1986 charles masson of afghanistan by whitteridge s.pdf

8/10/2019 1986 Charles Masson of Afghanistan by Whitteridge s.pdf

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CHARLES MASSON

of

AFGHANISTAN

E X P LO R E R A R C H A E O L O G I S T N U M I S M A T I S T

A N D I N T E L L I G E N C E A G E N T

Gordon Whitteridge

A R l S P H I L L I P S L t d W A R M IN S T ER - E N G L A N D


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Gordon Whit ter idge, 1986. A l l r i g h t s reserved. No part

th i s pub l ica t ion may be reproduced, s to red

in

a retrieval system

or t ransmi t ted

in

a n y f o rm o r by an y means without th e prio

permiss ion o f th e pub l ishers .

B r i t i sh L i b r a r y Cataloguing in Publ icat ion Data

Whit ter idge, S i r Gordon

Char les Masson o f Afghan is tan: exp lorer ,

archaeologist, numismatist and intel l igence agent.

- (Cen t ra l As ian Stud ies )

1. Masson, Charles 2. Exp lo re rs Grea t Br i ta i n

-Bi ogra phy 3. Afg hani sta n Bio gra phy

I . T i t l e II. Series

958 . 103 0924 DS 367.Ml

ISBN 0 85668 318 3

Pr in ted and pub l ished

in

England b y ARIS PHILLIPS Ltd

Te dd in gt on House, Warminster, Wiltshi re.


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E R R A T A

p

31: f o r w a s

re d

w e r e

p 4 8 :

f o r ( p . 7 )

re d p .

19)

p 5 : m a p :

in

t h e c a p t i o n f o r K o h -D a m i a n

re d

K o h D a m a n

p 8 1

f o r S i r d a r

re d

S u l t a n ( M a h o m e d

K h a n )

p 8 3 :

f o r P e s h e w a r

re d

P e s h a w a r

p 8 9 : 2 n d f o o tn o te : f o r p e r t i c u l a r l y

re d

p a r t i c u l a r l y

p

141 c a p t i o n t o i l l u s t r a t i o n f o r M c n a g h t e n

re d

M a c n a g h t e n


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ONTENTS

Page No.

L ist o f I l l us t r a t ions

Acknowledgements

CHAPTER

I

Ea r l y L i f e a n d M i l i t a r y Se rvi ce in 1

I

ndia.

CHAPTER

I I

Th e Po li t ica l b ack gro und t o Masson s

7

journeys.

CHAPTER

I l l

T he G rea t Game

in

Asia. 16

CHAPTER IV Ear ly 19 th Ce nt ur y t rav e l le r s in

2

1

Cent ra l Asia.

CHAPTER V Masson as Ex pl or er an d Geog rapher . 2

7

I

F i r s t j o urn e yi n gs .

CHAPTER V I Masson as Ex pl or er and Geogr apher. 4

2

I

I

Fu r th e r j ou rneys b y sea and land .

CHAPTER V I I Kab ul an d Bamian.

5 1

CHAPTER V l Masson s Archaeo logical a n d Numismatic 63

Debut.

CHAPTER I X Masson Achieve s Rec ogn it i on as a n 73

Ant iquar ian .

CHAPTER X Topes, Tu mu li a n d Relics. 3

CHAPTER XI The O r i g i n and D i f fu s ion o f Budd h is t 93

Remains Discussed.

CHAPTER XI1 Masson as lnte l l gence Agent.

1 1

CHAPTER X l l l T he Loom o f Russia. 114

CHAPTER XIV Fa i lu re o f a Mission. 123

CHAPTER XV

Lo r d Auc kla nd Declares War.

iii


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CHAPTER XV I Th e Politicals .

CHAPTER X V l l Misadventures at Kalat.

CHAPTER X V l l l Postlude.

