucidum
Corpus callosum
Precentral gyrus Central sulcus Postcentral gyrus Cingulate gyrus
Fornix
Thalamus
Membranous portion
of epithalamus
Hypothalamus
Pineal gland
Parieto-occipital
sulcus
Superior
colliculus Corpora
quadrigemina Inferior colliculus
Aqueduct
of midbrain
Fourth ventricle
Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata
A sagittal section through
the brain
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Medulla oblongata
• Relays information to the thalamus and brain
stem
• Regulates visceral function
• Pons
• Relays information to the thalamus and
cerebellum
• Regulates subconscious somatic and visceral
motor centers
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Cerebellum
• Coordinates somatic motor function
• Adjusts output of somatic motor centers
resulting in smooth operation
• Mesencephalon (midbrain)
• Processes visual and auditory data
• Maintains consciousness and alertness
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Diencephalon
• Epithalamus
• Contains the pineal gland
• Thalamus
• Relays information to the cerebrum
• Processes sensory information
• Hypothalamus
• Involved in emotions, thirst, some habitual activity
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Telencephalon (cerebrum)
• Conscious thought processes
• Memory storage
• Conscious regulation of skeletal muscle
contractions
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.1 Major Divisions of the Brain
CEREBRUM
DIENCEPHALON
MESENCEPHALON
PONS
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
CEREBELLUM
• Coordinates complex
somatic motor
patterns
• Adjusts output of
other somatic motor
centers in brain and
spinal cord
Spinal
cord
Brain
stem
• Relays sensory information to thalamus and
to other portions of the brain stem
• Autonomic centers for regulation of visceral
function (cardiovascular, respiratory, and
digestive system activities)
• Relays sensory
information to
cerebellum and
thalamus
• Subconscious
somatic and visceral
motor centers
• Processing of visual
and auditory data
• Generation of reflexive
somatic motor
responses
• Maintenance of
consciousness
• Centers controlling
emotions, autonomic
functions, and hormone
production
• Relay and processing
centers for sensory
information
THALAMUS
HYPOTHALAMUS
• Conscious thought processes,
intellectual functions
• Memory storage and processing
• Conscious and subconscious regulation
of skeletal muscle contractions
Left cerebral
hemisphere
Gyri
Sulci
Fissures
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Gray Matter and White Matter Organization
• The cerebrum consists of:
• Inner region of gray matter
• Surrounded by tracts of white matter
• Gray matter consists of cell bodies
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• The Ventricles of the Brain
• Ventricles are fluid-filled cavities
• Filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Fluid transports nutrients to the CNS and transports waste away from the CNS
• CSF also provides protection
• There are four ventricles
• Ventricles 1 and 2 (called lateral ventricles) are in the cerebral hemispheres (separated by a partition called the septum pellucidum)
• Ventricle 3 is in the diencephalon
• Ventricle 4 lies between the pons and the cerebellum
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Lateral ventricles (ventricles 1 and 2)
• Main portion of the ventricle lies in the parietal lobes
• Each has an anterior horn extending into the frontal
lobe
• Each has a posterior horn extending into the occipital
lobe
• Each has an inferior horn extending into the temporal
lobe
• Each communicates with the third ventricle
• Through the interventricular foramen
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.2a Ventricles of the Brain
Orientation and extent of the ventricles as
seen in a lateral view of a transparent brain
Anterior horns of lateral ventricles
Cerebral hemispheres
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Central canal
Spinal cord
Lateral ventricles
Interventricular foramen
Third ventricle
Posterior horns of lateral ventricles
Inferior horns of lateral ventricles
Aqueduct of midbrain
Fourth ventricle
Cerebellum
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Organization of the Brain
• Third ventricle
• Communicates with the fourth ventricle
• Through the aqueduct of the midbrain
• Fourth ventricle
• Communicates with the central canal of the
spinal cord
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.2a Ventricles of the Brain
Orientation and extent of the ventricles as
seen in a lateral view of a transparent brain
Anterior horns of lateral ventricles
Cerebral hemispheres
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Central canal
Spinal cord
Lateral ventricles
Interventricular foramen
Third ventricle
Posterior horns of lateral ventricles
Inferior horns of lateral ventricles
Aqueduct of midbrain
Fourth ventricle
Cerebellum
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.2b Ventricles of the Brain
Lateral view of a plastic cast of the
ventricles
Inferior horns of lateral ventricles
Posterior horn of lateral ventricle
Anterior horn of lateral ventricle
Lateral ventricle
(left)
Interventricular foramen
Third ventricle
Aqueduct of midbrain
Fourth ventricle
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.2c Ventricles of the Brain
Anterior view of the ventricles as if
seen through a transparent brain
Third ventricle
Aqueduct of midbrain
Fourth ventricle
Cerebellum
Central canal
Medulla oblongata
Pons
Interventricular foramen
Longitudinal fissure
Lateral ventricles in cerebral hemispheres
Inferior horns of lateral ventricles
