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T H E G R A V E I N E A R L Y M I D D L E E N G L I S HV E R S E M E T A P H O R A N D A R C H A E O L O G Youglas Moffat

T he i ma ge o f t h e g r a v e a s a h o u s e o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y i n me d i a e v a lE n g l i s h wo r k s . The f o l l o w i n g l i n e s f r o m f o u r t w e l f t h - a n d t h i r t e e n t h -c e n t u r y po e ms p r o v i d e t h e f u l l e s t e x pr e s s i o n o f i t s v a r i o u s a s pe c t s :

Wen be t u r u f i s b i t u u r ,& b i p u t i s b i b ou r .

( When t h e T ur f i s T hy T owe r , " l i n e s 1 - 2 ) 1

Nu s a l b i n ha l i e wi d s p a d e b en wr o u t ,

P i n h u s i s s o n e i b u l d p e r pu s a l t wo n i e n i n n e ,Bobe pe w i r s t & pe r o uf s a l I i g ge n uppon pin c h i n n e .

2( " T h e L a t e me s t Da y , " l i n e s 2 5 , 2 9- 3 0)Nu pu h a u e s t neowe h u s , i n ne b e b r u n g en ;Lowe b e o b pe h l e l e wo we s , u n h e 3 e beop pe s i d wo we s ;P i n r o f i i \ p o n pine b r e o s t e f u l [ n e i h ] .

( " S o u l ' s Ad d r e s s t o t h e Bo d y , " l i n e s C2 9- 3 1)Ne bi n u p\n h u s h e a l i c e i t i n b r e d ;H i t b i 5 u n he h a n d l a h bo n n e pu l i s t p e r i n n e ;- Be h e l e wa 3 e s b e o 3 \ s j e s i d wa 3 es u n h e 3e ,

96

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9 7b e r o f b i S i b y l d p l r e b r o s t e f u l neh.

( T h e Gr a v e , " l i n e s 7 - 1 0 ) 4

T h e l a s t f o u r l i n e s q u o t e d , i n f a c t , r e p r e s e n t o n l y t hemo s t i n t e n s ee x p r e s s i o n o f t he i ma g e i n The Gr a v e . " As Ro s e ma r y Wo o l f r e ma r k s , t hee n t i r e poem p l a y s w i t h t he c o n c e i t o f t heg r a v e as a h o u s e , e x p l o i t i n gw i t h i r o n i c wi t t he d i s c o r d s t h a t a r i s e f r o m t h i s b a s i c me t a p h o r . Theo d d i t y o f t heg r a v e , t h o u gh t o f as a h o u s e , i ss t r e s s e d : t he w a l l s ar ed i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y l o w , t h e r e ar e no d o o r s , and t he r o o f l i e s i mme d i a t e l ya b o v e i t s i n h a b i t a n t ' s c h e s t . . . . 5 And Do u g l a s D. S h o r t , w h i l e a r g u i n g t h a t t hewo r k s u c c e e d s a e s t h e t i c a l l yasmuch f r o m t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n sa n d e mb e l l i s h me n t s o f t he r h e t o r i c a l mode i nwh i c h i t i sc a s t as f r o mi t s b a s i c me t a p h o r , 6 c o n f i r m s , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t i t s " mos t c o n s p i c u o u sr h e t o r i c a l s t r a t a g e m . . . i s t he e l a b o r a t e me t a p h o r t h a t s t r u c t u r e s t hepoem a me t a p h o r i nwh i c h t heg r a v e i sc o n s i s t e n t l y e n v i s i o n e d as ah o u s e . " 7 S h o r t ' s t h o r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o no f t he s t r u c t u r e o f TheGr a v e " r e v e a l s w i t h g r e a t d e t a i l t hep r e c i s e r h e t o r i c a l me t h o d s t h r o u g hwh i c h t he w r i t e r o f t he l y r i c e mb o d i e d t he g r i m h umou r and i r o n i cwi tp e r c e i v e d by Wo o l f , but t h e i r common v i e w o f t he r o l e e n a c t e d by t heg r a v e - h ou s e metaphor i nb o t h t h i s wo r k and o t h e r s i s c o m p l i c a t e d by t hef a c t t h a t A n g l o - S a x o n g r a v e s we r e o f t e n c o n c e i v e d of and b u i l t ash o u s e s . 8

