1982 us army jungle operations 191p

7/28/2019 1982 US Army Jungle Operations 191p.

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The words he, him, his, man, and men, whenused in this publication, represent both the masculine andfeminine genders unless otherwise specifically stated.

You may recommend changes to this manual to improve it .Key your comments to the page and line of text in which thechanges are recommended. Give reasons for each commentto help understand and evaluate i t . Send comments to :Commandant, United States Army Infantry School, ATTN:ATSH-B-ID, Fort Benning, Georgia 31905.

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CHAPTER 1

The Jungle Environment

Section I. GENERAL

This chapter introduces jungle environ-mentswhere they are found and what theyare like. Later chapters build on thisinformation, providing guidance on fightingand living in the jungle.

Field Marshal Slims words reflect theima ge of the jungle most a rmies ca rry int o

jungle warfare. At f irst, the jungle seems tobe very hostile, but the hostility wanes astroops learn more about the jungle environ-me nt .

J ungles, in their var ious forms, a recommon in tropical areas of the worldmainly Southeast Asia, Africa, and LatinAmerica.

To our m en . . . th e ju n g le wa s as t range , fea rsome p lace ; mov ing andf i g h t i n g i n i t w er e a n i g h tm a r e. We wer e t o o r e a d y t o c l a s s i f y j u n g l e a s ' im pene t r a t a b l e' . . . To us i t a ppea r edon l y as an obsta c le to m ovem en t ; to th eJ ap an ese i t w as a we lcome m ean s o f

con cea l ed m an euver a n d supr i se . . .T h e J a p a n ese r ea p ed t h e d e ser v ed r ewa r d . . . we pa i d t he pena l t y .

Field Marshall Slim, Victor inBurma, World War II (Concerningthe dark, early days of the BurmaCampaign)

CONTENTS

SECTION PAGE

I. General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1II. Climate and Weather. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

Ill. Terrain and Vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

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Section II. CLIMATE AND WEATHER

The climate in jungles varies withlocation. Close to the equator, all seasons arenearly alike, with rains throughout the year;fart her from the equa tor, especially in I ndiaand Southeast Asia, jungles have distinctwet (monsoon) and dry seasons. Both zoneshave high temperatures (averaging 78 to 95+degrees Fahrenheit), heavy rainfall (as mucha s 1,000 centimet ers [400+ inches] a nnua lly),and high humidity (90 percent) throughoutthe year.

Severe weat her also has a n impact ontactical operations in the jungle. The specific

e f fec ts o f wea ther on opera t ions a rediscussed throughout this manual.

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Section III. TERRAIN AND VEGETATION

TYPES OF J UNGLES

T h e j u n g l e e n v i r o n m e n t i n c l u d e s

densely fores ted areas , grass lands , cu l-t iva ted areas , and swa mps . J ungles are

classified as primary or secondary jungles

b a s e d o n t h e t e r r a i n a n d v e g e t a t i o n .

PRIMARY J UNGLES

These are tropical forests. Depending onthe type of trees growing in these forests,primary jungles are classified either astropical rain forests or as deciduous forests.

T rop i ca l Ra in Fo res t s . These consistmostly of large trees whose branches spreada nd lock together t o form canopies. Thesecanopies , which can exist a t two or threedifferent levels, may form a s low a s 10 metersfrom the ground. The canopies preventsunlight from reaching the ground, causing alack of undergrowth on the jungle floor.Extensive above-ground root systems andh a n g i n g v i n e s a r e c o m m o n . T h e s econditions, combined with a wet and soggysurface, make vehicular traffic difficult. Footmovement is easier in tropical rain forests

than in other types of jungle. Except wherefelled trees or construction make a gap in thecanopy of the rain forest, observation fromthe a i r i s nearly imposs ib le . Groundobservation is generally l imited to about 50meters (55 yards).

D eci du ous For ests . These are found insemitropical zones where there are both wetand dry seasons. In the wet season, trees arefully leaved; in the dry season, much of thefoliage dies. Trees are generally less dense indeciduous forests than in rain forests. Thisallows more rain and sunlight to filter to the

ground, producing thick undergrowth. In thewet season, with the trees in ful l leaf ,observation both from the air and on the

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ground is limited. Movement is more difficulttha n in the ra in forest . In the dry season,however, both observation and trafficabilityimprove.

SECONDARY J UNGLES

These are found at the edge of the rainforest and the deciduous forest, and in areaswhere jungles have been c leared andabandoned. Secondary jungles appear whenthe ground has been repeatedly exposed tos u n l i g h t . T h e s e a r e a s a r e t y p i c a l l yovergrown with weeds, grasses, thorns,ferns, canes, and shrubs. Foot movement isextremely slow and difficult. Vegetation mayreach to a height of 2 meters. This will limit

observation to the front to only a few meters.

COMMON J UNGLE FEATURES

SWAMPS

These are common to all low jungle areaswhere there is water and poor drainage.There are two basic types of swampsmangrove and palm.

M an g r ove Swam ps. These are found in

coastal areas wherever tides influence waterflow. The mangrove is a shrub-like tree whichgrows 1 to 5 meters high. These trees havetangled root systems, both above and belowthe water level, which restrict movement tofoot or small boats. Observation in mangroveswamps, both on the ground and from the air,is poor. Concealment is excellent.

Pa lm Swamps . These exist in both salt andfresh water areas. Like movement in themangrove swamps, movement through palm

s w a m p s i s m o s t l y r e s t r i c t e d t o f o o t(sometimes small boats). Vehicular traffic isnearly impossible except after extensive roadconstruction by engineers. Observation andfields-of-fire are very limited. Concealment

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from both air and ground observation isexcellent.

SAVANNA

This is a broad, open jungle grassland inwhich trees are scarce. The thick grass isbroad-bladed and grows 1 to 5 meters high.Movement in the savanna is generally easierthan in other types of jungle areas, especiallyfor vehicles. The sharp-edged, dense grassand extreme heat make foot movement a slowand tiring process. Depending on the heightof the grass , ground observat ion ma y va ryfrom poor to good. Concealment from airobservation is poor for both troops andvehicles.

BAMBOO

This grows in clumps of varying size injungles throughout the tropics. Large standsof bamboo are excellent obstacles for wheeledor tracked vehicles . Troop movementthrough bamboo is s low, exhausting, andnoisy. Troops should bypass bamboo standsif possible.

CULTIVATED AREAS

These exist in jungles throughout the

tropics and range from large, well-plannedand wel l-managed farms and plantat ions tos m a l l t r a c t s c u l t i v a t e d b y i n d i v i d u a lfarmers. There are three general types ofcultivated areasrice paddies, plantations,and smal l farms.

Ri ce Pa dd i es. These are flat, flooded fieldsin which rice is grown. Flooding of the fieldsis controlled by a network of dikes andirrigation ditches which make movement byvehicles difficult even when the fields aredry. Concealment is poor in rice paddies.

Cover is limited to the dikes, and then onlyfrom ground fire. Observat ion a nd fields offire are excellent. Foot movement is poorwhen the fields are wet because soldiers must

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wa de thr ough wa ter a bout 1/2 meter (2 feet)deep and soft mud. When the fields are dry,foot movement becomes easier. The dikes,about 2 to 3 meters tall, are the only obstacles.

P l a n t a t i o n s . These are large farms orestates where tree crops, such as rubber andcoconut, are grown. They are usuallycarefully pla nned a nd free of undergrowth(like a well-tended park). Movement throughplantations is generally easy. Observationalong the rows of trees is generally good.Concealment and cover can be found behindthe trees, but soldiers moving down the culti-vat ed rows a re exposed.

Sma l l F a r m s. These exist throughout thetropics. These small cultivated areas are

usually hastily planned. After 1 or 2 yearsuse, they usually are abandoned, leavingbehind a small open a rea w hich turn s intosecondary jungle. Movement through theseareas may be difficult due to fallen trees andscrub brush.

Generally, observation and fields-of-fire

are less restricted in cultivated areas than inuncultivated jungles. However, much of thenatural cover and concealment are removedby cultivation, and troops will be moreexposed in these areas.

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CHAPTER 2

Life in the Jungle

Section I. GENERALSoldiers must understand that the

environment affects everyone. The degree to

which soldiers are trained to live and fight in

harsh environments will determine their

unit's success or failure.

J un g l e f i g h t i n g i s no t new t o USso ld i er s, no r does the en em y ha ve am onopol y on j u ng l e kn ow -how . USun i t s ada p t ed wel l t o j u ng l e f i g h t i n g ,a n d wh e n we o p e r a t e d a g a i n s t t h e N o r t h V i et n a m ese A r m y a l o n g t h e Cambod i a n bor d er we f oun d t h a t t h eyh a d a s mu c h d i f f i c u l t y op er a t i n g i n t h e a r ea a s we d i d . T h e p r i s on e r s we cap tu r ed we re, as a r u l e, un der nou r - i s h ed , emac i a t ed , and si c k w i t h ma l a r i a .They s ta ted tha t a lmos t eve ryone int h ei r u n i t h a d ma l a r i a , a n d ma n y h a d

d i ed f r om i t .