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.2d Ventricles of the Brain
Diagrammatic coronal section showing the
interconnections between the ventricles
Lateral ventricles
Interventricular foramen
Third ventricle
Inferior horn of lateral ventricle
Aqueduct of midbrain
Fourth ventricle
Septum pellucidum
Central canal
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Protection involves:
• Bones of the skull
• Parietal, frontal, occipital, and temporal bones
• Cranial meninges
• Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater
• Cerebrospinal fluid
• Blood–brain barrier
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Cranial Meninges: The Dura Mater
• Consists of two layers
• Endosteal layer
• This is the layer felt within the anterior fontanel of a baby
• Meningeal layer
• Space between the two layers is called the dural sinus
• The meningeal layer forms folds called:
• falx cerebri
• tentorium cerebelli
• falx cerebelli
• diaphragma sellae
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Folds of the Dura Mater
• Falx cerebri
• Meningeal layer that extends into the longitudinal
fissure
• Inferior/anterior portion attaches to the crista galli
• Inferior/posterior portion attaches to the internal occipital
crest and the tentorium cerebelli
• Tentorium cerebelli
• Separates the cerebellar hemispheres from the
cerebral hemispheres
• Extends across the cranium at right angles to the falx
cerebri
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Folds of the Dura Mater (continued)
• Falx cerebelli
• Extends from the tentorium cerebelli to separate the
cerebellar hemispheres
• Diaphragma sellae
• Lines the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
• It anchors the dura mater to the sphenoid bone
• It encases the pituitary gland
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.3a Relationships among the Brain, Cranium, and Meninges
Lateral view of the brain
showing its position in the
cranium and the organization
of the meningeal coverings
Spinal cord
Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum
Cerebral
cortex
Cerebral
cortex
Pia
mater Subarachnoid
space
Cranium Dura mater
(endosteal layer)
Dural sinus
Dura mater
(meningeal layer)
Subdural space
Arachnoid
mater
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.3b Relationships among the Brain, Cranium, and Meninges
A corresponding view of the cranial cavity with the
brain removed showing the orientation and extent
of the falx cerebri and tentorium cerebelli
Diaphragma sellae
Pituitary gland
Sella turcica
of sphenoid
Inferior sagittal sinus
Dura mater
Superior sagittal sinus
Cranium
Falx cerebri
Tentorium
cerebelli
Transverse
sinus
Falx cerebelli
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.5a The Cranial Meninges, Part II
Coronal section
This view shows the organization and relationship
of the cranial meninges to the brain.
Arachnoid
mater
Arachnoid
trabeculae
Pia mater
Dura mater
Cerebral cortex
Falx cerebri
Subarachnoid
space
Arachnoid
granulation
Subdural
space
Superior sagittal
sinus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Cranial Meninges: The Arachnoid Mater
• Consists of projections called arachnoid
granulations
• CSF flows through these to enter into blood
circulation
• Consists of weblike material underlining the
arachnoid layer
• These collagenous fibers help anchor cerebral blood
vessels
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.5b The Cranial Meninges, Part II
Coronal section
A detailed view of the arachnoid membrane, the
subarachnoid space, and the pia mater. Note the
relationship between the cerebral vein and the
subarachnoid space.
Arachnoid mater
Arachnoid
trabecula
Cerebral
vein
Perivascular
space
Pia mater
Cerebral
cortex
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Cranial Meninges: The Pia Mater
• Attached to the surface of the brain
• Follows the sulci and gyri of the brain
• Helps to anchor the larger blood vessels
of the cerebrum
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.4 The Cranial Meninges, Part I
ANTERIOR
POSTERIOR
Cranium
Dura mater
Subarachnoid
space
Arachnoid
mater
Cerebral
cortex
covered
by pia mater
Loose
connective
tissue and
periosteum
of cranium
Epicranial
aponeurosis
Scalp
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
• Provides protection of the brain and spinal cord
• Provides support
• Transports nutrients to the CNS tissue
• Transports waste away from the CNS
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Formation of CSF
• Produced by the ependymal cells of the
choroid plexus
• They actively transport nutrients, vitamins, and
ions into the CSF
• They actively remove waste from the CSF
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.6 The Choroid Plexus and Blood–Brain Barrier
INTERSTITIAL FLUID IN THALAMUS
The location of the choroid plexus in
each of the four ventricles of the brain
The structure and function of the
choroid plexus. The ependymal
cells are a selective barrier, actively
transporting nutrients, vitamins,
and ions into the CSF. When
necessary, these cells also actively
remove ions or compounds from
the CSF to stabilize its composition. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID IN THIRD VENTRICLE
CHOROID PLEXUS
Tight junction
Ions
(Na, K, Cl, HCO3, Ca2, Mg2)
Vitamins
Organic nutrients
Oxygen
Waste products
Ions
Amino acids
(when necessary)
Choroid plexus cells
Capillary
CO2
Waste products
Tight
junction Astrocyte Neuron
Blood–brain
barrier
Capillary
Endothelial cell
Ependymal
cells
Nutrients
(especially glucose)
Oxygen
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Circulation of CSF