Notes

Selective Bibliography

lndex


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L IST O ILLUSTR AT IONS

Colour Plates

The Bimaran Rel i quary Br it is h Museum)

8 6 fac ing)

The Great Stupa o f Manikyala, Puniab(Dr David MacDowall)

87 fac ing)

Th e Large Buddha at Bamian The au thor )

1 0 2 fac ing)

The Road to th e H indu Kush

The author)

1 0 3

fac ing)

Black and White Plates

1 . Maharaja Ranjit Singh Ind ia Of fice L ib rar y) 9

2. In th e Hazarajat , Centra l Afghan ista n The au thor ) 2 2

3 Masson s sketc h o f a D aru nta St upa

in

the Jalalabad

3 3

Valley

Ind ia Office L i br ar y)

4 Map showing Masson s archaeological sit es in t h e 5 2

Kabul-Koh Daman area Warwick Ball)

5. Th e Shewaki St up a Dr David MacDowall)

5

9

6 Coins from t h e Masson Collec tion in t h e B r i t i s h 6 8 9

Museum Br it is h Museum]

7. (a) Masson s sk etch o f t he Minar - i -Chak r i

7

7

India Off ice L i br ar y)

(b ) The Minar -i -Chakri a f te r conservation work

in 1975-7 ( D r Sven d Helms)

8 Map showing Masson s archaeological sites in t h e 8 4

Jalalabad Valley

Warwick Ball)

9 Head o f Buddha Br it is h Museum) 9

5

10.

Model Stupa excavated at Sultanpur

British Museum)

9 9

11. Dost Mahomed Khan, Am ir o f Kab ul Ind ia Off ice

112

Library

12. Sir Alexander Bu rnes in Bok hara n Costume

National Army Museum, London)

13 Si r William Hay Macnagh ten National Portrait Gallery)

141

1 4

Simpl if ied v ersion o f Masson s map o f hi s journ eys

158 9


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CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T h e l i b r a r y o f t h e B r i t i s h A m ba ss ad or ' s R e s id e nc e

in

Kabul

w as w e l l - s to c k e d w i t h b o o ks o n C e n t r a l A s ia i n c l u d i n g a f i r s t

e d i t i o n o f C h a r l e s M a ss on 1s

Narra tive of Various Journeys n

Balochistan Afghanistan and the Panjab. B u t i t w a s n o t u n t i l

a f t e r t h e f o u n d i n g o f t h e S o c ie ty f o r A f g h a n S t u d ie s a n d the

s e t t i n g up u n d e r i t s a u sp ic es o f t h e B r i t i s h l n s t i t u t e o f A fg h a n

S t u d i e s in K a b u l t h a t r e a d t h e w h o l e o f M a ss on 's f o u r volumes

in t h e O x f o r d in A s i a H i s t o r i c a l R e p r i n t s s e r i e s. H i s i n te r es ts ,

p a r t i c u l a r l y a r ch a e o lo g y , n u m is m a tic s a n d e th n o g r a p h y ,

p a r a l le l e d t h o s e o f t h e S o c ie t y a n d t h e I n s t i t u t e . H i s c are fu l

r e c o r d i n g o f a n c ie n t s i t e s t h r o u g h o u t h i s t r a v e l s w as im p re ss iv e.

t

s t r u c k me t h a t M a ss on c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e F a t h e r o f the

B r i t i s h l n s t i t u t e in K a b u l a n d s u g g e s te d t o t h e C o u n c i l o f the

S o c ie ty t h a t s h o u ld w r i t e h i s b i o g r a p h y a s t h e f i r s t p a r t o f

l a r g e r s t u d y d e s i g n e d t o r e a p p r a i s e h i s w o r k a s a p i o n e er of

C e n t r a l A s i a n a n t i q u i t i e s . T h i s s u g g e s t io n w as a c c e p te d a n d my

w a rm t h a n k s a r e d u e t o t h e C o u n c il o f t h e S o c i e t y f o r A fg ha n