F o r a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n t e r e s t e d i n t he e a r l y h i s t o r y o f B r i t a i n , t hee x h u ma t i o n o f g r a v e s has t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n one of t hemo s t f r u i t f u lo f e n d e a v o u r s . And, t h o ug h t he o b j e c t s i n t e r r e d w i t h t hed e a d i n t h e i rg r a v e s g e n e r a l l y r e c e i v e mo r e a t t e n t i o n t h an t he s t r u c t u r e o f t he g r a v e st h e ms e l v e s , s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s h a v e notg o n e e n t i r e l y u n n o t i c e d . F o re x a mp l e , t hee x a mi n a t i o n o f t he p o s i t i o n s o f s k e l e t a l r e ma i n s i nex humedg r a v e s a tEmp i n gha m, R u t l a n d , l e a d s N i c h o l a s R e y n o l d s t o d r a wt hef o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n :

I t s ee ms l i k e l y t h a t t h es e ( a n d o t h e r ) mov emen t s o f p a r t s o ft h e s k e l e t o n s h a p p e n e d s omewhat a t r a n d o m and w h i l e somel i g a me n t s we r e s t i l l i n e x i s t e n c e . Some o f t he f e a t u r e s mayb e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t he n a t u r a l d e c a y o f f a t t y t i s s u e s , bu tsome a r e t o opr o n o u n c e d f o r t h i s t o be t he s o l e c a u s e o fmov emen t . The d i s t u r b a n c e s a l s o s e e m t o be t ooma r k e d t o

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98

b e t h e wo r k o f e a r t h wo r ms o r o t h e r b u r r o wi n g c r e a t u r e s .I n d ee d , when t h e b o n e s mov ed , t h ey c l e a r l y had emp t y s p a c ea r o un d t h em i n t o wh i c h t h e y c o u l d f a l l . T h i s c o u l d n o t h a v eb e e n t h e c a s e i f t h e g r a v e h ad b e e n b a c k f i l l e d a r o u n d t h eb o d y i mme d i a t e l y a f t e r b u r i a l . F ew o f t h e g r a v e s c o u l d h a v ea c c o mmo d a t e d a c o f f i n , n o r was t h e r e a ny e v i d e n c e o f s u c ha s t r u c t u r e . Had t h e g r a v e s r e ma i n e d c o mp l e t e l y o p e n , onemi g h t h a v e e x pe c t e d f a r g r e a t e r i n t e r f e r e n c e wi t h t h e b o d i e s ;a n d t h e e x c e l l e n t s t a t e o f p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e me t a l wo r k ,a n d i n d e e d o f t he s k e l e t a l m a t e r i a l , a r g u e s a g a i n s t an y l o n ge x po s u r e . The o n l y e x p l a n a t i o n s ee ms t o be t h a t t h e g r a v ewas c o v e r e d wi t h some f o r m o f t i mb e r p l a n k i n g , a n d i t s eemsl i k e l y t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l e x c a v a t e d f r o m t h e g r a v e p i t wast h e n p i l e d o n t o p o f t h e t i mb e r s t r u c t u r e . As t h e t i mb e rd e c a y e d , pr e s u ma bl y s l i g h t l y s l o we r t h a n t h e b o d y , t h e f a l l i n g -i n o f t h e o v e r l y i n g m a t e r i a l wo u l d c a u s e d i s l o c a t i o n s o f t h e9k i n d o b s e r v e d h e r e .

E x c a v a t i o n s a t Mu c k i n g , E s s e x , a l s o r e v e a l e v i d e n c e o f g r a v e sa pp a r e n t l y d e s i g n e d t o r e c e i v e " wood ' c ov e r s ' . " ' ' ' 0 A n d i t s ee ms c l e a r ,f r o m t he a p pe a r a n c e o f s o c k e t s a n d / o r l e d ge s a l o n g t h e u p p e r r i ms o f an umbe r o f g r a v e s i n a s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y c e me t e r y a t S t P e t e r ' s , K e n t ,t h a t a v a r i e t y o f c o v e r i n g s we r e u s e d t h e r e :

Some s o c k e t s a r e d e e p , t h e i r p l a n an d t h e s l i g h t r i d g eb e t we e n t h e i r ba s e s a n d t h e g r a v e w a l l s s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t i n gt h a t t h ey we r e i n t e n d e d t o h o l d v e r t i c a l p o s t s . Some, n a r r o wa n d e l o n g a t e d , a n d much s h a l l o we r , s u g g e s t r a t h e r c r o s s be ams . One s e t , s u b - r e c t a n g u l a r i n c r o s s s e c t i o n an d c u t s o a st o p o i n t u p wa r d s an d i n wa r d s a t an a n g l e o f a b o u t 30 d e g r e e sf r o m v e r t i c a l , c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s a p i t c h e d s t r u c t u r e . ^

C e r t a i n o f t h e s e K e n t i s h g r a v e s wi t h wi d e an d s h a l l o w l e d ge s a p p e a r t oh a v e b e e n c o v e r e d wi t h l i d s ; o t h e r s , whose l e d ge s a r e d e e p e r a n d l e s s

12w e l l c u t , we r e p r o b a b l y c o v e r e d wi t h s t o n e o r t i mb e r s l a b s .