Report, 25th Infantry Division,Republic of Vietnam

jungle must learn t ha t t he most importa ntthing is to keep their heads and calmly thinkout a ny si tuat ion.

Many of the stories written about out-of-the-way jungle places were written by writers

who went there in search of adventure ratherthan facts . Practically without exception,these authors exaggerated or invented manyof the thrilling experiences they relate. Thesethrillers are often a product of the authorsimagination and are not facts .

Most Americans, especially those raisedin cities, are far removed from their pioneerancestors, and have lost the knack of takingcare of themselves under a ll conditions. I twould be foolish to say that, without propertraining, they would be in no danger if lost in

the jungles o f Southeast Asia , SouthAmerica, or some Pacific island. On the otherhand, they would be in just as much danger ifl o s t i n t h e m o u n t a i n s o f w e s t e r nPennsylvania or in o ther undevelopedregions of our own country. The onlydifference would be that a man is less likely topanic when he is lost in his homeland thanwhen he is lost abroad.

There is very little to fear from the jungle

environment. Fear itself can be an enemy.

Soldiers must be taught to control their fear

of the jungle. A man overcome with fear is of

little value in any situation. Soldiers in a

CONTENTSSECTION PAGE

I . General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1II. Jungle Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2

III. Jungle Survival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10

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Section II. J UNGLE HAZARDS

EFFECT OF CLIMATE

The discomforts of tropical climates areoften exaggerated, but it is true that the heatis more persistent. In regions where the aircont a ins a lot of moisture, the effect of thehea t may seem worse than the sametemperature in a dry climate. Many peopleexperienced in jungle operations feel that theheat and discomfort in some US cities in thesummertime are worse than the climate inthe jungle.

Strange as i t may seem, there may bemore suffering from cold in the tropics thanf rom the hea t . Of course , ve ry low temperat ures do not occur, but chilly da ysand nights are common. In some jungles,

in winter months, the nights are cold enoughto require a wool blanket or poncho liner forsleeping.

Rainfall in many parts of the tropics ismuch greater tha n tha t in most a reas of thetemperate zones. Tropical downpoursusua lly ar e followed by clear skies, an d inmost places the rains are predictable atcertain times of the day. Except in thoseareas where rainfall may be continuousduring the rainy season, there are not manydays when the sun does not shine part of thet ime.

People who live in the tropics usuallyplan their activities so that they are able tostay under shelter during the rainy andhotter port ions of t he da y. After becomingused to it, most tropical dwellers prefer theconstant climate of the torrid zones to thefrequent weather changes in colder climates.

INSECTS

Malaria-carrying mosquitoes areprobably the most harmful of the tropicalinsects. Soldiers can contract malaria ifproper precautions are not taken.

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Mosquitoes are most prevalent early atnight and just before dawn. Soldiers must beespecially cautious at these times. Malaria ismore common in populated areas than inuninhabited jungle, so soldiers must also be

especially cautious when operating aroundvillages. Mud packs applied to mosquito bitesoffer some relief from itching.

Wasps and bees may be common in someplaces, but they will rarely attack unless theirnests are disturbed. When a nest is disturbed,the troops must leave the area and reassem-

ble at the last rally point. In case of stings,mud packs are helpful. In some areas, thereare tiny bees, called sweatbees, which maycollect on exposed pa rt s of th e body durin gdry weather , espec ia l ly i f the body issweating freely. They are annoying butst ingless and wi l l leave when sweat ing hascompletely stopped, or they may be scrapedoff wi th the hand.

The larger centipedes and scorpions caninflict s t ings wh ich a re painful but not fa ta l .They like dark places, so it is always

advisable to shake out blankets beforesleeping a t night , a nd t o make sure beforedressing that they are not hidden in clothingor shoes. Spiders are commonly found in thejungle. Their bites ma y be painful, but a rerarely serious. Ants can be dangerous toinjured men lying on the ground and unableto move. Wounded soldiers should be placedin an area free of ants .

In Southeast Asian jungles, the rice-borer moth of the lowla nds collects a roundlights in great numbers during certainseasons. It is a small, plain-colored mothwith a pair of tiny black spots on the wings. Itshould never be brushed off roughly, as thesmall barbed hairs of its body may be ground

into the skin. This causes a sore, much like aburn, tha t often takes weeks to heal .

LEECHESLeeches are common in many jungle

ar eas , part icula rly throughout most of theSouthwest Paci f ic , Southeast Asia , and theMalay Peninsula. They are found in swampyareas , s treams, and moist jungle country.They are not poisonous, but their bites maybecome infected if not cared for properly. Thesmal l wound that they cause may provide apoint of entry for the germs which cause

tropical ulcers or jungle sores. Soldiersoperating in the jungle should watch forleeches on the body and brush them off beforethey have had time to bite. When they havetaken hold, they should not be pulled offforcibly because part of the leech may remainin the skin. Leeches will release themselves iftouched with insect repellent, a moist piece oftobacco, the burning end of a cigarette, a coalfrom a fire, or a few drops of alcohol.

Straps wrapped around the lower part ofthe legs (leech straps) will prevent leeches

from crawling up the legs and into the crotcharea. Trousers should be securely tucked intothe boots.

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SNAKES

A soldier in the jungle probably will seevery few snakes. When he does see one, the

snake most likely will be making every effortto escape.

If a soldier should a ccidently st ep on asnake or otherwise disturb a snake, i t w il lprobably attempt to bite. The chances of thishappening to soldiers traveling along trailsor waterways are remote if soldiers are alert

and careful. Most jungle areas pose less of asnakebite da nger tha n do the uninhabitedareas of New Mexico, Florida, or Texas. This

does not mean that soldiers should becareless about the possibility of snakebites,but ordina ry precautions a gainst t hem areenough. Soldiers should be particularlywatchful when clearing ground.

Tr eat al l snakebit es as poisonous.

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CROCODILES ANDCAYMANS

Crocodiles and caymans are meat-eating share of crocodiles, but there are few

rept i les which l ive in t ropica l a reas . authenticated cases of crocodiles actuallyCrocodile-infested rivers and swamps is a attacking humans. Caymans, found in Southcatch-phrase often found in stories about the and Central America, are not likely to attacktropics. Asian jungles certainly have their unless provoked.

WILD ANIMAL

In Africa, where lions, leopards, andother flesh-eating animals abound, they are

protected from hunters by local laws and liveon large preserves. In areas where the beastsare not protected, they are shy and seldomseen. When encountered, they will attempt toescape. All large animals can be dangerous ifcornered or suddenly startled at closequa rt ers. This is especia lly tru e of fema leswith y oung. In the jungles of Suma tra , Ba l i,Borneo, Southeast Asia, and Burma there aretigers, leopards, elephants, and buffalo.Latin Americas jungles have the jaguar.Ordinari ly , these wil l not at tack a manunless they are cornered or wounded.

Certain jungle animals , such as waterbuffalo and elephants, have been domes-ticated by the local people. Soldiers shouldalso avoid these animals. They may appear

tame, but this tameness extends only topeople the anima ls are fa milar wi th.

POISONOUSVEGETATION

An oth er a rea o f dan ger i s th a t o fpoisonous plants and trees. For example,nettles, particularly tree nettles, are one ofthe dangerous items of vegetation. Thesenett les have a severe st inging that wil lquickly educate the victim to recognize theplant . There are ringas trees in Malaysiawhich affect some people in much the sameway as poison oak. The poison ivy and poison

sumac of the continental US can cause manyof the same type troubles that may beexperienced in the jungle. The danger frompoisonous plants in the woods of the USeastern seaboard is s imilar to that of the

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tropics. Thorny thickets, such as rattan,

should be avoided as one would avoid ablackberry patch.

Some of the dangers associated withpoisonous vegetation can be avoided bykeeping sleeves down and wearing gloveswhen practical .

HEALTH ANDHYGIENE

The climate in tropical areas and theabsence of sanitation facil i t ies increase thechance that soldiers may contract a disease.

Disease is fought with good sanitationpractices and preventive medicine. In pa stwars, diseases accounted for a significantlyhigh percentage of casualties.

WATERBORNE DISEASES

Water is vital in the jungle and is usually

easy to f ind. However, wa ter from na tura lsources should be considered contaminated.Water purification procedures must betaught to all soldiers. Germs of seriousdiseases, like dysentery, are found in impurewater . Other waterborne diseases , such asblood fluke, are caused by exposure of anopen sore to impure water.

Soldiers can prevent waterbornediseases by:

Obtaining drinking water fromapproved engineer water points.

Using rainwater; however, rainwatershould be collected after it has beenraining at least 15 to 30 minutes. Thislessens the chances of impurity beingwashed from the jungle canopy intothe water container. Even then thewater should be purified.