• CSF from the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles
• Flows through the interventricular foramen
• Flows into the third ventricle
• Flows into the aqueduct of the midbrain
• Flows into the fourth ventricle
• Through the lateral aperture and median aperture and
central canal of the spinal cord
• Flows into the subarachnoid space
• Flows around the brain and spinal cord eventually
enters circulation via the arachnoid granulations
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.7 Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid
Dura mater
Filum
terminale
Spinal
cord
Central
canal
Subarachnoid space
Arachnoid mater
Median aperture
Choroid plexus of
fourth ventricle
Lateral aperture
Aqueduct
of midbrain
Choroid plexus
of third ventricle
Extension of choroid
plexus into
lateral ventricle
Arachnoid
granulations
Superior
sagittal
sinus
Pia
mater
Subarachnoid
space
Cerebral
cortex
Superior
sagittal sinus Cranium Dura mater
(endosteal
layer)
Arachnoid
granulation
Fluid
movement
Arachnoid
trabecula
Dura mater
(meningeal
layer)
Subdural
space
Arachnoid
mater
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Protection and Support of the Brain
• Blood–Brain Barrier
• The lining of the blood vessels consists of
endothelial cells that are highly interconnected
by tight junctions
• Due to this tight connection, only lipid-soluble
material can pass from the blood to the cells of the
brain and spinal cord
• Water-soluble material can only pass via the action
of transport mechanisms
• The transport mechanisms are very specific
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Medulla Oblongata
• Medulla oblongata
• Continuous with the spinal cord to the brain
stem
• All communication between the brain and spinal
cord passes through the medulla oblongata
• Nuclei in the medulla oblongata are:
• Relay stations for sensory or motor pathways
• Associated with cranial nerves connected to the
medulla oblongata
• Associated with the autonomic control of visceral
organs
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Medulla Oblongata
• Relay stations
• Nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus
• Pass sensory information to the thalamus
• Olivary nuclei
• Pass information to the cerebrum, diencephalon, and
brain stem
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Medulla Oblongata
• Nuclei of cranial nerves
• Contains sensory and motor nuclei of cranial
nerves:
• VIII, IX, X, XI, and XII
• Autonomic nuclei
• Major centers include:
• Cardiovascular centers (cardiac and vasomotor)
• Respiratory centers (rhythmic breathing)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.8a The Medulla Oblongata
Anterior view
Pyramids
Olive
Medulla oblongata
Pons
Spinal cord
Olivary nucleus
Cardiovascular centers
Solitary nucleus
Nucleus cuneatus
Nucleus gracilis
Reticular formation
Lateral white column
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.8b The Medulla Oblongata
Pyramids
Olive
Pons
Posterolateral view
Spinal cord
Olivary nucleus
Cardiovascular centers
Respiratory rhythmicity center
Solitary nucleus
Nucleus cuneatus
Nucleus gracilis
Reticular formation
Lateral white column
Attachment to membranous roof of fourth ventricle
Posterior median sulcus
Posterior white columns
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Pons
• The pons is a prominent bulge superior to
the medulla oblongata and consists of:
• Sensory and motor nuclei for cranial nerves:
• V, VI, VII, and VIII
• Nuclei involved with involuntary control of
breathing:
• Consist of apneustic center and pneumotaxic center
• Nuclei that relay cerebellar commands:
• Consist of cerebellar peduncles
• Ascending, descending, and transverse tracts
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.9 The Pons
Olivary nucleus
Medulla oblongata
Transverse fibers
Ascending tracts
Pons
Descending tracts
Pneumotaxic center
Apneustic center
Cerebellum
Fourth ventricle
Reticular formation
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Mesencephalon
• Mesencephalon (also called the midbrain)
• Consists of two pairs of nuclei collectively called
corpora quadrigemina
• Responsible for processing auditory and visual
stimuli
• Auditory processing occurs in the inferior colliculus
• Visual processing occurs in the superior colliculus
• Consists of nuclei of the reticular formation
• Involved in maintaining alertness
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Mesencephalon
• Mesencephalon (continued)
• Consists of:
• Red nucleus: integrates information between the
cerebrum and cerebellum
• Substantia nigra: regulates motor output of the
basal nuclei
• Cerebral peduncles: have ascending fibers that
synapse in the thalamus and descending fibers of the
corticospinal pathway
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.10b The Mesencephalon
Diagrammatic and posterior views of the diencephalon
and brain stem. The diagrammatic view is drawn, as if
transparent, to show the positions of important nuclei.
Superior colliculi
Inferior colliculi
Corpora quadrigemina
Trochlear nerve (N IV)
Cerebral peduncle
Superior cerebellar peduncle
Reticular formation in floor of
fourth ventricle
Fourth ventricle
Pineal gland
Superior colliculus
Cerebral peduncle
Thalamus
Red nucleus
Substantia nigra
Inferior colliculus
Reticular formation
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Diencephalon
• The diencephalon consists of:
• Epithalamus
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.12a The Hypothalamus
Midsagittal section through the brain. This view shows the major features
of the diencephalon and adjacent portions of the brain stem.