S t u d i e s ( n o w i n c o r p o r a t e d in t h e S o c i e ty f o r S o u t h A sian

S t u d i e s ) , f o r s p o n s o r i n g a n d e n c o u r a g i n g t h e p r o j e c t . am

g r a t e f u l t o s e v e r a l f e llo w -m e m b e rs o f t h e C o u n c i l f o r r e a d i n g my

m a n u s c r i p t a n d o f f e r i n g v a lu a b le c r i t i c i s m s a n d s u g g e s t i o n s in

t h e i r s p e c i a l f i e l d s : B a s i l G r a y , P e t e r F r a s e r , D r D a v i d B i v a r ,

a n d D r D a v i d M ac D ow a ll w h o se k n o w l e d g e o f p r e - I s la m i c co inage

w as o f g r e a t h e l p in a s u b j e c t a b o u t w h i c h k n e w v e r y l i t t l e .

M y t h a n k s a ls o t o D r S v e n d H elm s f o r r e a d i n g t h e m a n us c r i p t

a n d giving a d v i c e o n p u b l i c a t i o n , t o T . R i c h a r d B l u r t o n for

a n s w e r i n g m y q u e r i e s a b o u t B u d d h i s t se cts , a n d t o W a r w ic k B all

f o r t h e s k e t c h - m a p s o f M a s s o n 's a r c h a e o lo g i c a l s i t es :

am g r a t e f u l t o t h e s t a f f o f t h e I n d i a O f f i c e L i b r a r y and

R e c o r d s f o r t h e i r w i l l i n g a s s i s t a n c e . t w o u l d b e i m p o ss ib le t o

w r i t e a b i o g r a p h y o f C h a r le s M a ss on w i t h o u t a c lo se s t u d y o f the

M a s so n C o l l e c t i o n o f M a n u s c r i p t s in t h e L i b r a r y a n d the

a d m i r a b le i n t r o d u c t o r y e ss ay b y

E

. . J o h n s t o n t o t h e c ata lo g u e

o f t h a t c o l l ec t i on in w h i c h h e se t o u t t h e

full

d e t a i l s , p r e v i o u s l y

n o t k n o w n , o f t h e m y s t e r y s u r r o u n d i n g M asso n's e a r l y l i f e .

M y t h a n k s a r e d u e t o M r s F . P o l lo ck o f t h e G u i ld h a l l

L i b r a r y , L o n d o n , f o r h e r e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h i n t o Jam es Le wis 's

b a c k g r o u n d , t o t h e L i b r a r i a n a n d S e c r e t a r y o f t h e R o y a l S oc ie ty

f o r A s i a n A f f a i r s f o r t h e u s e o f s pe c ia l b o o k s in t h e l i b r a r y , an d

t o t h e s t a f f o f t h e I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e , O x f o r d , f o r t h e i r h e lp . The

s ta f f o f t h e D e p a r tm e n t s o f C o in s a n d M eda ls a n d o f O r ie n ta l


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A n t iq u i t i e s o f t h e B r i t i s h M u se um h a v e b e e n g o o d e n o u g h t o

e na b le m e t o e x am i ne t h e i r c o l le c t io n o f M a s so n s c o i n s a n d

r e l i c s .

M y b r o t h e r a n d s is te r - in - l aw , P r o f es s o r D a v i d a n d D r

G w e ne th W h i tt e r id g e , b e s id e s r e a d i n g t h e m a n u s c r i p t a n d g i v i n g

me s o u n d a d v i c e , put m e up f o r m a n y w e ek s a t a n e a r l y

s ta g e o f

w r i t i n g i t a n d s o did m y s i s t e r M a r ce l l e a n d h e r h u s b a n d

R o b e r t F u r t ad o . M i s s Jo a n M o r r i s t y p e d t h e f i r s t d r a f t

e f f i c ie n t l y . T o m y w i fe , J i l l , I am g r e a t l y i n d e b t e d f o r h e r

c o n s ta n t en c o u ra g e m e n t a n d f o r typing t h e r e v i s e d v e r s i o n .