Insuring that all drinking water ispurified.

Not swimming or bathing in untreatedwater.

Keeping the body fully clothed whencrossing water obstacles.

FUNGUS DISEASES

These diseases are caused by poorpersonal health practices . The jungleenvironment promotes fungus and bacteriald i s eas es o f th e s k in an d warm wa ter

immersion skin diseases. Bacteria and fungiare tiny plants which multiply fast under thehot, moist conditions of the jungle. Sweat-soaked skin invites fungus attack. The

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following a re common skin diseases t ha t a recaused by long periods of wetness of the skin:

Wa r m Wa t er Im me r si o n F o ot . This

disease occurs usually where there are manycreeks, streams, and canals to cross, with dryground in between. The bottoms of the feetbecome white, wrinkled, and tender. Walking

becomes painful.

Cha f i n g . This disease occurs when soldiersmust often wade through water up to theirwaists , and the trousers s tay wet for hours .The crotch area becomes red and painful toeven t he l ightest t ouch.

Most skin diseases are treated by lettingthe skin dry.

HEAT INJ URIES

These result from high temperatures,high humidity, lack of air circulation, andphysical exertion. All soldiers must betrained to prevent heat disorders.

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they attack, a small force should be able todisperse them.

NOTE: For more details, see FM 21-10 forfield hygiene and sanitation, and FM 21-11for first aid for soldiers.

NATIVESLike all other regions of the world, the

jungle a lso has i ts nat ive inhabi tants .Soldiers should be aware that some of thesenative tribes can be hostile if not treatedproperly.

There may be occasions, however, whenhosti le tr ibes a tt a ck w ithout provacat ion. I f

Section II I. J UNGLE SURVIVAL

FOOD

Food of some type is always available in toads and salamanders, have glands on thethe junglein fact, there is hardly a place in skin w hich should be removed before th eirthe world where food cannot be secured from meat is eaten. Fruits, f lowers, buds, leaves,plants and animals. All animals, birds, bark, and often tubers (fleshy plant roots)

reptiles, and many kinds of insects of the may be eaten. Fruits eaten by birds and

jungle are edible. Some animals, such as monkeys usually may be eaten by man.

Meats that can be The following types offound in most jungles in- fruits and nuts are common Vegetables found include: in jungle areas: most jungles include:

Wild fowl Bananas Wild

Wild cattle Coconutsraspberries Taro *

Nakarika Yam *Wild pig Oranges andlemons Yucca *

Freshwater fish * PapayaNavele nuts

Saltwater fish

Hearts of palm trees

Breadfruit MangoesFresh-water crawfish

*These items must be cooked before eating.

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There are various means of preparingand preserving food found in the jungle. Fish,for example, can be cleaned and wrapped inwild banana leaves. This bundle is then tiedwith string made from bark, placed on ahas t i ly cons truc ted wood gr iddle , androasted thoroughly until done. Anothermethod is to roast the bundle of fishundernea th a pile of red-hot st ones.

Other meats can be roasted in a hollowsection of bamboo, about 60 centimeters (2feet) long. Meat cooked in this manner willnot spoil for three or four days if left insidethe bamboo stick and sealed.

Yams, taros , yuccas , and wi ld bananascan be cooked in coals. They taste somewhat

like pota toes. Pa lm hearts can make arefreshing salad, and papaya a deliciousdessert.

SHELTER

J ungle shelters a re used to protectpersonnel and equipment from the harshelements of the jungle. Shelters are necessarywhile sleeping, planning operations, andprotec t ing sens i t ive equipment .

When selecting shelter, leadersshould:

Choose high ground, away fromswamps and dry river beds

Avoid trails, game tracks, or villages

(See app E for more on shelters.)

NAVIGATION

Navigation in thick jungle areas isdifficult even for the most experiencednavigators. Soldiers navigating in the junglemust use various aids. The compass is anobvious aid, but a soldier would never be able

to move very fa st in t he jungle if he had t oconstant ly move along a magnet ic azimuth.

Movement a long a terrain feat ure, such a s aridgeline, is easier but can be extremelydangerous when establishing a pattern ofcons is tency . A sold ier must t rus t thecompass, map, and pace count. A soldiershould not keep his eyes riveted on thecompass; however, it should be used as acheck.

The sha dows caused by th e sun ar e aneasily observed and accurate aid to direction.Allowan ces must be ma de for t he gra dualdisplacement of the shadows as the sunmoves across the sky.

Other aids to maintaining directioninclude prominent objects, the course ofrivers , prevail ing winds, the s tar s , and t hemoon. (See app B for m ore on navi gati on.)

OBSERVATION

All movements of animals and men arema rked by tra cks an d signs. Soldiers mustlearn to read signs left in soft ground, instreambeds, on roads and trai ls , and nearwatering places and sal t l icks. Animalsseldom move without a reason; a few freshtracks supply information about their maker,his direction, and probable intentions.

Animals avoid man. The animals, theirt r acks , an d th e i r beh av ior c an revea lwhether or not men a re in the a rea. J unglefighters can listen to the cries of animals andlearn to recognize their alarm calls.

The ability to track and to recognizesigns in the jungle are valuable skills.Throughout the soldiers time in the jungle,he should practice these skills. (See app B formore on tr acki ng.)

CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENTB efore deploying for jungle opera tions,

troops are issued special uniforms andequipment. Some of these items are:

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J UNGLE FATIGUES

These fatigues are lighter and fasterdrying th an sta nda rd fa tigues. To providethe best ventilation, the uniform should fit

loosely. It should never be starched.

J UNGLE BOOTS

These boots are lighter and faster dryingthan all-leather boots. Their cleated soles willma inta in footing on steep, slippery slopes.The ventilating insoles should be washed in

INSECT (MOSQUITO) BAR

The insect (mosquito) bar or net shouldbe used any time soldiers sleep in the jungle.Even if conditions do not allow a shelter, thebar can be hung inside the fighting positionor from trees or brush. No part of the bodyshould t ouch t he insect net w hen it is h ung,because mosquitoes can bite through thenetting. The bar should be tucked or laidloosely, not staked down. Although this pieceof equipment is very light, it can be bulky ifnot folded properly. It should be folded inside

warm, soapy water when the situation allows. the poncho as tightly as possible.

C L O T H I N G A N D E Q U I P M E N T

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CHAPTER 3

Preparation and Training to Deploy to Jungle Areas

Section I. GENERAL

Chapters 1 and 2 describe the jungle This chapter lists the factors to beenvironment . Since many soldiers are considered when preparing for jungle opera-unaccustomed to such an environment, they tions and presents training tips for con-must make preparations before conducting

ducting jungle tra ining.jungle operations.

Section II. FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED

WHEN PREPARING FORJ UNGLE OPERATIONS

When a unit is alerted for training oractual combat operat ions in a jungleenvironment, the commander must firstconsider the following:

Where will the unit be tra ining oropera t ing?

What are the cl imatic and terrain

conditions of the objective area?

How much time does the unit haveto prepare?

Will the unit be taking its ownequipment?

Does any of the units equipment re-quire modification (including camou-f lage painting)?

Wha t specia l equipment does theunit require?

Does the unit have any jungle

warfare instructors, soldiers with jungleexperience, or linguists?

What available training areas have

climate and terrain resembling the

objective area?

What training assistance is avai l-a ble? Out side instru ctors? Tra ininga ids?

What type operations are to beconductedconventional or counter-guerr i l la?

CONTENTSSECTION PAGE

I. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

II. Factors to be Considered whenPreparing for Jungle Operations . . 3-1

Ill. Training Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2

Does higher headquarters havespecial standing operating procedures(SOP) for jungle war?

Are all soldiers physically fit?

What information is availableabout the enemy?

What information is availableabout local civilians and allied forces in

the objective area?

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Once these ques t ions have beenanswered, the commander can develop aprogram to prepare his unit to operate in thejungle.

The idea tha t a unit is technically a ndtactically proficient is only a small part of a

Section III. TRAINING TIPS

Units committed to jungle operationsma y ha ve to f ight a s soon a s they a rrive inthe operational area. Commanders mustma ke the best use of the prepara tion t imeavailable. Measures which commandersshould consider include:

M aki ng use of t i me in garr ison. Certainjung le subjec ts can be t aught us ingclassroom instruction. This training shouldbegin as soon as possible, so that time injungle training areas can be devoted to moreadva nced techniques.

In tegra t ing ind iv idua l t ra in in g in to un i ttr ai ni ng exer cises. Rather than devote fieldtraining time to the individual skills requiredto live in the jungle, these skills should beintroduced ear ly in c lasses , and thenpracticed during unit training exercises.