Optic
nerve
Infundibulum
(cut)
Tuberal
area Mamillary
body
Corpus
callosum
Septum
pellucidum
Fornix
Anterior
cerebral artery
Frontal lobe
Anterior
commissure
Optic chiasm
Parietal
lobe
Choroid plexus
in epithalamus
Thalamus
(surrounds
third ventricle)
Pineal gland
Aqueduct of
midbrain
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Fourth
ventricle
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Diencephalon
• The epithalamus
• Forms the roof of the third ventricle
• Contains the pineal gland
• Produces the hormone melatonin
• Regulates our day/night cycles
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Diencephalon
• The thalamus
• Forms the walls of the third ventricle
• There is a right and a left thalamus
• Thalamic nuclei are egg-shaped
• Each thalamic nucleus is divided into: • Anterior group: part of the limbic system
• Medial group: relays information to the frontal lobe
• Ventral group: relays information to the parietal lobes
• Posterior group: relays information to the occipital lobe
• Lateral group: adjusts activity in the cingulate gyrus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.11a The Thalamus
Lateral view of the brain showing the
positions of the major thalamic
structures. Functional areas of
cerebral cortex are also indicated,
with colors corresponding to those of
the associated thalamic nuclei.
Occipital
lobe
Parietal lobe Frontal
lobe
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.11b The Thalamus
Enlarged view of the thalamic nuclei of the left side. The color of
each nucleus or group of nuclei matches the color of the associated
cortical region. The boxes either provide examples of the types of
sensory input relayed to the basal nuclei and cerebral cortex or
indicate the existence of important feedback loops involved with
emotional states, learning, and memory.
Cerebellum
Basal
nuclei
General
sensory
input
Visual
input
Auditory
input
Limbic
system
Frontal
lobes
Parietal lobe and
cingulate gyrus
Association areas
of cerebral cortex
Lateral geniculate nucleus
Medial geniculate nucleus
Pulvinar
Medial group
Lateral group
Anterior group
Posterior group
V e n t r a l g r o u p
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 16.5 The Thalamus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Diencephalon
• The hypothalamus
• Forms the floor of the third ventricle
• Consists of numerous nuclei
• Consists of an infundibulum, which connects
to the pituitary gland
• Consists of the mamillary body on the
posterior wall of the hypothalamus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Diencephalon
• The hypothalamus (continued)
• Consists of nuclei to control:
• Subconscious control of skeletal muscles
• Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and digestive
functions
• Secretion of antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
• Emotional and behavioral drives and thirst drives
• Coordination between voluntary and autonomic
functions
• Body temperature
• Circadian rhythm
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.12a The Hypothalamus
Midsagittal section through the brain. This view shows the major features
of the diencephalon and adjacent portions of the brain stem.
Optic
nerve
Infundibulum
(cut)
Tuberal
area Mamillary
body
Corpus
callosum
Septum
pellucidum
Fornix
Anterior
cerebral artery
Frontal lobe
Anterior
commissure
Optic chiasm
Parietal
lobe
Choroid plexus
in epithalamus
Thalamus
(surrounds
third ventricle)
Pineal gland
Aqueduct of
midbrain
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Fourth
ventricle
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.12b The Hypothalamus
Enlarged view of the hypothalamus showing the locations of major nuclei and
centers. Functions for these centers are summarized in Table 16.6.
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pons
Tuberal
area Mamillary
body
Posterior lobe of pituitary gland (pars nervosa)
Autonomic centers (sympathetic)
Paraventricular nucleus
Preoptic area
Autonomic centers (parasympathetic)
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Anterior lobe of
pituitary gland
Supraoptic nucleus
Tuberal nuclei
Optic chiasm
Infundibulum
Pars distalis
Pars intermedia
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebellum
• The cerebellum consists of:
• Two hemispheres
• Folia (folds similar to gyri of the cerebrum)
• Anterior and posterior lobes
• Vermis (separates the hemispheres)
• Flocculonodular lobes
• Arbor vitae
• Cerebellar peduncles
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.15b The Cerebellum
Dendrites projecting
into the gray matter
of the cerebellum
Axons of Purkinje cells
projecting into the white
matter of the cerebellum Purkinje cells LM 120
Cell body of Purkinje cell
Sagittal view of the cerebellum showing the arrangement of gray matter
and white matter. Purkinje cells are seen in the photomicrograph; these
large neurons are found in the cerebellar cortex.
Cerebellar peduncles
Superior
Middle
Inferior
Medulla oblongata
Pons
Anterior lobe
Arbor vitae
Cerebellar nucleus
Cerebellar cortex
Posterior lobe
Flocculonodular lobe
Choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle
Medulla oblongata
Fourth ventricle
Mamillary body
Pons
Superior colliculus
Aqueduct of midbrain
Inferior colliculus
Anterior lobe
Arbor vitae
Cerebellar cortex
Cerebellar nucleus
Posterior lobe
Flocculonodular lobe
Mesencephalon
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.15a The Cerebellum
Superior surface of the cerebellum. This view
shows major anatomical landmarks and regions.