I f

t h i s b o o k s h o u l d b e i n s t r u m e n t a l

in

g a i n i n g a b e l a te d

e n t r y f o r C h a r l e s M a s so n

in

t h e D i c t i o n a r y o f N a t io n a l

B i o g r a p h y , I s h o u l d b e w e l l c o n t e n t .

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

a r e d u e t o t h e T r u s t e e s o f t h e B r i t i s h M us e u m

f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s 9 a n d 10, a n d t o J o e C r i b b o f t h e C o in s a n d

M edals D e p a rt m en t o f t h e B r i t i s h M us eu m f o r

6.

1 ,3 ,7 ( a) a n d 1 1

a p p e a r b y

p e rm i s s i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , 12 b y p e rm i s s i o n o f

t h e N a t i o na l A r m y M u se um , L o n d o n a n d 1 3

y

p e rm i s s io n o f t h e

N a t io na l P o r t r a i t G a l le r y ; m y t h a n k s a l so t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s

m e n t i o n e d


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S P E L L I N G

T h e t r a n s l i t e r a t i o n o f A f g h a n a n d C e n t r a l A s ia n p r o p e r and

p l a c e n am es a l w a y s p r e s e n t s d i f f i c u l t i e s w h e n d e a l i n g w ith

a u t h o r s w r i t i n g in t h e f i r s t h a l f o f t h e 1 9 t h C e n t u r y . Masson s

s p e l l i n g n h i s p u b l i s h e d w o r k s w as s u r p r i s i n g l y m o de rn , for

e x am p le K a r a c h i w h e re a s A l e x a n d e r B u r n e s h a s C u ra c he e . In

o r d e r t o a v o i d t o o m a n y v a r i a t i o n s

n

t h e t e x t h a v e k e p t

to

M asso n s s p e l l in g t h r o u g h o u t h e n c e

ahorned

w h e r e v e r i t occurs ,

e x c e p t

in

t h e c as e o f t h e S h a h o f P e r s ia w h e r e t h e m odern

M u h am m a d S h a h h a s b e e n u se d . S h a h S h u j a - u l - M u l k h a s also

b e e n p r e f e r r e d t o h i s S h a h S u j a -a l - M u lk h a n d K a b u l t o his

~ a b a l . W hen q u o t i n g f r o m h i s c o n te m p o r a r i e s , t h e i r o w n sp el l in g

h a s b e e n r e t a i n e d .


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If any fool this high samooch cave] explore

Know that harles Masson has been he re be to re

W r i t t e n o n t h e w a ll o f a c a v e a b o v e t h e n i c h e o f t h e l a r q e

B u d d h a a t B a r n i a n a n d d i s c o v e r e d y t h e F re n c h ~ r c h a e

o l og ica l D e l ega t i on i n t h e 1930s.


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C H A P T E R I E A R LY L I F E A N D M I L I T A R Y S E R VIC E I N I N D I A

What s become of Waring

Since he gave us all the slip

Chose land-travel or seafaring,

Boots and chest or staff and scrip,

Rather than pace up and dow n,

Any longer Londor7- Town

?

Robert B r o wnirig W ~ ~ t i r i g

L o n d o n - b o r n C h a r le s M a ss on t o l d h i s B r i t i s h h o s t in P e r s i a *

in 1830 t h a t h e w as a U . S . c it iz e n f r o m K e n t u c k y w h o h a d t a k e n

t e n y e a rs t o t r a v e l l e i su r e l y o v e r l a n d f r o m E u r o p e t o I n d i a v ia

H e ra t a n d K a n d a h a r . Y e t w h e n h e s t a y e d f o r s e v e r a l w e ek s a t

L ah ore w i t h G e n e ra l A l la r d , t h e F r e n c h o f f i c e r e n g ag e d b y t h e

M ah ara ja R a n j i t S i n g h t o t r a i n h i s S i k h c a v a l r y , t h e f o rm e r

f o u nd t h a t h i s g u e s t sp o k e f l u e n t F r e n c h , t h o u g h w i t h a s l i g h t

a cc en t, a n d t h o u g h t h e was a n I t a l ia n . H e a ls o w r o t e g o o d

F r e n c h as c a n b e ju d g e d f r o m

a

l e t t e r to A l l a r d f r o m K a b u l

in

1 8 3 7 .