M aki ng use of local t rai ni ng areas.

units preparation. Emphasis should bep l a c e d o n t h e m e n t a l , p h y s i c a l , a n dpsychological aspects of operating in ajungle environment. The key to overcomingthese problems lies with the unit chain ofcommand in their efforts to develop a will towin a s well as w ill to train to win.

resemble jungle terrain, some jungletechniques can be introduced in them. Thiswill provide a training base which can beexpanded when the unit deploys to its jungletra ining or operational a reas. In a ddition,physical training should begin in the localtraining area as early as possible before

deployment.

Although these training areas may not

The following lists can be used as a guide to subjects that should be covered:

INDIVIDUAL TRAININGCommon Subjects: Staff and Leader Subjects:

Jungle environment and acclimation Jungle maintenance and supply techniques

Living in the jungle Jungle terrain appreciation

Survival, evasion, and escape Enemy order of battle and tactics

Camouflage and concealment Airmobile techniques

Tracking

Operational area orientation Specialist Subjects:

Jungle navigation Language

Equipment recognition Demolitions

Enemy orientation Field expedient antennas

Physical conditioning Medevac techniques

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UNIT TRAINING

Movement

Obstacles and Barriers

Scouting, Surveillance, Patrolling, and Tracking

Air Defense

Adjustment and Conduct of Fires

Immediate Action Drill

Communications

Jungle Operations:

Ambush/counterambush

Raid

Attack

Defense

Infiltration

Airmobile operations

Waterborne operations

River crossing

Road clearing

FIRE TEAM AND CREWMEMBERS

Identification and Marking of Mines and Booby-

traps

Working with Helicopters

Weapons Training

ACCLIMATION

The first priority in preparation forjungle warfare i s acc l imat ion (get t ingaccustomed to jungle climate). Troops who

are not conditioned properly will not performjungle warfare tasks rel iably. Dif ferentpeople become acclimated to hot weather atdif ferent ra tes , but the fol lowing meth odscan be used in most units.

Exerc i s e i s th e bes t meth od f oracclimation, because troops in good physicalcondition will adapt easily to new climates. A7- to 14-day conditioning period should besufficient for most soldiers. Exercises shouldbe moderat ely s trenuous at the beginning,and become more demanding each day.Troops from warm climates will adapt fasterthan troops deploying from colder climates.Physical training in heated gymnasiumsprior to deployment will also ease theacclimation process.

Leaders must be alert for symptoms ofheat disorders during the acclimation period.

SURVIVAL, EVASION, AND

ESCAPEConvincing a soldier that he will survive

alone in the jungle will go a long way inbuilding his self-confidence. FM 21-76contains detai ls on survival , evasion, andescape training.

SWIMMING

Swimming is also a vi tal skil l for thejungle fight er. Fa lling into a jungle pool orriver can be a terrible experience, especiallyfor a nonswimmer. All troops should be

drown proofed as shown in FM 21-20. Unitsshould identify their strong swimmers forlifeguard training and other more difficultswimming tasks.

CAMOUFLAGE ANDCONCEALMENT

Tra in in g to con cea l s o ld iers an dequipment from ground and air observationis equally important to combat, combatsupport, and combat service support units.

Proper use of camouflage will help to make upfor an enemys superior knowledge of thejun g le a rea . Appen d ix E con ta in s in -formation about jungle camouflage and con-cealment techniques.

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J UNGLE LIVING

Following a short period of classroominstruction, soldiers should experience jungleliving conditions in th e field. This t ra iningcan be incorporated into other unit training.

Subjects which should be stressedinclude:

Heat disorders

Survival

First aid

Health, hygiene, and field sanitation

Proper wearing of clothing

Use of equipment in a jungle environ-ment

Prevention and treatment of snake-bites and insect bites

During this period of training, use ofgarrison facilities should be kept to aminimum. Supplies should be brought to thef ield rather than the unit returning to the rearfor them. Soldiers should learn to live withoutunnecessary personal comforts.

Land navigation should be practicedusing jungle movement techniques. (Seeapp B.)

TARGET AREA ORIENTATION

Classes on the host country should stressthose facts which apply to operations.

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Subjects could include:

Terrain appreciation

C l imat e

Population and culture

Language (phrase books may beissued)

Road, railroad, and canal system

Standards of conduct for US Armypersonnel

Allied armed forces

Reasons for US involvement

J UNGLE TACTICS

Ch a pter 5 describes ta ctics common to

jungle fighting. These tactics should betaught first to leaders down to squad level.The leaders then train their own units. Stressshould be placed on small unit tactics and _operations with Army aviation. Since nighto p e r a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y a m b u s h e s , a r ecommon in jungle fighting, units shouldemphasize night t ra ining.

MOVEMENT

Units should train in tact ical marches.

Training should emphasize:

Breaching of obstacles

Scouting, patrolling, and tracking

Off-road movement over ruggedterrain

Air defense and counterambush drills

WEAPONS TRAINING

Most jungle fighting takes place at closera nge. Soldiers should be tr a ined in quick


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f ire, as outlined in chapt er 8, FM 23-9Advanced training should be conducted on ajungle range. On this range, soldiers movedown a trail and engage pop-up and movingtargets which appear suddenly at c loserange. Targets are operated by an assis tanton signals from a lane grader. Targets shouldbe exposed for 3 to 6 seconds. Only 2 or 3rounds should be f ired a t ea ch t a rget . At alater stage, boobytraps and obstacles can beemplaced on the trail.

INTELLIGENCE

Soldiers should be trained in specificintelligence subjects.

These include:

Enemy organization and tactics

Equipment recognition

National markings

Sound or signature recognition

T h i s l a s t s u b j e c t i s p a r t i c u l a r l yimportant in jungle operations, becausesoldiers will more often hear weapons firingthan see them. I f captured enemy weapons

and equipment are available, they should beused as a ids in this t ra ining.

MAINTENANCE ANDLOGISTICS

Chapter 6 describes some of the jungleseffects on equipment. Operators need to learntechniques to keep their equipment opera-t ional .

Subjects to be covered include:

Effects of climate on equipment

Jungle operational techniques

Preventive maintenance

Recovery and repair techniques

S ta f f members an d l eaders s h ou ldreceive famil iarizat ion training on thesetechniques in order to supervise theoperators . In addit ion, s taf f and leaders

s h o u l d l e a r n t h o s e s p e c i a l s u p p l yr e q u i r e m e n t s a n d p r o c e d u r e s i n t h eoperational area. They should also be fa-miliar with the capabilities of those logisticalunits supporting the force.

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CHAPTER 4

The Threat in Jungle Areas

Section I. GENERAL

The jungle is an environment which spectrum from lightly armed guerrillas allstretches in a broad belt around the tropical the way to conventional forces.areas of the world. Each of these areas ha s itsown mil i tary , pol i t ica l , and economic This chapter describes the main featuresconditions. As a result, it is impossible to of guerrilla and conventional forces as theydescribe one threat which applies to all are found in the jungle, and briefly outlinesjungle areas. Potential enemies which US the types of potential threat forces in variousforces might face in the jungle run the jungle regions.

Section II. GUERRILLA FORCES

WHAT GUERRILLAS ARE Th e basic guer ri l l a organi zation is ath r ee- to fi ve-man cel l . Th ese cells are capable

Guer ri l l as are irr egular forces. Th ey of independent action. They also can benormally constitute the military faction of a brought t ogeth er for lar ger operat ions a ndpolitical resistance or a subversive move- dispersed later. Guerrillas are organized into

ment. These forces engage in unconventional cells for two reasons. One is for security. The

operations in order to undermine the power of fewer the people who can identify members of

an es tabl ished government or to take a guerrilla force, the better the chances arepolitical control away from other factions. that it will survive. The second reason is forTheir goal is normally to establish a new support. Guerrillas must live off the land to agovernment, often according to a radical large degree, and small cells are easier topolitical philosophy. support in this manner.

C O N T E N T S

SECTION PAGE

I. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

II. Guerrilla Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 -1

III. Conventional Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 -3

IV. Potential Enemies in Three Jungle Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8

V. Weapons Used by Potential Jungle Enemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4-9

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HOW GUERRILLAS FIGHT

Guerril las are usually weaker thanconventional forces in terms of total

resources. For that reason, guerrillas will notat tempt t o overwhelm large units of theiropponents in combat. They will instead try toinflict as much damage as possible inlightning actions, withdrawing before theopposing forces can react. Guerrillas aremost effective when they strike widelyseparated targets over a long period of time.This type of action will confuse, demoralize,and frustrate their opponents.

Typical missions which guerrillas

conduct to accomplish their goalsinclude:

Destroying or damaging vital installa-tions, equipment, or supplies

Capturing supplies, equipment, or keygovernmental or military personnel

Diverting government forces fromother operations

Creating confusion and weakeninggovernment morale

These miss ions a re no t normal lyaccomplished by the use of conventionalattacks and defenses. Instead, guerrillas relyon speed, surprise, and security . G uerrillaoperations include raids, ambushes, miningand boobytrapping, and sniping.