Left hemisphere
of cerebellum
Right hemisphere
of cerebellum
Folia
Folia
Vermis Vermis
Cerebellum
Anterior lobe
Primary fissure
Posterior lobe
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebellum
• The cerebellum
• Cerebellar cortex: subconscious coordination
of movements
• Arbor vitae: connects cerebellar cortex with
cerebellar peduncles
• Cerebellar peduncles
• Superior: connect cerebellum with mesencephalon,
diencephalon, and cerebrum
• Middle: communicate between cerebellum and pons
• Inferior: connect cerebellum with the medulla
oblongata
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.15b The Cerebellum
Dendrites projecting
into the gray matter
of the cerebellum
Axons of Purkinje cells
projecting into the white
matter of the cerebellum Purkinje cells LM 120
Cell body of Purkinje cell
Sagittal view of the cerebellum showing the arrangement of gray matter
and white matter. Purkinje cells are seen in the photomicrograph; these
large neurons are found in the cerebellar cortex.
Cerebellar peduncles
Superior
Middle
Inferior
Medulla oblongata
Pons
Anterior lobe
Arbor vitae
Cerebellar nucleus
Cerebellar cortex
Posterior lobe
Flocculonodular lobe
Choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle
Medulla oblongata
Fourth ventricle
Mamillary body
Pons
Superior colliculus
Aqueduct of midbrain
Inferior colliculus
Anterior lobe
Arbor vitae
Cerebellar cortex
Cerebellar nucleus
Posterior lobe
Flocculonodular lobe
Mesencephalon
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• The cerebrum consists of:
• Two hemispheres
• Several lobes
• Frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
• Gyri and sulci
• Longitudinal fissure
• Corpus callosum
• Basal nuclei
• Limbic system
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• The Cerebral Hemispheres
• The hemispheres consist of:
• Gyri and sulci
• Central sulcus
• Longitudinal fissure
• Cerebral lobes
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.16a The Cerebral Hemispheres, Part I
Superior view
POSTERIOR
ANTERIOR
Right cerebral hemisphere
Cerebral veins and arteries covered by arachnoid mater
Central sulcus
Parieto-occipital sulcus
Cerebellum
Left cerebral hemisphere
Longitudinal fissure
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• The Cerebral Hemispheres
• The Cerebral Lobes
• Frontal lobe: conscious control of skeletal muscles
• Occipital lobe: perception of visual stimuli
• Parietal lobe: conscious perception of touch,
pressure, vibration, pain, temperature, and taste
• Temporal lobe: conscious perception of auditory and
olfactory stimuli
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.17a The Cerebral Hemispheres, Part II
Lateral view of intact brain after removal of the
dura mater and arachnoid mater showing
superficial surface anatomy of the left hemisphere
Precentral gyrus
Central sulcus
Lateral sulcus
FRONTAL LOBE
of left cerebral
hemisphere
Branches of middle
cerebral artery emerging
from lateral sulcus
TEMPORAL LOBE
Medulla oblongata
Pons
Cerebellum
OCCIPITAL LOBE
PARIETAL
LOBE
Postcentral
gyrus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
• Precentral gyrus
• Anterior to the central gyrus
• Neurons direct voluntary movements by controlling somatic motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord
• Postcentral gyrus
• Posterior to the central gyrus
• Neurons receive somatic sensory information for touch, pressure, pain, taste, and temperature from the dorsal columns and spinothalamic tracts
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.13a Sectional Views of the Brain
Mesencephalon
Pons
Temporal lobe
Mamillary body
Optic chiasm
Anterior
commissure
Frontal lobe
Interventricular
foramen
Septum
pellucidum
Corpus callosum
Precentral gyrus Central sulcus Postcentral gyrus Cingulate gyrus
Fornix
Thalamus
Membranous portion
of epithalamus
Hypothalamus
Pineal gland
Parieto-occipital
sulcus
Superior
colliculus Corpora
quadrigemina Inferior colliculus
Aqueduct
of midbrain
Fourth ventricle
Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata
A sagittal section through
the brain
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• Hemispheric Specialization
• Left hemisphere
• Speech center, writing, language, mathematics
• Right hemisphere
• Analysis by touch, spatial visualization
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.18 Hemispheric Specialization
LEFT HAND
Prefrontal cortex
Speech center
Writing
Auditory cortex (right ear)
General interpretive center (language
and mathematical calculation)
Visual cortex (right visual field)
LEFT HEMISPHERE
RIGHT HEMISPHERE
C O R P U S
C A L L O S U M
RIGHT HAND
Prefrontal cortex
Anterior commissure
Auditory cortex (left ear)
Analysis by touch
Spatial visualization and analysis
Visual cortex (left visual field)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• The Central White Matter
• Consists of bundles called:
• Association fibers: tracts that interconnect areas of
neural cortex within a hemisphere (arcuate fibers
and longitudinal fasciculi)
• Commissural fibers: tracts that connect the two
hemispheres (anterior commissure and corpus
callosum)
• Projection fibers: tracts that link the cerebrum with
other regions of the brain and spinal cord
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.19a The Central White Matter
Lateral aspect of the brain showing arcuate fibers and longitudinal fasciculi
Arcuate fibers
Longitudinal fasciculi
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.19b The Central White Matter
Anterior view of the brain showing orientation of the commissural and projection fibers
Anterior commissure
Projection fibers of internal capsule
Corpus callosum
Longitudinal fissure
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• The Basal Nuclei
• These are masses of gray matter embedded in
the white matter inferior to the lateral ventricles
• Consist of:
• Caudate nucleus
• Amygdaloid body
• Claustrum
• Putamen
• Globus pallidus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• The Basal Nuclei
• Caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus
pallidus
• Control the cycles of arm and leg movements when
walking
• Claustrum
• Plays a role in subconscious processing of visual
information
• Amygdaloid body
• Component of the limbic system
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.20c The Basal Nuclei
Frontal section
Head of caudate nucleus
Lateral ventricle
Claustrum
Insula
Putamen
Lentiform nucleus
Globus pallidus
Amygdaloid body
Corpus callosum
Septum pellucidum
Internal capsule
Lateral sulcus
Anterior commissure
Tip of inferior horn of lateral ventricle
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• The Limbic System
• Located between the cerebrum and the
diencephalon just superior to the corpus
callosum
• Functions:
• Establishes emotional states
• Links the conscious functions with the unconscious
autonomic functions
• Facilitates memory storage and retrieval
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.21a The Limbic System
Sagittal section through the cerebrum showing the cortical
areas associated with the limbic system. The parahippocampal
and dentate gyri are shown as if transparent so that deeper
limbic components can be seen.