F u r t h e r m o r e ,

in

h i s b oo k o f v e r s e p u b l i s h e d in 1848,

M asso n in c l u d e d a n u m b e r o f v e r s e tr .a n s la t io n s o f F r e n c h p o e t r y

w h i c h s e r v e t o s h ow t h a t h e w as f a m i l ia r w i t h c o n te m p o r a r y

F r e n c h l i t e r a t u r e A n E n g l i s h f r i e n d w r i t i n g t o h i m f r o m

C a l c u t ta s a i d : B a y l e y

in

o n e o f h i s c o n v e r s a t io n s w i t h me was

v e r y m i n u t e

in

h i s e n q u i r i e s a b o u t y o u r c o u n t r y e tc ., r e m a r k i n g

f r o m t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h y o u w r o t e F r e n c h a n d I t a l i a n h e h a d

a lw ay s t h o u g h t y o u w e r e a F r e n c h m a n . . S om e F r e n c h

a u th o r it ie s h a v e e v i d e n t l y th o u g h t s o to o, s i n c e t h e r e i s a n

e n t r y f o r M a s s o n

in

a 1 9 th c e n t u r y B i o g r a p h i e N a ti on a le

w h i c h assum es h e wa s F r e n c h : a n d i n d e e d C h a r l e s M a s s o n c o u l d

b e a p e r f e c t l y g o od F r e n c h name. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e d oe s

n o t f i g u r e

in

o u r o w n D i c t io n a r y o f N a t i o n a l B i o g r a p h y : a n o t h e r

case o f a p r o p h e t w h o i s n o t w i t h o u t h o n o u r e x c e p t in h i s o w n

c o u n t r y . W ho t h e n w as C h a r l e s M a s s o n ? W h y

i

h e e n c o u r a g e

t h e b e l i e f t h a t h e w as n o t a n E n g l i s h m a n ? A n d w h a t i n t e r e s t h a s

he f o r u s t o d a y ?

C h a r l e s M a s s o n w a s in f a c t a n a l ia s. H e wa s b o r n Jam es

L ew is o n 16 F e b r u a r y , 1800 a n d was b a p t i z e d a t t h e c h u r c h o f

S t . M a r y t h e V i r g i n , A l d e r m a n b u r y , L o n d o n o n 23 M a r c h , 1800 4 .

H i s f a t h e r w as G e o r g e L e w i s , o i lm a n , o f 58 A l d e r m a n b u r y , a n d

a

M ajo r D a v i d W ils on B r i t i s h R e s i d e n t a t B u s h i r e .

1

eputy

S e c r e t a r y t o t h e G o v e r n m e n t o f I n d i a .


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m e m b e r o f t h e N e e dle M a k e r s C o m p a n y , w h o s e m a r r i a g e t o Mary

H o p c r a f t h a d t a k e n p l a c e a t C r o u g h t o n , N o r t h a n t s , o n

6

March,

17 99 S h e c am e o f a f a m i l y o f s u b s t a n t i a l y e o m a n f a rm e r s of

R o w l e r s F ar m , C r o u g h t o n , w h o s u b s e q u e n t l y a c h i e v e d affluence

a s b r e w e r s .