Targets are selected by the guerrillabased on an analysis of how much theelimination of the target will disrupt thegovernment, what the effect on the populace

will be, the risk of being killed or captured,and the amount of weapons or supplies whichcan be seized. This analysis calls for timelyintelligence, which is gained by activepatroll ing .

The retention of the initiative is the key tosuccess in guerrilla operations. Guerrillas

rely on their ability to strike where they arel e a s t e x p e c t e d , a t p o i n t s w h e r e t h egovernment forces are least prepar ed. If theguerrillas lose the initiative, and are forced toreact to the operations of conventional forces,their effectiveness is greatly reduced.

Guerrillas are not normally organized orequipped for stand-and-fight type defensiveoperations. They prefer to defend themselvesby moving, by dispersing into small groups,or by diverting the opponents attention while

they withdraw. Whenever possible, theseoperations are accomplished by offensiveoperat ions a ga inst t he opponents flank orrear. If the government forces persist in theira t t ack , the guer r i l l a s a re prepared todisengage to keep their freedom of action. Ifforced to disperse into small groups, theguerrilla forces become less effective untilthey regroup to resume offensive operations.

One of the most important needs ofguerrilla forces is support. This support cancome from a number of sources. Food, for

example, can be stolen or supplied bypolitical sympathizers. Weapons can beg a t h e r e d f r o m r a i d s o n g o v e r n m e n tinstallations. A foreign power may providesecret training, and shipments of food,weapons, ammunition, and equipment. If theguerrillas can be cut off from these sources ofsupport, they will be much less effective.

To protect their operations, jungleguerrillas will normally establish bases fromwhich they can operate. These bases will bein remote areas. The bases will be secured by

a combinat ion of guerrilla outposts a nd by agrapevine intelligence network establishedby political sympathizers. Although theymay be difficult to find, there will normallybe concealed routes into the bases, from

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which the guerrillas have access to their with government policies. If the people aretargets and sources of support. apathet ic or pass ively hos t i le to their

GUERRILLA STRENGTHS

government, the guerrillas will seek to

AND WEAKNESSESdevelop this feeling into a popular base ofsupport. If no such feeling exists among the

Guerrillas operate most effectively in people, it will be much harder for guerrillas to

countries where the people are discontented set up operations.

Section III. CONVENTIONAL FORCES

TYPES OF CONVENTIONALFORCES IN THE J UNGLE

Conventional forces committed to jungleoperat ions can perform a ny one of a numberof missions. The lowest level of involvementis the use of conventional forces to advise andassist native guerrilla or paramilitary forces,teaching them either how to fight or how toopera te sophistica ted equipment . A higherl e v e l o f i n v o l v e m e n t i s t h e u s e o fconventional forces as a military cadre inunits w hich a re composed of na tive forces.Finally, the highest level of involvement is

the operation of conventional forces in aconventional role, fighting major battles inthe jungle.

Conventional jungle enemies may comefrom a number of places. It is possible thatUS forces committed to jungle operations willf ight native conventional forces. It is alsop o s s i b l e t h a t U S f o r c e s w i l l f i g h tconventional forces brought in from asponsoring hostile power. In either case,

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most potential jungle enemies are infantryforces, supported with artillery, mortars, andarmored vehicles, organized along the linesof Soviet forces. These forces may also have a

capability to conduct tactical air (TACAIR)operations and nuclear, biological, chemical(NBC) warfare. They may be equipped withw e a p o n s a n d e q u i p m e n t t h a t a r e ageneration or two older than those found inmore modern armies.

HOW CONVENTIONALFORCES FIGHTIN THE J UNGLE

The way in which a potential conven-tional threat army f ights in the jungle

d e p e n d s o n t h e t e r r a i n , t h e c o m b a texperience of th a t a rmy , an d the degree towhich it models itself after the forces of asponsoring power.

J ungle enemies ha ve also used deception

A jungle enemy can be expected to beskilled in the art of camouflage, the chief

mean s he ha s to evad e his opponents fire-power. Camouflage will be for him a way oflife. He will probably use bunkers and

tunnels as protective survival measures. To

slow opposing forces, he may use obstacles,

mines, and boobytraps. He will move oncovered and concea led routes , us ingdarkness to conceal most of his operations.He will probably depend heavily on streams

and rivers to provide concealed routes ofmovement and drinking water.

He can be expected to remove allintelligence indicators from the battlefield.He will go to great lengths to remove hisdead, wounded, weapons, and even expendedcartridges from the battlefield. He will try toleave no information relating to order ofbattle, strength, dispositions, or intentions.

We c a p t u r ed n um er o u s en emy

docum en t s wh i ch e i t h er cond em ned orc omm ended cer t a i n u n i t s f o r t h e pol i c e o f the ba t t l e f i el d .

Report, 25th Infantry Division,Kontum Province, Republic ofVietnam

means, such as explosive bul le ts andfirecra ckers, to mislead U S un its a s to thesize and disposition of the forces opposingthem. Communicat ions deception andjamming have also been used by jungle

enemies against opponents.

Since the US Army i s no ted fo remploying an abundance of firepower, jungleenemies in the past have preferred to engageUS units at extremely close range. At times, itis impossible for US commanders to use their

supporting indirect fires without takingfriendly casualties. The specific effects thatthis technique has on offensive and defensiveoperations will be discussed later. In general,however, the US ground commander must

operate in such a manner that al l his f iresupport can always be used effectively.

J ungle enemies ca n be expected t o tra inhard to use the jungle to their advantage. In

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the offense, for example, they use the thickfoliage to infi l trate positions and eliminatecommand posts (CP), key weapons, and vitalfacilities. These operations are conducted totake away their opponents advantages incommand and control, f ire support, andlogistical mea ns. The intent is to put th eirforces on a more equal footing with theiropponents. This situation can be exploited bya force with superior knowledge of theterrain.

When forced to defend, these forces willquite often prepare elaborate defensivepositions, well camouflaged and concealed.In addition, defenders may use snipers,boobytraps, and ambushes to delay, create asense of confusion a nd insecurity, a nd cau sethe attacker to surrender the initiative.

I t i s a l so poss ib le tha t US forcescommitted to jungle operations will f ight

Warsaw Pact forces, probably members ofairborne divisions. Although these troopswil l have newer and more sophist icatedwea pons th a n some of the tr oops nat ive tojungle areas, they probably wil l not befami l iar w ith the local terr ain and m ay not bewell tr ain ed i n j ungl e operat ions.

STRENGTHS ANDWEAKNESSES OFCONVENTIONAL

J UNGLE ENEMIES

Much of a conventional jungle enemyseffectiveness depends on familiarity with theterrain. In general , this means that armiesnative to a batt lef ield area wil l be moreeffective than forces from outside. Even ifthese outside forces have a greater amount offirepower than the native forces, the lack ofterrain famil iar i ty may l imit their abi l i ty to

use that firepower.

Weaknesses of potential conven- Strengths of potential conventionaltional jungle enemies will probably jungle enemies will probably include:include:

Larger units, much more difficult toAdequate firepower for conventional

attacks and defense

Bigger targets for close-air support or

artillery

Knowledge of the terrain and area

Well-trained and disciplined soldiers

More difficulty in evading detection

Less information from local

sympathizers

Independence from local support

HOW THE THREAT DEFENDS

The threat defense is a temporary f irepow er. H is defense will be cleverly a ndmeasur e, adopted onl y when necessar y. This carefully prepared.does not imply, however, that the threat de-fense consists of half measures or that he is A typ ica l jun g le en emy de f en s iveunskilled in defense techniques. J ungle position consists of a complex series of earthenemies will use every trick possible to and timber bunkers, spider holes, ands u r v i v e a g a i n s t m a s s i v e a m o u n t s o f tunnels. These are positioned to achieve

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mutual support . Bunkers are buil t low tomake them more difficult to see and engageby fire. They are well camouflagedeven thefields-of-fire may be cut from the waist down,

so that they will be unnoticeable to as tanding man. Weapons pos i t ions areplanned to provide interlocking fireslethal

even during limited visibility. Boobytrapsand obstacles are integrated into the defenseto slow, demoralize, and confuse the attacker.

The jungle threats concept of the defenseis to trap the at tacker by al lowing him tomove into prepared fields-of-fire. Fire isopened at extremely close range, sometimesat 50 meters or less. This is done for tworeasonsfirst, to bring fires to bear from all

sides, and, second, to force the attacker toremove himself before he can cal l forsupporting fires.

While the key part of the jungle threatsdefense is automatic weapons positions inbunkers, the enemy will also put snipers inthe trees. In this wa y, the at t a cker cannotdevote his full attention to the bunkers,because he must also deal with the snipers.

If the attacker is too strong, the junglethreat wi l l a t tempt to wi thdraw over routes

that have been planned and scouted to makethe withdrawal as rapid as possible. Stay-behind ambushes, snipers, mines, andobstacles are used to slow the attacker.