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Temporal lobe
Parahippocampal
gyrus (limbic lobe) Hippocampus
(within dentate gyrus) Mamillary
body
Corpus
callosum
Interthalamic
adhesion
Central
sulcus Cingulate gyrus
(limbic lobe)
Fornix
Pineal gland
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• The limbic system consists of: • Cingulate gyrus
• Dentate gyrus
• Parahippocampal gyrus
• Hippocampus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.21b The Limbic System
Additional details concerning the three-
dimensional structure of the limbic system
Anterior nucleus
of thalamus
Hypothalamic
nuclei
Olfactory
tract
Amygdaloid
body
Mamillary
body Hippocampus
(within dentate gyrus)
Parahippocampal
gyrus
Cingulate
gyrus
Corpus
callosum Fornix
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.21a The Limbic System
Sagittal section through the cerebrum showing the cortical
areas associated with the limbic system. The parahippocampal
and dentate gyri are shown as if transparent so that deeper
limbic components can be seen.
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Temporal lobe
Parahippocampal
gyrus (limbic lobe) Hippocampus
(within dentate gyrus) Mamillary
body
Corpus
callosum
Interthalamic
adhesion
Central
sulcus Cingulate gyrus
(limbic lobe)
Fornix
Pineal gland
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cerebrum
• The Limbic System
• The fornix
• Tract of white matter connecting the hippocampus
with the hypothalamus
• Many fornix fibers extend to the mamillary bodies
• Mamillary bodies control reflex movements
associated with eating
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves
• These nerves innervate the periphery emerging
from the brain (not the spinal cord)
• These nerves are on the ventrolateral surface of
the brain
• They are numbered beginning at the anterior
aspect of the brain
• They are numbered CN I to CN XII
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.22b Origins of the Cranial Nerves
Diagrammatic inferior view of the human
brain. Compare view with part (a).
Olfactory bulb, termination
of olfactory nerve (N I)
Olfactory tract
Optic chiasm
Optic nerve (N II)
Infundibulum
Oculomotor nerve (N III)
Trochlear nerve (N IV)
Trigeminal nerve (N V)
Abducens nerve (N VI)
Facial nerve (N VII)
Vestibulocochlear
nerve (N VIII)
Glossopharyngeal
nerve (N IX)
Vagus nerve (N X)
Hypoglossal nerve (N XII)
Accessory nerve (N XI)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.22a Origins of the Cranial Nerves
The inferior surface of the brain as it appears on
gross dissection. The roots of the cranial nerves
are clearly visible.