E f f o r t s t o d i s c o v e r w h a t s c ho o l t h e y o u n g Jam es Lewis

a t te n d e d h a v e p r o v e d u n a v a i l i n g . We o n l y k n o w t h a t h e did not

g o t o a n y o f t h e m a jo r L o n d o n s ch oo ls s u c h a s W estm inster,

C h a r t e r h o u s e , M e r c h a n t T a y l o r s , e tc ., a l t h o u g h o n e of his

c o r r e s p o n d e r l t s a s su m e d t h a t h e h a d b e e n a t H a r r o w with

G . T . V ig n e . * T h i s w a s n o t s o,

but

t h a t h e w e n t t o a g o o d school

i s v e r y l i k e l y . H a d h i s s ch o o l b e e n k n o w n i t might have

p r o v i d e d a c lu e t o t h e s u b j e c t s h e h a d b e e n t a u g h t . H e i s known

t o h a v e l e a r n e d L a t i n a n d t o h a v e h a d so me G r e e k . We have

a l r e a d y s ee n t h a t h i s F r e n c h a n d I t a l i a n w e r e g o o d e n o ug h for

h i m t o b e t a k e n f o r a n I t a l i a n by a F r e n c h m a n a n d f or

F r e n c h m a n b y a n E n g l is h m a n . T h a t h i s w r i t t e n F r e n c h was good

i s o n e thing

but

t h a t h i s s p o k e n F r e n c h w as f l u e n t i s qu ite

a n o th e r . T h e f i r s t c o u l d b e a c q u i r e d by d i l i g e n t s t u d y ,

but

the

s e co n d i s h a r d l y l i k e l y t o h a v e b e e n w e l l d e v e l o p e d a t scho ol in

h i s t im e a n y m o r e t h a n it i s t o da y . A s o j o u r n

in

F r a n c e , p e r h a p s

l e n g t h y , a n d in

I t a l y w o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e in d i c a t e d , y e t his

f a t h e r ' s m e an s s eem i n a d e q u a t e f o r s u c h a p r o g r a m m e . P os sib ly

Jam es L e w i s m a na ge d t o o b t a i n jo b s o n t h e c o n t i n e n t .

I t i s

t a n t a l i s i n g n o t t o

b e a b l e t o p r o v i d e a s i n g l e d e t a i l o f h i s f i rs t

21 y e a r s o t h e r t h a n h i s

bir th

a n d p a r e n t a g e .

T h e f i r s t d o c um e nt e d f a c t s o f h i s a d u l t l i f e a r e p r o v id e d

y

t h e E m b a r k a t i o n L i s t s o f t h e H o n o u r a b l e E a s t I n d i a C om pa ny .

O n 5 O c t o b e r , 1821, L e w i s e n l i s t e d in t h e C o m p a n y ' s a r m e d

fo rc e s i n i t i a l l y f o r t h e i n f a n t r y , t h o u g h h i s a c t u a l s e r v i c e was in

t h e a r t i l l e r y . N o t h i n g i s k n o w n o f h i s r e a so n s f o r e n li s t i n g .

H o w e v e r , i t w a s n o t u n u s u a l f o r m e n o f som e e d u c a t i o n t o e nlis t

in t h e C o m p a n y 's a r t i l l e r y in v ie w o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y g o o d p a y and

t h e e x c e l le n t p r o s p e c t s o f p r o m o t i o n t o c l e r i c a l a p p o in t m e n ts . He

s a i l e d

f o r B e n g a l o n t h e D u c h es s o f A t h o l l f l o n

17 J a n u a ry , 1822

a n d s e r v e d

in

t h e 3 r d T r o o p o f t h e 1 s t B r i g a d e o f t h e B enga l

E u r o p e a n A r t i l l e r y f ro m 6 J u l y , 1822 ti l l 4 J u l y , 1 8 27 7 D u r i n g

t h a t t im e 'h e a t t r a c t e d t h e p a r t i c u l a r n o t ic e o f ~ a j o r - G e n e r a l

H a r d w i c k , w h e n h e was t h e C o m m an da nt o f t h a t C o r p s , a n d was

e m plo ye d b y h i m in a r r a n g i n g a n d d e p i c t i n g h i s zoologica l

s p e c i m e n s . 1 8 H e f o u g h t a t t h e s ie g e o f B h a r a t p u r w hich

fe l l in J a n u a r y 1826 a n d in t h e f o l lo v r i n g y e a r d e s e r t e d f r o m h is

r e g i m e n t a t A g r a t o g e t h e r w i t h a f e l l o w - s o ld i e r , H i c h a r d P o tte r .