E v e n a t t h e mos t f amo us b u r i a l s i t e f r o m t h e A n g l o - S a x o n p e r i o d ,S u t t o n Hoo, t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t h a t a h o u s e - l i k e s t r u c t u r e was b u i l t t o

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9 9e n c l o s e t he o b j e c t s i n t e r r e d a l o n g w i t h t he b o d y ( i f , i n f a c t , t h e r e e v e rw a s a b o d y ) :

A s t r o n g l y c o n s t r u c t e d wooden c a b i n , w i t h e n d - w a l l s andh i g h - p i t c h e d g a b l e d r o o f , i t s e a v e s r u n n i n g o v e r t het o p s o f t he g u n wa l e s , was e r e c t e d a m i d s h i p s . The b u r i a ld e p o s i t was l a i d out i n i t and s t r e wn w i t h b r a c k e n . T h i sp r a c t i c e has a l s o b e e n o b s e r v e d i n V i k i n g - s h i p b u r i a l s i nNo r wa y . The s a n d t h a t had b e e n e x c a v a t e d t o make t he t r e n c hf o r t he b o a t was t h en f i l l e d b ac k i n t o t he s p ac e b e t we e n t hee d g e s o f t he t r e n c h and t he s i d e s o f t he s h i p , and i n t o t heb o a t i t s e l f so t h a t t he s h i p ' s t i m b e r s we r e i m p r i s o n e d i ns o l i d s a n d . F i n a l l y t he g r o un d was l e v e l l e d o f f and a mound,made f r o m m a t e r i a l f r o m t he s u r r o u n d i n g h e a t h , was b u i l t upo v e r t he s h i p . 1 3

I t s h o u l d be c l e a r f r o m t h e s e e x a mp l e s t h a t , i n t he p r e - C h r i s t i a np e r i o d , t he A n g l o - S a x o n s o f t e n b u i l t g r a v e s t h a t we r e c o v e r e d c h a mb e r ss u g g e s t i v e o f h o us e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h o s e c o v e r s we r e p i t c h e d i ns h a p e . And, t h o u gh t he p r a c t i c e o f b u r y i n g o b j e c t s o f v a l u e w i t h t hed e a d was g r a d u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d d u r i n g t he C h r i s t i a n p e r i o d , t h e r e i s noe v i d e n c e t h a t t he a c t u a l s t r u c t u r e o f t he g r a v e c h a n g e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y .S u t t o n Hoo, f o r e x a mp l e , i s g e n e r a l l y d a t e d i n t he C h r i s t i a n e r a ,t h o ug h Ha d wa l d , t he k i n g i nwhos e h o n o u r t h a t c e n o t a ph was p r o b a b l y

1 4c o n s t r u c t e d , a p p a r e n t l y l a p s e d a f t e r c o n v e r s i o n . I n d i s p u t a b l e e v i d e n c eo f t he s u r v i v a l o f t he h o u s e - l i k e s t r u c t u r e o f g r a v e s i n t heC h r i s t i a np e r i o d i s f o un d i n a p a s s a g e q u o t e d by Re y n o l d s , Be d e ' s d e s c r i p t i o no ft h e g r a v e s i t e o f St C h a d : I so f e r h i sb y r g en n e s+owe t r e o wg e we o r co n g e l i c n e s s e me d ml c l e s h us e s ge wo r h t m d h r a g l e g eg y r we d .

T h e r e l e v a n c e o f t he a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s a b o u t t he s t r u c t u r e o fA n g l o - S a x o n g r a v e s t o many of t he d e t a i l s i n t hep a s s a g e s q u o t e d at t heb e g i n n i n g o f t h i s a r t i c l e s h o u l d be r e a d i l y a ppa r e n t . The c o n c e p t i o no f t he g r a v e as a h o u s e o r , by i m a g i n a t i v e e x t e n s i o n , a h a l l o r b o we r ,wo u l d f o l l o w n a t u r a l l y f r o m t h i s s t r u c t u r e . L i n e s r e f e r r i n g t o l oww a l l s and l o w , t i m b e r e d r o o f s wo u l d not h a v e s t r u c k t h e i r o r i g i n a lr e a d e r s as q u i t e so odd or w i t t y as t h e y s t r i k e us . E v e n t he r e f e r e n c et o t he w i r s t , w i t h t he me a n i n g r i d g e p o l e , i n The L a t e me s t Day,