HOW THECONVENTIONALENEMY ATTACKS

Attack is the preferred form of combat forpotential jungle enemies. Because most ofthese forces expect to have a disadvantage in

firepower and technology when fighting USforces, most of them have developed specialtechniques t o help make up t he differencethrough surprise. They may, for example,probe a defensive position until the defender

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reveals the location of his key weapons.These weapons are then eliminated byinfiltrators before the main attack. They mayuse firecrackers to create a diversion,

drawing the defenders fire and deceivinghim as to the size of the attacking force. Theymay infiltrate the defense to eliminatecommand posts, mortars, or artil lery units.

"De co y t h e Ame r i c a n s f r om one

d i r ec t i o n b y smoke , f i r i n g , o r shou t i n g .Th en a t t a c k h im f r om an u nexpec t edd i r e c t i o n .

Threat uni ts wi l l avoid a t tackingprepared defenses when possible. They prefer

to attack a weak point, using the jungle,weat her, and their own special tra ining as

much as possible . Sapper squads arespecially trained to infiltrate minefields andobstacles in order to neutralize key positionsor creat e a ga p in t he defense. The enemymay also isolate a position, so that theiropponents will be tied down in trying torelieve it, or they may conduct raids todisrupt operations and lower the defendersmorale. Darkness, poor weather, and rough

Captured J apanese Document, terra in wi l l be used to conceal theseWorld War II operations.

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A comma nder should never a ssume tha tany jungle area is impassable to a well-trained jungle enemy. Experience has showntha t such enemies a re very a dept a t using

extremely difficult terrain effectively asavenues of approach.

"U se f o g and r a i n t o ca t c h t h eAme r i c a n s o f f gua r d . Mak e an a ssau l t s udden l y , f r om pos i t i o n s wh i c h t h eAm er i c a n s b el i ev e u n a p p r o a ch a b l e,such as c l i f f s, r i ve r s , an d j un g l es.

Captured J apanese Document,World War II

Although the jungle enemy attacksswiftly, his att a cks are planned in minute

detail. If he is allowed to attack according to

plan, the jungle enemy is an effective force. Ifthe defender can interrupt even a minor partof the plan, the enemy will have difficulty inadjusting, and the attack will probably fail .

This aspect of enemy operations places ahigh premium on the struggle for theinitiative at all levels.

If the defending force can be pushed outof its positions and forced to retreat, thejungle enemy will probably make every effortto maintain contact through pursuit. He willharass the rear guard, a t the same t imesending forces to outrun and cut off theretreating force. He will then try to destroyt h e r e t r e a t i n g f o r c e b y a m b u s h o r

encirclement.

Section IV. POTENTIAL ENEMIES INTHREE J UNGLE REGIONS

It is impossible to describe one junglethreat which applies to all areas of the world.There are, however, certain characteristics of

potentia l threat forces tha t a re peculiar t ospecific jungle regions.

LATIN AMERICA

The most likely threat the US forces may

face in Latin American jungles are insurgentmovements. These movements aim at theoverthrow of a wealthy ruling class to installa new regime. The US is often viewed by theinsurgents as an ally of the government, and

US facil i t ies and insti tutions are oftentargets for these movements.

The military faction of these insurgentmovements consists of guerrilla forcessimilar to those described earlier. They areorganized into small cells, are lightly armed,and are capable of concentrating for acts

against major facilities and then dispersingafter the operation. Although their ultimateobjective will often be the establishment ofcontrol over the urban areas, they may usethe jungle to provide a concealed and secure

base of operations. The support of the localpeople is very important to their survival.

At the time US forces are committed tofight in Latin American areas, guerrillaforces are likely to be augmented withmilitary aid and personnel from othersponsoring countries in the region. These

forces may perform any one of a number ofroles: advisors, guerrilla cadre, or limitedconvent iona l combat . Log is t i ca l andintelligence support may also come fromthese forces.

SUBSAHARAN AFRICA

The conflicts in this region since WorldWar II have been waged by insurgent groupsagainst perceived vestiges of colonialism orimperialism. Most of these colonia list a ndimperialist institutions are connected in theminds of the insurgents with the Western

European powers. As a result, the instabilityin some areas of this region has provided atempting target for provocation. To makematters more complicated, many of theconflicting factions are also struggling

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among themselves, due to political or ancienttribal differences. This in turn creates evenmore regional turmoil , and an even greatervulnerability for exploitation.

Conf l ic t ing f ac t ions in SubsaharanAfrica consist primarily of guerrilla groups.These guerrillas, however, are often moreh e a v i l y a r m e d t h a n L a t i n A m e r i c a nguerrillas for two reasons. First, these groupshave mortars , a r t i l lery , and recoi l lessweapons from national army formationswhich have been defeated or disbanded.Second, external powers have backed theirf a v o r i t e f a c t i o n s b y s u p p l y i n g a r m s ,a mmunition, and equipment. For the mostpart , th ese guerri llas subsist by a cquiring

food and supplies from the countryside.Foreign involvement in t hese guerrilla

movements has consisted of advisors andcadre from sponsoring nations. Should USforces ever fight in this region, it is likely t ha tthey will encounter troops foreign to thenation. In addition, there is also a possibilitythat Warsaw Pact troops, primarily airborneo r t a c t i c a l a v i a t i o n u n i t s , w o u l d b ecommitted to such a region to fight USt r o o p s .

SOUTHEAST ASIA

In many respects , the potential threata r ray in Sou th eas t As i a i s th e mos tcomplicated of any jungle region. There area c t i v e g u e r r i l l a m o v e m e n t s i n m o s t

Southeast Asian countr ies as wel l as t r ibaland cultural conflicts. There is a goodpossibility of foreign support or intervention.

The unique development in this regionhas been the rise of a regional power. Sincethe end of US involvement in Southeast Asia,this power has developed a potent con-ventional force, using equipment capturedfrom the US and its allies or suppliedby communist countries . More than anyother potential threat native in a jungle

region, i t possesses the abil i ty for sustainedconventional operations against any USforces which might be deployed in the area.I t s c a p a b i l i t i e s s p a n t h e r a n g e f r o mclandestine guerrilla operations to large-

scale conventional attacks, supported byt an ks , motor i zed un i t s , a r t i l l e ry , an daviat ion.

Because there are already strong forcesin this region, the probability of involvementof large numbers of world power forces is notgreat. There is a good possibility, however,that US troops committed in these areasmight encounter weapons and equipmentsupplied by a world power. They might alsoencounter advisors from world powers thatinstruct and aid the native forces in the use ofsophisticated equipment.

Finally, of all the regions discussed thusf a r , th e ch emica l war f a re th rea t w i l lp r o b a b l y b e g r e a t e s t f o r U S f o r c e sconducting operations in Southeast Asia.

Section V. WEAPONS USED BY POTENTIALJ UNGLE ENEMIES

Although potential jungle enemy forces the weapons characteris t ics and knowvary widely from region to region, there are where the weapons are found in typicalce r t a i n t y p es of w e a p on s w h i ch a r e com mu nist for ces or ga n iza t ion s.

commonly found in jungle countries. USforces should become familiar with these Although guerrilla forces do not have thebasic types of weapons in order to be able to same type of organizational s tructure asrecogn ize th em on th e jun g le ba t t l ef ie ld . con ven t ion a l forces, th ey too w i ll p robab lyThey shou ld a ls o ha v e a b a s ic knowl ed ge of ca r r y m a ny of t hes e wea pons .

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CHAPTER 5

Tactical Operations

Section I. GENERAL

T h i s c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h t a c t i c a loperations in t he jungle. B efore reading thismaterial, soldiers should be familiar with theappropriate level of basic tactics in:

FM 7-8, The I nfantr y Platoon andSquad ( In fan t ry , A i rbo rne , A i rAssaul t, Ran ger ).

FM 7-10, The Infant ry Ri fle Company.

FM 7-20 , The In fan t ry Bat ta l i on(Infantry, Airborne, Air Assaul t ,

Ranger).

FM 90-4, Air mobi le Operat ions.

FM 100-5, Operations.

Although jungle operations are con-ducted according to the basic guides con-ta ined in these manua ls, there ar e specialtechniques which help to insure success inthe jungle. These techniques result from therestricted maneuver, slow tempo, closecombat, and limited visibili ty commonly

found in the jungle.Combat in the jungle is characterized

by long periods of developing the situationand looking for the enemy; and short pe-riods of violent, and sometimes unexpected,c o m b a t .

To meet these conditions, units

must have:

Aggressive intelligence-gatheringprocedures

Disciplined soldiers

Solid SOPS proven in training and

updated on a continuous basis

Aggressive and tough-mindedleadership

These four points must be emphasizedwhen a unit is engaged in jungle operations.The need for discipline is evident when oneconsiders the extended periods of looking,often fruitlessly, for the enemy. When contactis made, maximum advantage can only beachieved through aggressive and violenta c t i o n p r e d i c a t e d u p o n s o l i d S O P s .Aggressive leadership at the small-unit

(squad and platoon) level is the one elementthat t ies together the discipl ine and thet ra ining.