Medulla oblongata
Spinal cord
Cerebellum
Vertebral
artery
Basilar
artery
Mamillary
body
Pons
Olfactory bulb, termination
of olfactory nerve (N I)
Olfactory tract
Optic chiasm
Optic nerve (N II)
Infundibulum
Oculomotor nerve (N III)
Trochlear nerve (N IV)
Trigeminal nerve (N V)
Abducens nerve (N VI)
Facial nerve (N VII)
Vestibulocochlear
nerve (N VIII)
Glossopharyngeal
nerve (N IX)
Vagus nerve (N X)
Hypoglossal nerve (N XII)
Accessory nerve (N XI)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN I: The Olfactory Nerve
• Function: sensory (smell)
• Origin: olfactory epithelium
• Foramen: olfactory foramina
• Destination: olfactory bulbs
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.23 The Olfactory Nerve
Olfactory
nerve fibers
Olfactory epithelium
Cribriform plate
of ethmoid
OLFACTORY
NERVE (N I)
Olfactory tract
(to olfactory cortex
of cerebrum)
Left olfactory bulb
(termination of
olfactory nerve)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN II: The Optic Nerve
• Function: sensory (vision)
• Origin: retina
• Foramen: optic canal
• Destination: diencephalon, then to occipital
lobe
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.24 The Optic Nerve
OPTIC NERVE
(N II)
Mesencephalon
(cut)
Optic chiasm
Optic tract
Eye
Visual cortex
(in occipital lobes)
Optic
projection
fibers
Lateral
geniculate
nucleus
(in thalamus)
Pituitary
gland
Olfactory tract
Olfactory bulb
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN III: The Oculomotor Nerve
• Function: controls extra-ocular eye muscles
• Motor function
• Superior, inferior, and medial rectus
• Inferior oblique
• Levator palpebrae superioris
• Origin: mesencephalon
• Foramen: superior orbital fissure
• Destination: extra-ocular eye muscles
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.25 Cranial Nerves Controlling the Extra–Ocular Muscles
Trigeminal
nerve (N V), cut
Vestibulocochlear
nerve (N VIII), cut
Facial nerve
(N VII), cut
ABDUCENS
NERVE (N VI)
Lateral
rectus
muscle
(cut)
Medial
rectus
muscle
Inferior
rectus
muscle
Ciliary
ganglion
OPTIC
NERVE (N II)
Optic
chiasm
OCULOMOTOR
NERVE (N III)
TROCHLEAR
NERVE (N IV)
Superior
rectus
muscle Superior
oblique
muscle
Trochlea
Levator
palpebrae
superioris
muscle
Inferior
oblique
muscle
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN IV: The Trochlear Nerve
• Function: controls extra-ocular eye muscles
• Motor function
• Superior oblique
• Origin: mesencephalon
• Foramen: superior orbital fissure
• Destination: extra-ocular eye muscles
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.25 Cranial Nerves Controlling the Extra–Ocular Muscles
Trigeminal
nerve (N V), cut
Vestibulocochlear
nerve (N VIII), cut
Facial nerve
(N VII), cut
ABDUCENS
NERVE (N VI)
Lateral
rectus
muscle
(cut)
Medial
rectus
muscle
Inferior
rectus
muscle
Ciliary
ganglion
OPTIC
NERVE (N II)
Optic
chiasm
OCULOMOTOR
NERVE (N III)
TROCHLEAR
NERVE (N IV)
Superior
rectus
muscle Superior
oblique
muscle
Trochlea
Levator
palpebrae
superioris
muscle
Inferior
oblique
muscle
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN V: The Trigeminal Nerve
• Function:
• Mixed (sensory and motor) function
• Ophthalmic: sensations from the forehead, eyelids,
and nose
• Maxillary: sensations from lower eyelid, upper lip, and
cheek
• Mandibular: controls mastication
• Origin: ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular
nerves
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN V: The Trigeminal Nerve (continued)
• Foramen:
• Ophthalmic: superior orbital fissure
• Maxillary: foramen rotundum
• Mandibular: foramen ovale
• Destination:
• Ophthalmic and maxillary: Pons
• Mandibular: mandibular muscles
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.26 The Trigeminal Nerve
TRIGEMINAL NERVE (N V)
Maxillary branch
Foramen ovale
Pons
Otic ganglion
Mandibular branch
Pterygopalatine ganglion
Ophthalmic branch
Semilunar ganglion
Superior orbital fissure
Supraorbital nerves
Ciliary ganglion
Foramen rotundum
Infra-orbital nerve
Lingual nerve
Submandibular ganglion
Mental nerve
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN VI: The Abducens Nerve
• Function: controls eye movements
• Motor function
• Origin: pons
• Foramen: superior orbital fissure
• Destination: innervates the lateral rectus eye
muscle
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.25 Cranial Nerves Controlling the Extra–Ocular Muscles
Trigeminal
nerve (N V), cut
Vestibulocochlear
nerve (N VIII), cut
Facial nerve
(N VII), cut
ABDUCENS
NERVE (N VI)
Lateral
rectus
muscle
(cut)
Medial
rectus
muscle
Inferior
rectus
muscle
Ciliary
ganglion
OPTIC
NERVE (N II)
Optic
chiasm
OCULOMOTOR
NERVE (N III)
TROCHLEAR
NERVE (N IV)
Superior
rectus
muscle Superior
oblique
muscle
Trochlea
Levator
palpebrae
superioris
muscle
Inferior
oblique
muscle
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN VII: The Facial Nerve • Function: Mixed (sensory and motor)
• Sensory: sensations from the face / taste
• Motor: controls muscles of the face
• Origin:
• Sensory: taste buds
• Motor: pons
• Foramen: internal acoustic meatus
• Destination:
• Sensory: pons
• Motor: muscles of the face
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.27a The Facial Nerve
Origin and branches of the facial