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1 0 0l i n e 3 0 , wo u l d f o l l o w , i f what wa s b e i n g r e f e r r e d t o wa s a p i t c h e d c o v e r i n g s u c h a s a p p a r e n t l y o c c u r r e d a t S t P e t e r ' s , K e n t , a n d a t S u t t o n Ho o .F u r t h e r , i f R e y n o l d s ' s u s p i c i o n , t h a t e x c a v a t e d m a t e r i a l f r o m t h e g r a v ep i t was p i l e d b ac k i n a mo un d o n t o p o f a c o v e r i n g s t r u c t u r e , i s c o r r e c t ,t h en t h e t u r f wo u l d , q u i t e l i t e r a l l y b e a t o we r a s i t i s d e s c r i b e d i nt h e l y r i c o f t h a t t i t l e .

T h e pu r po s e i n b r i n g i n g t o l i g h t t h i s r e s e mb l a n c e b e t we e n l i t e r a r yi ma g e a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l f a c t i s c e r t a i n l y n o t t o i n v a l i d a t e t h ei n t e l l i g e n t a n d s e n s i t i v e p e r c e p t i o n s o f c r i t i c s s u c h a s Wo o l f o r S h o r t .N o r i s i t t o a r g ue f o r s t r i c t v e r i s i m i l i t u d e i n e a r l y me d i a e v a l E n g l i s hp o e t r y : we h a v e , f o r e x a mp l e , w h a t i s a p p a r e n t l y t h e L a t i n s o u r c e o f

When t h e T u r f i s T h y Tower , " ' ' ' 6 a n d t h e r e i s c l e a r l y s ome l i t e r a r yr e l a t i o n b e t we e n t h e " S o u l ' s A d d r e s s " a n d b o t h " T h e G r a v e " a n d " T h eL a t e me s t Da y . " T he pu r p o s e , r a t h e r , i s t o r e t u r n t o o n e p a r t i c u l a ri ma g e , t h e g r a v e a s a h o u s e , a r e s o n a n c e t h a t i t l o s t i n i t s t r a n s f o r ma t i o n i n t o c o n v e n t i o n a l i t y , a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f wh i c h we mus t c o n s t a n t l yb e a wa r e i f we a r e t o a c h i e v e a c l e a r e r un d e r s t a n d i n g o f t o n e a n d me a n i n g i n l i t e r a r y a r t i f a c t s , a n d o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n s t h a t c r e a t e d t h e m.

C e n t r e f o r M e d i a e v a l S t u d i e s , T o r o n t o

NOTES

^ E n g l i s h L y r i c s of the T h i r t e e n t h Century, e d . C a r l e t o n B r o wn( O x f o r d 1 9 3 2 ; r p t . 1 96 2) 5 4 .2

E n g l i s h L y r i c s ( a t n . 1 ) 4 7 . B r o wn p r i n t s t wo o f t h e f o u rv e r s i o n s t h a t r e ma i n o f t h i s poem. W i r s t , i . e . , r i d g e p o l e o r ,p e r h a ps , c e i l i n g .

3 Di e Fragmente der Reden der Seele an den Leichnam in zweiHandschriften zu Worcester u nd Oxford, e d . R i c h a r d Bu c h h o l z ( E r l a n g e n1 8 9 0 ; r p t . A ms t e r d a m 1 9 7 0) 4. " ( H ) e l e wo we s , " i . e . , e n d w a l l s , MS ." e l e we we s . " A n a l t e r n a t i v e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n t o n e i h , l i n e 3 1 , i s

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1 1

l o h , wh i c h pr o v i d e s t h e l i n e w i t h a l l i t e r a t i o n ; h o we v e r , see l i n e 1 o f" The G r a v e " b e l o w.