T h e y t r a v e l l e d w e s t w a r d o n fo o t to w a r d s t h e l n d u s t r a v e r s in g

t h e f o rm i d a b le d e s e r t o f B i k a n i r a n d r e a c h i n g D e r a G h az i Khan

* G . T . V i g n e a u t h o r of A Personal Account of a Visi t

to

Ghuzni

Kabul

and Afghanistan .

H e a c co m p a ni ed M a ss o n o n a t r i p t o B e g r a m .


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16/196

h i s p r o g r e s s t o me a s o p p o r t u n i t i e s m i g h t o f f e r , a n d s h ou ld his

c o m m u nic a ti on s c o n t a i n a n y t h i n g o f i n t e r e s t t o t h e G ov ern m en t, I

s h a l l c o n s i d e r i t m y duty t o r e p o r t l O . T h i s w a s t h e journey

w h e n H a r l a n e n c o u n t e r e d M a s s o n a n d P o t t e r , t h o u g h Masson

n e v e r m e n t i on s t h e f a c t .

T h e r e a p p e a r t o b e n o c l u e s t o w h y M asso n deserted .

D e s e r t i o n w a s in f a c t n o t u nc om m on a t t h a t t im e a n d seems t

h a v e a f fe c te d t h e C o m p a n y s a r t i l l e r y m o r e t h a n t h e o t h e r arms.

T h i s w as p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c as e w i t h t h e B e n g a l A r t i l l e r y

f o r d e s e r t i o n s f r o m it

b o t h

during

a n d a f t e r t h e siege

o f B h a r a t p u r , w e r e f a i r l y f r e q u e n t . T h e 1820 s w e r e q u i e t years

f ro m a m i l i t a r y p o i n t o f v ie w , a p a r t f r o m t h e f i r s t c am p aig n in

d i s t a n t B u r m a . H e m a y s i m p l y h a v e b ec om e b o r e d w ith

s o ld i e r i n g . M o r e o v e r a s a r a n k e r w i t h a n e d u ca te d b a ck g ro un d

h e m a y w e ll h a v e f o u n d t h e l a c k o f c u l t u r a l s t i m u lu s in to le ra ble .

In

a n y case , h e w a n t e d t o t r a v e l . H i s y o u t h f u l i m a gin a tio n had

b e e n e x c i t e d

y

t h e w r i t i n g s o f C o lo ne l W i l f o r d o n B a mia n

-

they

w e re , h e s ay s , e n s h r i n e d in h i s m e m o r y - a n d a s it i s c e r t a i n

t h a t h e h a d a l r e a d y s t u d i e d w i t h some th o r o u g h n e s s t h e rou tes

o f A l e x a n d e r t h e G r e a t o n h i s P e r s ia n a n d I n d i a n ca mp aig ns he

m ay h a v e h a d a t t h e b a c k o f h i s m i n d a d e s i r e t o e xp lo re

A f g h a n i s t a n in p a r t i c u l a r 1 2 T h e s e i n t e r e s t s m a y e v e n h a v e led

t o h i s e n l is tm e n t

in

t h e f i r s t p la c e . H e c e r t a i n l y t o ok g r e a t pa ins

in d u e c o u r s e t o t r y t o i d e n t i f y A l e x a n d e r s r o u t e s and

b a t t l e f i e ld s , a n d h e be cam e a b s o r b e d in t h e a n t i q u a r i a n p ro ble ms

p o s e d b y t h e m a r ve ls o f B am ia n .