nerve
Posterior auricular
branch
Stylomastoid
foramen
Chorda tympani nerve
(with mandibular
branch of N V)
Lingual branch
(with lingual nerve
of N V)
Submandibular
ganglion
Pons
Pterygopalatine
ganglion
Greater
petrosal
nerve
Geniculate
ganglion
FACIAL
NERVE (N VII)
Temporal
branch
Zygomatic
branches
Buccal
branch
Mandibular
branch
Cervical
branch
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN VIII: The Vestibulocochlear Nerve
• Function:
• Sensory: balance and hearing
• Origin: receptors of the vestibule and cochlea
• Foramen: internal acoustic meatus
• Destination: pons
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.28 The Vestibulocochlear Nerve
Tympanic cavity
(middle ear)
Semicircular canals
Vestibular branch (N VIII)
Facial nerve
(N VII), cut
Internal acoustic
canal VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR
NERVE (N VIII)
Pons
N V
N VI N VII
N IX
N XII N X
N XI
Medulla oblongata
Cochlear branch (N VIII)
Cochlea Auditory tube
Tympanic membrane
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN IX: The Glossopharyngeal Nerve
• Function: Mixed (sensory and motor)
• Sensory function: tongue pain
• Motor function: swallowing
• Origin:
• Sensory: posterior 1/3 of the tongue
• Motor: salivary gland
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN IX: The Glossopharyngeal Nerve
(continued)
• Foramen: jugular foramen
• Destination:
• Sensory: pons
• Visceral motor: parotid salivary gland
• Somatic motor: pharyngeal muscles for swallowing
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.29 The Glossopharyngeal Nerve
Common carotid artery
Carotid sinus
Carotid body
Lingual branch
Otic ganglion
Inferior (petrosal) ganglion
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NERVE (N IX)
Superior (jugular) ganglion
Pharyngeal branches
Carotid sinus branch
Parotid salivary gland
Medulla oblongata
Pons
N VII
N VI
N V
N VIII
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN X: The Vagus Nerve
• Function:
• Sensory: information from organs
• Motor: sends information to the organs
• Origin:
• Sensory: from the organs
• Motor: medulla oblongata
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN X: The Vagus Nerve (continued)
• Foramen: jugular foramen
• Destination:
• Sensory: autonomic centers of the medulla oblongata
• Somatic motor: muscles of the palate and pharynx
• Visceral motor: respiratory, cardiovascular, and
digestive organs
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.30 The Vagus Nerve
Superior pharyngeal
branch
Superior laryngeal nerve
Recurrent laryngeal nerve
Internal branch
External branch
VAGUS NERVE (N X)
Inferior ganglion of
vagus nerve
Cardiac branches
Cardiac plexus
Anterior vagal trunk
Left lung Right lung
Liver
Stomach
Colon
Pancreas
Spleen
Small intestine
Celiac plexus
Hypogastric plexus
Medulla oblongata
Auricular branch to external ear
Superior ganglion of vagus nerve
Pharyngeal branch
Superior laryngeal nerve
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN XI: The Accessory Nerve
• Function:
• Motor: controls the sternocleidomastoid, trapezius,
palate, pharynx, and larynx muscles
• Origin: spinal cord and medulla oblongata
• Foramen: jugular foramen
• Destination:
• Internal branch: muscles of the palate, pharynx, and
larynx
• External branch: sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
muscles
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.31 The Accessory and Hypoglossal Nerves
HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE (N XII)
ACCESSORY NERVE (N XI)
Internal branch: to palatal, pharyngeal, and laryngeal muscles with vagus nerve
Intrinsic muscles of tongue
Styloglossus muscle
Genioglossus muscle
Geniohyoid muscle
Hyoglossus muscle
Hyoid bone
Thyrohyoid muscle
Sternohyoid muscle
Sternothyroid muscle
Omohyoid muscle
Sternocleidomastoid muscle
Trapezius muscle
Ansa cervicalis (cervical plexus)
Spinal cord
External branch of N XI
Spinal root of N XI
Cranial root of N XI
Trigeminal nerve (N V)
Medulla oblongata
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• CN XII: The Hypoglossal Nerve
• Function:
• Motor: controls tongue movement
• Origin: medulla oblongata
• Foramen: hypoglossal canal
• Destination: tongue muscles
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 16.31 The Accessory and Hypoglossal Nerves
HYPOGLOSSAL NERVE (N XII)
ACCESSORY NERVE (N XI)
Internal branch: to palatal, pharyngeal, and laryngeal muscles with vagus nerve
Intrinsic muscles of tongue
Styloglossus muscle
Genioglossus muscle
Geniohyoid muscle
Hyoglossus muscle
Hyoid bone
Thyrohyoid muscle
Sternohyoid muscle
Sternothyroid muscle
Omohyoid muscle
Sternocleidomastoid muscle
Trapezius muscle
Ansa cervicalis (cervical plexus)
Spinal cord
External branch of N XI
Spinal root of N XI
Cranial root of N XI
Trigeminal nerve (N V)
Medulla oblongata
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Cranial Nerves
• Summary of Cranial Nerve Branches and
Functions
• Mnemonic aid
• Oh, Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, Very Good
Vacations Are Heavenly
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 16.12 The Cranial Nerves (Part 1 of 2)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 16.12 The Cranial Nerves (Part 2 of 2)