CHARACTERISTICS OFTHE J UNGLE BATTLEFIELD

The th ick foliage a nd r ugged terra in ofmost jungles limit fields of fire and speed ofmovement .

SECTION CONTENTS PAGE

I. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1II. Reconnaissance, Surveillance, and Security Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8

III. Offensive Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10

IV. Defensive Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15

V. Retrograde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24VI. Other Combat Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24

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These terrain characteristics makejungle fighting different from fighting onmore open terrain. To be effective jungle

fighters, soldiers must learn to use thesechara cter is t ics to their a dvanta ge. Potent ia ljungle enemies train to exploit the jungle; somust the US Army.

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CHARACTERISTICS OFJ UNGLE OPERATIONS

The aspects of terra in and enemydiscussed above result in fewer set-piece

batt les . Rather than conventional at tacksconducted against conventional defenses,jungle battles are more often ambushes,raids, and meeting engagements. Battles arenot fought for high ground as frequently asconventional battles. Ori entat i on i s on t heenemy r ather than on the terr ain . Hills in thejungle are often too thickly vegetated topermit observation and fire, and therefore donot always quali fy as key terrain. In thejungle, roads, rivers and streams, fordingsites, and landing zones are more likely to bekey terrain features.

The frequency of a mbushes, ra ids, an dm e e t i n g e n g a g e m e n t s m a k e s i t v e r yimporta nt tha t units in th e jungle pra cticeimmedia te ac t ion dri l l s . In the junglefirefight, the side which initiates contact andgains fire superiority in the first few secondswill normally have a decisive advantage.

CONTROL

Command and control are difficult in thejungle. The thick foliage allows leaders to seeand control only a portion of their units.

To cope with this problem,commanders and leaders must:

Plan their operations carefully

Issue mission type orders

Insure that each soldier understandshis part of the mission

In addition, the thick jungle foliage andheavy monsoon rains often weaken radiosignals, making communications difficult.

To reduce the effects of the problem, use of thehelicopter as a command and control vehicleis recommended. In that the heavy monsoonrains may not allow helicopters to always f ly,

an alternate means of command and controlmust be planned for.

FLEXIBILITY

While an appreciation of battlefieldcharacteristics, jungle enemies, and char-acteristics of jungle operations is useful,flexibility is important to any leader involvedin jungle operations. Successful operationsrequire an extraordinary command adapt-abi l i tysometimes , a departure f romorthodox thinking in favor of new and oftenunt ried procedures. Soldiers must learn tolive wi th the jungle and adapt to i ts initial lyapparent d isadvantages . Having done this ,

the unit can concentrate on the use ofcon cea lmen t , covered movemen t , an dsurprise.

SECURITY AND INTELLIGENCE

Commanders must s t ress ef fec t ives e c u r i t y m e a s u r e s a n d a g g r e s s i v eintelligence-gathering techniques to preventbeing surprised. The key is to give thefront-line soldier an appreciation of thethings to look for. Food remnants and fecescan indicate how long ago an enemy unitoccupied an area. Captured documents,equipment, and weapons may provide orderof batt le information and an idea of theen emy s l og i s t i c a l s i tua t ion . Even anamm unition crat e ma y yield a lot numberand packing date. From this an intell igencespecialist may be able to trace the enemyunits place in the order of battle.

In the past, US forces operating in junglewarfare have generally been augmented bynative scouts, attached down to platoon level.These scouts w ere auxiliaries, paid by th eunit they supported from a fund established

by higher headquarters for that purpose.Scouts familiar with the terrain and the enemycan be an extremely valuable asset. Localsecurity regulations should provide guidance

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as to what friendly information can be given photography are not as effective because ofto scouts. the concealment of the foliage.

Surveillance, target acquisition, and The local populace is one of the mostnight observat ion (STANO) devices , valuable intell igence sources. Whether

especially infrared, starlight scopes, and hostile, friendly, or indifferent, the people

unat tended ground sensors , are qui te can provide information which, when

effective in gathering information about processed, will help complete the intelligence

troop movements in the jungle. Radars and picture.

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Securi ty prevents the enemy f romgaining intelligence on US units. Activesecurity measures, such as patrolling and the

use of observation posts (OP), helps preventUS uni ts from being ambushed or a t tackedby surprise. These measures do not lessen theneed for passive security. Camouflage andnoise and light discipline conceal US forcesfrom enemy observa tion. To prevent beingtra cked by the enemy, bivouacs an d tr ai lsmust be policed. Odor discipline is also asecurity measure. The enemy can follow such

odors as heat tabs , c igarette smoke, deo-dorant , and C rat ions.

TROOP-LEADINGPROCEDURES FOR

J UNGLE OPERATIONS

STANDING OPERATINGPROCEDURES

A units jungle opera tions S OP shouldinclude actions which the unit does on aroutine basis or actions that are earned outessent ia l ly the sam e wa y each t ime they aredone. Examples of such actions includeorganizing for combat, resupply, bivouaca n d s h e l t e r p r e p a r a t i o n , m o v e m e n ttechniques, and battle drill. Use of SOPs willsave planning time.

PLANNING USE OF TIME

A unit planning for jungle combatfollows the same planning sequence as inany other type of combat operation. Inplann ing the use of ava ilable time, leadersmust consider th at man y ta sks in the jungletake more time than the same tasks in otherenvironments. More time must be allowed formovement and securi ty . This means that

units may have to begin movements earlierin order to accomplish their missions withina specified time. This may leave less time forplanning and preparat ion.

AIR MOVEMENT PREPARATION

If the unit is to be inserted by helicopter,the commander should go through the pre-paratory steps outlined in FM 90-4.

INSPECTION

Prior to beginning a misssion, unitleaders should inspect their troops toinsure that:

They have all their needed equipment

They have no unnecessary equipment

Weapons are cleaned, lubricated, andzeroed

Equipment and weapons are inworking order

Everyone understands his job and theunits SOP

CONTROL OF EQUIPMENT

Those troops who carry extra equipmentshould not be allowed to discard it. CapturedUS equipment has been used by jungleenemies in the past. In Southeast Asia and in

the Pacific, recovered equipment was a majorsource of enemy supply.

SUPERVISION

Supervision m ust continue th roughoutth e conduct of th e opera tion. As the t roopsbecome tired after long periods of marchingor digging in , they wil l tend to get la x an dignore good security habits. This is anespecially common trend if they have notbeen in contact for a few days. Tightsupervision is a must to insure that security

patrols and OP s ar e dispatched and doingtheir jobs; that troops remain alert; and thatf ire, noise, and light discipline are notrelaxed.

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J UNGLE MOVEMENT

PLANNING AND ROUTE SELECTION

Before conducting a move in the jungle,

leaders should make a map and aerial photo-graph reconnaissance. This reconnaissancew i l l i n d i c a t e p o s s i b l e d a n g e r a r e a s ,obstacles, and roads or clearings suitable forresupply.

In planning the route, leaders shouldconsider the following:

Lines of drift, such as ridgelines,are easy to guide on because they avoidstreams and gullies and because they areusually less vegetated.

Danger areas, such as streambedsand draws, are usually more thicklyvegetated. They offer excellent conceal-

ment, but travel along them is slow anddifficult.

Roads and trails should be

avoided. Although they are easy to moveon, they offer little concealment. Theseare the areas most likely to be underenemy observation. They are easy toambush and are very likely to be mined orboobytrapped.

MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Units moving in the jungle shouldn o r m a l l y u s e t h e j u n g l e m o v e m e n ttechnique, but may use traveling overwatcha nd bounding overwa tch w hen necessar y.The file formation should be avoided in allbut the most thickly vegetated areas.

To effectively use the junglemovement technique, certain keyfactors must be understood. They in-clude the following:

Only the platoon should employ Each squad maintains an azimuththis movement technique. and pace.

The lead fire team of the leadsquad is always in a wedge (modified). Immediate action drill (SOP) is

The support elements may move

essential.

with the headquarters element or beattached to a squad(s) depending upon This technique is most effectivelikely threats. during daylight movement.

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This movement technique is basicallycharacterized as a formation of multiple

columns which are mutually supporting.

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In traveling overwatch, the lead elementperforms the mission of point security, withtroops from the rest of the unit performingrear and flank security. When contact is

imminent, the unit moves into boundingoverwatch. Bounds, as terrain al lows, arenormally 50 meters or less.