" The G r a v e " h a s b e e n e d i t e d a n umbe r o f t i me s . Among t h e s ee d i t i o n s a r e o n e s by Bu c h h o l z ( a t n . 3) 11 an d A r n o l d S c h r o e e r , " TheGr a v e , " Anglia 5 ( 1 882 ) 2 8 9- 9 0. Do ug l a s D. S h o r t , i n A e s t h e t i c s a n dU n p l e a s a n t n e s s : C l a s s i c a l R h e t o r i c i n t h e Me d i e v a l E n g l i s h L y r i c' The G r a v e ' , " SJ V 4 8 ( 1 97 6) 2 9 1- 9 9 , a l s o p r i n t s t h e c o mpl e t e poem T h e r e

i s o b v i o u s l y some r e l a t i o n b e t we e n t h e " S o u l ' s A d d r e s s ' a nd " The Gr a v e , "b u t what i t p r e c i s e l y i s ha s n o t b e e n d e t e r mi n e d . The t wo po e ms s h a r ea n o t h e r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e g r a v e as a ho us e : " Du r e l e as i s p e t h us , "( " The Gr a v e , " l i n e 13) a n d " on d u r e l e a s e h us e , " ( " S ou l ' s A d d r e s s , "

l i n e s B40 an d E 8 .5 R o s e ma r y Wo o l f , The English R e l i g i o u s L y r i c in the Middle Ages

1 96 8) 8 3 .S h o r t ( a t n . 4) 299.

( O x f o r d 1968) 8367 S h o r t ( a t n . 4 ) 293 .Q Among t h e o t h e r wo r k s i n wh i c h t h e i ma g e o f t h e g r a v e as a h o u s e

o c c u r s a r e : P r o p r i e t a t e s M o r t i s , l i n e 21 E n g l i s h L y r i c s [ a t n . l ]1 3 0 ) ; " E r t h e u p o n E r t h e , " e d . H i l d a Mu r r a y , E E T S , O. S . 1 41 , MS. H a r l e i a n9 1 3 ( p . 2 , l i n e 17) and MS. C a mb r i d g e U n i v . L i b r . I i 4 . 9 . ( p . 32 ,l i n e 2 6) ; The Towneley Plays, XXXI ( " L a z a r u s " ) , e d . Ge o r g e E n g l a n d a n dA l f r e d W P o l l a r d , E E T S , E. S . 7 1 , p. 391 X l i n e s 1 35 - 3 6) ; " be De s p u t i s o u nb i t we n pe Bo d i a n d pe S o u l e , " e d . w i l h e l m L i n o w, Erlan ger Beitrage zurenglischen P h i l o l o g i e , I , p. 27 ( l i n e s 4 7 - 4 8 ) ; " Di e B ot e n d es T o d e s , "e d . Max K a l u z a , Engl ischen Studien 14 ( 1890) 186 ( l i n e s 15 3- 5 6) .

9N i c h o l a s Re y n o l d s , " The S t r u c t u r e o f A n g l o - S ax o n Gr a v e s , "

A n t i q u i t y 5 0 ( 1 97 6 ) 1 4 2 .M. U. a n d W T. J o n e s , " The C r o p- ma r k S i t e s a t Mu c k i n g , E s s e x ,

E n g l a n d , " i n Recent Archaeological Exc avations in Europe, e d . Ru pe r tB r u c e - M i t f o r d ( L o n d o n 19 7 5) 17 5- 7 6.

1 1 A . C. H o ga r t h , S t r u c t u r a l F e a t u r e s i n A n g l o - S ax o n Gr a v e s , "The Archaeological Journal 1 30 ( 1 973 ) 1 1 1.

12H o g a r t h ( a t n . 11) 1 11.

3 Ru pe r t B r u c e - M i t f o r d , The Sutton Hoo S h i p - B u r i a l - . A Handbook( L o n d o n 19 68 ; 3 r d e d . , 197 9) 7 3.

14B r u c e - M i t f o r d ( a t n . 13) 9 3- 9 7 . The t e r m " c e n o t a ph " i s h i s .

1 5 The Old English Version of Bede's E c c l e s i a s t i c a l History of the

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E n g l i s h People, e d . T ho mas M i l l e r , P t . I , 2, E E T S , O. S. 96 ( L o n d o n 1 8 91 ;r p t . 1959) 272 ( l i n e s 4 - 6 ) . A n o t h e r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e g r a v e a s a h o u s eo c c u r s i n t h e n i n t h V e r c e l l i h o mi l y i n a pa s s a ge l i s t i n g t h e f i v e i ma g e so f h e l l " D o n n e i s Ss er e f e o r 5 a n he l l e o n l i c n e s b y r g en / n e me n e d ,f o r b a n pas h u s e s h r o f b i 5 pe hi m o n u f a n Sam b r e o s t u m s i t e 5. . . , V e r c e l l i Homilies IX- XXI II , e d . P a u l E. S z a r ma c h ( T o r o n t o 198 1)5, l i n e s 7 9 - 8 1.

See English L y r i c s ( a t n . 1) 1 91 .