1977-7 first ictp regional microelectronics workshop and
TRANSCRIPT
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1977-7
First ICTP Regional Microelectronics Workshop and Training onVHDL for Hardware Synthesis and FPGA Design in Asia-Pacific
Paulo Moreira
16 June - 11 July, 2008
PH ESE ME DivisionC E R N
CH-1211 Geneva 23SWITZERLAND
Sequential circuits.
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 1
Outline
• Introduction• Transistors• The CMOS inverter• Technology• Scaling• Gates• Sequential circuits
– Time in logic circuits– D flip-flop– State machine timing– Interconnects– Clock distribution
• Storage elements• Phase-Locked Loops• Example
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 2
“Time also counts”
LogicCircuit outin
output = F(input)
Combinational
LogicCircuit
outin
output = F(state, input)
State(memory)
Sequential
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 3
D Flip-Flop
D Q
CLK = 0(sensing) (storing)
D Q
CLK = 1(sensing)(storing)
D Q
�CLK
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
�
Positive edge-triggered flip-flop
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 4
D Flip-Flop
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 5
State machine timing
D Q
Q
INPUT
CLOCK
OUT
CLOCK
INPUT
Datastable
OUT
Datastable
tsetup thold
tpFF
Flip-Flop timing
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 6
State machine timing
outLogicCircuit
in
Q D
clock
fmax = 1/Tmin
Tmin > tpFF + tp,comb + tsetup
Maximum clock frequency
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 7
Interconnects
• The previous result assumes that signalscan propagate instantaneously across interconnects
• In reality interconnects are metal or polysilicon structures with associated resistance and capacitance.
• That, introduces signal propagation delay that has to be taken into account for reliable operation of the circuit
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 8
Interconnects
Minimum Pitch: 0.2 �mMinimum Width 0.2 �m
Minimum Pitch: 0.2 �mMinimum Width 0.2 �m
§ Capacitance to substrate becomes irrelevant§ Capacitance to neighboring signal becomes
dominating§ Noise to neighboring signal also not negligible§ Extraction for Timing simulation horribly
complicated: tools absolutely mandatory
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 9
Interconnects
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 10
Interconnects
Film Sheet resistance (�/square)n-well 310p+, n+ diffusion (salicided) 4polysilicon (salicided) 4Metal 1 0.12Metal 2, 3 and 4 0.09Metal 5 0.05
L
W
Conductor
R = R LW
(Typical values for an advanced process)
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 11
Interconnects
• Via or contact resistance depends on:– The contacted materials– The contact area
Via
Rvia
Metal 1
Metal 2Via
Via/contact Resistance (�)M1 to n+ or p+ 10M1 to Polysilicon 10V1, 2, 3 and 4 7
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 12
Interconnects
Interconnect layer Parallel-plate (fF/�m2) Fringing (fF/�m)Polysilicon to sub. 0.058 0.043Metal 1 to sub. 0.031 0.044Metal 2 to sub. 0.015 0.035Metal 3 to sub. 0.010 0.033
L
W
Routing capacitance
L
SubstrateOxide
Parallel-plate capacitanceFringing field capacitance
C = Cf0 2 L + Cp0 W L
Cross coupling capacitance
Cx = Cx0 L
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 13
Interconnects
• Three dimensional field simulators are required to accurately compute the capacitance of a multi-wire structure
M3
M2
M1
Multiple conductor capacitances
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 14
Interconnects
• Delay depends on:– Impedance of the driving source– Distributed resistance/capacitance of the wire– Load impedance
• Distributed RC delay:– Can be dominant in long wires– Important in polysilicon wires (relatively high resistance)– Important in salicided wires– Important in heavily loaded wires
InterconnectZout Zin
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 15
Interconnects
Long lineL
L/2 L/2Delay optimization
R0C0
2002
1 LCRtd ����
buffd tLCRt ���� 2004
1
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 16
Clock distribution
• Clock signals are “special signals”• Every data movement in a synchronous system is
referenced to the clock signal• Clock signals:
– Are typically loaded with high fanout– Travel over the longest distances in the IC– Operate at the highest frequencies
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 17
Clock distribution
• “Equipotential” clocking:– In a synchronous system all clock signals are derived from a
single clock source (“clock reference”)– Ideally: clocking events should occur at all registers
simultaneously … = t(clki-1) = t(clki) = t(clki+1) = …– In practice: clocking events will occur at slightly different
instants among the different registers in the data path
Data Path
D QLogicD QLogicD Q outin
CLKi-1 CLKi CLKi+1
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 18
Clock distribution
Q DLogicQ D
CLKi CLKi+1
tint t'int
tsetup
tpFF+tint+tp,comb+t'int
Data in(reg. i+1)
Negative clock skew
Positive clock skew
CLKi
CLKi+1
Clock skew
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 19
Clock distribution
• Skew: difference between the clocking instants of two “sequential” registers:
Skew = t(CLKi)- t(CLKi+1)• Maximum operation frequency:
• Skew > 0, decreases the operation frequency• Skew < 0, can be used to compensate a critical
data path BUT this results in more positive skew for the next data path!
skewsetupcombpdFF ttttttf
T ������� 'int,int
maxmin
1
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 20
Clock distribution
• Different clock paths can have different delays due to:– Differences in line lengths from clock source to the clocked
registers• Differences in passive interconnect parameters (line
resistance/capacitance, line dimensions, …)– Differences in delays in the active buffers within the clock
distribution network:• Differences in active device parameters (threshold voltages,
channel mobility)• In a well designed and balanced clock distribution network,
the distributed clock buffers should be the principal source of clock skew
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 21
Clock distribution
• Clock buffers:– Amplify the clock signal degraded by the interconnect impedance
– Isolate the local clock lines from upstream load impedances
Clo
cked
regi
ster
s
Clocksource
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Paulo Moreira Technology scaling 22
Clock distribution
Clo
cked
regi
ster
s
Clocksource
Balanced clock tree Clock buffer
Clocksource