SECURITY

The thick foliage makes ambush aconstant danger. Point , f lank, and rearsecurity tea ms w ill help keep a force frombeing ambushed. These teams must be farenough away from the main body that if theymake contact the whole force will not be

engaged. They should not be so far a wa y,however, that they cannot be supported.These security elements must be alert tosigns of the enemy, and should carry as lighta load as possible so they are able tomaneuver. Security duties should be rotatedoften to avoid fatigue. Scout dogs may also beused with the security element. These dogsoften detect the enemy before he is detected

by humans. The jungle heat is hard on them,however, and they must be rested frequently.

If contact is broken between elements orindividuals, the rear element should remain

in position. Those in front should return toestablish contact.

HALTS

Units should plan halts on terrain whichlends itself to all-round defense. During shorthalts, soldiers drop to one knee and faceoutward , their weapons at the ready. I f thehalt occurs at a trai l crossing, securi tyelements a re sent out a long t he tra i l . Thesecurity element remains in place until theunit clears the crossing. During longer halts,units establish a perimeter defense. They run

security patrols around their positions, andemploy Claymore mines and early warningdevices. Before an overnight halt, unitsshould stop while there is still enoughdaylight to establish a secure perimeterdefense, prepare ambushes, and dispatchpatrols as necessary. I f hal ted units areseparated, connecting patrols should be run

periodically to detect enemy infiltration.

Section II. RECONNAISSANCE, SURVEILLANCE,AND SECURITY OPERATIONS

RECONNAISSANCE

Reconna issance opera tions are a lwa ysimportant in jungle warfare. Many offensiveoperations in the jungle take on the aspects ofa reconnaissance operation during theirearly stages. This is because the success ofoffense in th e jungle depends on ability t ofind the enemy. The excellent concealmentfound in the jungle enables the enemy tooperate unobserved both by day and night.Extensive patroll ing is necessary to obtain

information on his locations, strength, anddisposition.

Reconnaissance is a responsibil i ty of al lleaders during jungle operations. Units with

the capability to conduct reconnaissanceshould conduct frequent short patrols duringthe conduct of normal missions. Thesepatrols should be coordinated with higherand adjacent units . In some si tuations,reconnaissance may become the primaryobjective of a major jungle operation.

Planning for a jungle reconnaissanceshould be thorough and well coordinated.

Coordination with higher and adjacentheadquarters wil l help insure maximumresults from each patrol and el iminateduplication of effort. Radio is the primarymeans used to control reconnaissance

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operations. Each reconnaissance patrol mustbe prepared to make contact, develop thesituation, and report to its controllingheadquarters.

G R O U N D

R E C O N N A I S S A N C E

In the jungle, these operations areaccomplished by means of OPs and long- orshort-range reconnaissance patrols. Thevalue of OPs is somewhat reduced in thejungle because of the limited visibility. OPsar e most ef fective wh en used along tr ai ls ,roads, a n d s t r e a m s t o d e t e c t e n e m ymovement. (Although OPs in other areasmay not provide much useful information on

the enemy, they s t i l l a re ef fec t ive in

providing early warning.) Reconnaissancepatrols in the jungle are normally squad-size.These patrols move in a manner to takeadvantage of natural concealment, andavoid becoming engaged with the enemy.The use of helicopters increases the depthbehind enemy lines that such patrols can be

employed. For further details on recon-naissance patrols, see secti on V I .

VISUAL RECONNAISSANCE

From the a ir , key terra in fea tures can

often be identified and the enemy detected inareas where there are gaps in the junglecanopy. Aerial photographs are importantsources of information because photographinterpretation can disclose hidden enemycamps not visible to the air observer.Photographs can also be used to locatehelicopter lan ding z ones. Decoy r econna is-sance flights can be used to confuse ordeceive the enemy about upcoming opera-tions.

RECONNAISSANCE-IN-FORCE

This method may be used to gatherintell igence which cannot be gained by anyother reconna issance means. E xamples ofsuch intelligence include the enemy com-

manders plan for committing his reserves, orthe trails used by a guerril la force.

T h e c o m m a n d e r c o n d u c t i n g t h e

recon n a i s s an ce- in - f orce w i l l n orma l l yo r g a n i z e h i s u n i t i n t o a n u m b e r o freconnoitering forces. These reconnoiteringforces conduct movements to contact, hastyor deliberate attacks, raids, reconnaissance,or patrols. Once the unit makes contact withthe enemy, the commander must react on theintell igence gained. He must be prepared toexploit success or, if necessary, extricate theforces.

The size of the unit that conducts areconnaissance-in-force depends on the

nature of the intelligence to be gained and thechance that the reconnoitering force willhave to f ight on unfavorable terms. Forexample, i f a bat ta l ion commander wants tof ind out how an enemy commander wil lcommit his reserve, he may conduct areconnaissance-in-force with his companiesconducting limited objective a tt a cks. If , onthe other hand, a commander wants to f indthe routes used by a number of small guerrillagroups, the reconnaissance-in-force missionmay be assigned to a company, which in turnwill ha ve i ts platoons conduct movements t o

contact .

RECONNAISSANCE-BY-FIRE

When using this method, the force fireson suspected enemy positions to cause t heenemy to disclose his position by moving orreturning fire. Reconnaissance-by-fire risksthe loss of surprise. Its most effective use inthe jungle is to find the flanks or gaps inenemy lines. Reconnaissance-by-fire fromattack helicopters wil l of ten reveal thelocation of well-concealed enemy troops.

Likewise, a reconnaissance-by-fire fromarmored vehicles firing into a wood line,either while moving crosscountry or along aroad, can neutral ize an enemy ambush.W h e n u s i n g r e c o n n a i s s a n c e - b y - f i r e ,

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commanders must consider the difficulties ofammunition resupply in the jungle.

SURVEILLANCE

Surveillance operations in the jungleinclude using all techniques for establishinga continuous, thorough watch of thebattlefield. This watch must be establishedboth over large jungle areas and at selected

key points such as trai ls , s treams, andclear ings . Survei l l ance opera t ions areusually planned to support other missions.

GROUND SURVEILLANCERADARS

These radars are best employed in those

jungle areas where vegetation and terrain donot restrict l ine of sight. Night observationdevices are also useful in such areas duringperiods of darkness. Unattended groundsensors, which are not affected by poor lineof sight, are very useful in watching specifickey areas . These electronic devices areaffected by poor weather and are difficult tomove in thickly forested areas. As a result ,the use of manned OPs in jungle areas shouldalways be planned.

AIR SURVEILLANCE

Surveillance of jungle areas from the airis most effective when pilots are familiarwith ground operations and can recognizechanges from normal patterns. Repeatedf l ights by the same crews wil l a t ta in thislevel of familiarity. In addition to visualsurveillance, photographic coverage of anarea can assist the surveil lance effort . Side-

looking a irborne ra da r (SLAR) is not veryeffective in thick foliage, but can be used forsurveillance along roads, trails, or streams.Likewise, infrared detection devices arel imited by fog, clouds, rain, and vegetation.

Airborne personnel detec tor devices(sniffers) were developed during the Vietnamwar to detect human odors. These devices areextremely effective in detecting base campsof nonmechanized forces, but are limited byfog, rain, and windy conditions.

SECURITY OPERATIONS

Security must be a primary part of a l ljungle operations; therefore, specific securitymeasures are covered as they apply to othero p e r a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r .

Compared with operations in other types ofterrain, security measures in the jungle mustbe intensified because of the poor observationand difficulties of control and movement.Operations must be slower than normal, andsecurity forces must be closer to t he unit ssecured in order to provide adequate securityin the jungle. Because it provides all-roundsecurity , the perimeter defense will be thedefensive technique used most often by unitsoperating independently in the jungle.

The stand-to is an important security

technique in jungle fighting. When a unitstands-to, all of its soldiers don their fightingloads and occupy their fighting positions.The unit is 100 percent alert and ready tof i g h t a n a t t a c k i n g e n e m y . S t a n d - t oprocedures differ from unit to unit, butcommon stand-to times are before first light,before last light, before helicopter resupply,and before movement.

Section III. OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS

SPECIAL FACTORS

The purpose and fundamentals of theoffense as outlined in field manuals for other

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There are, however, factors which

require the use of special offensive

techniques:

Thick foliage makes it difficult forleaders to control their soldiers or to

detect the enemy

Fire support is difficult to observe and

adjust

Momentum and speed are difficult to

maintain

FUNDAMENTALSOF THE

J UNGLE OFFENSE

When considering the use of specialoffensive techniques, commanders mustremember that some offensive fundamentalsacquire a new significance in the jungle.

Probably the most important and mostdifficult of these fundamentals is the require-ment to see th e bat tl efi el d. Above all else, theattacker must know the batt lef ield. As aresult, he relies heavily on security patrols,information provided by air and groundreconnaissance, and proper movement tech-

niques.

Key to effective operations in junglewa rfare is the fundamental of using weaponsystems to their best advantage. In additionto organic weapons, the ground commandermust closely coordinat e th e employment ofthe supporting weapons available to him.The dense foliage found in some jungles mayprevent heavy weapons from moving dir

1982 us army jungle operations 191p

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