In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e 1974 r e p r i n t o f t h e

Narrat ive

o

3

Various ourneys G a v i n H a m b l y s u g g e s t e d t h a t M a s so n was

p r o b a b l y a s oc ia l o u t c a s t f o r w h o m e n l i s t m e n t u n d e r a n assum ed

n am e w a s a n e s ca p e f r o m c r im e , d e b t o r f a m i l y m i s f o r tu n e . He

w o n d e r e d w h e t h e r M a s s o n a c t u a l l y did t r a v e l o v e r l a n d t o I n d ia as

h e c la im e d , a n d e v e n w h e t h e r t h e na m e Jam es L e w i s w as n o t also

a n a li a s . A l t h o u g h some p r i v a t e s o ld i e rs f o u n d i t e x p e d i e n t f o r

v a r i e t y o f r e as o n s t o e n l i s t u n d e r a n as su m ed n am e, M a ss on o n ly

c h a n g e d h i s n am e af ter d e s e r t in g . T h e r e i s n o e v id e n ce to

s u g g e s t t h a t h e

in

a n y w a y a p p ro x im a t e d t o

K

i p l i n g s

G e nt le m en r a n k e r s o u t o n t h e s p r ee ,

D am ne d f ro m h e r e t o E t e r n i t y .

E v e n t h o u g h t h e a u s t e r i t y o f h i s l i f e in C e n t r a l A s i a w a s

o r i g i n a l l y f o r c e d u p o n h im , h e a c c e p te d i t so r e a d i l y a n d w i th o u t

a n y s ig n s o f r e g r e t t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o i m ag in e t h a t h e h ad

e v e r b e e n p r o n e t o ex ce ss . H e seem s t o h a v e b e e n i n d i f f e r e n t to

a l co h o l ; i n d e e d h e b ec am e a c o n n o i s s e u r o f w a t e r , o f t e n n o t in g

i t s v a r y i n g q u a l i t i e s in d i f f e r e n t p la ce s. H e a p p e a r s t o h a v e h a d

l i t t l e o r n o i n t e r e s t

in

s ex a n d c e r t a i n l y

did

n o t i n d u l g e in a n y

I a s o n s .

W h ere as M a ss on s m o t iv e s f o r e n l i s t i n g a n d d e s e r t i n g ca n

o n l y b e g u es s e d a t , t h a t h e cam e y sea t o I n d i a is


17/196

w e ll -a tte ste d . T h e E m b a r k a t io n L i s t s p r o v e t h e p o i n t , a s d oe s a

l e t t e r f ro m h i s s h ip -m a te , C h a r l e s B r o w n , w h o l a t e r c a l le d

h im s e l f B r o w n l o w a n d w h o se n am e a p p e a r s o n t h e sam e L i s t . T h i s

l e t t e r d a t e d C a l c u t ta , 1 1 A u g u s t , 1835 a d d r e s s e d h i m a s 'M y

d e a r Lew is ', a n d r e f e r r e d t o t h e 'm a ny h o u r s w h i c h y o u

l ig h t e ne d o f t h e i r m i s e ry by y o u r s o c i e t y w h e n w e w e r e

f e l lo w - tr a ve l le r s o n b o a r d t h e ' 'D u ch es s o f

A t h o l l . ' T h e w r i t e r

w e n t o n t o s ay t h a t h e w as a w a r e o f r e c e n t d o c u m e n ts w h i c h h a d

p asse d t h r o u g h t h e h a n d s o f t h e B e n g a l G o v e r n m e n t ( i . e .

M asson 's p a r d o n ) , a n d r e jo i c e d t h a t t h i s n e w s h a d r e s t o r e d h i s

f r i e n d t o t h e l a n d o f t h e living, a r e p o r t h a v e c i r c u l a t e d t h a t h e

h a d c o m m i t t e d

s u i c i d e s o o n a f t e r quitting t h e s e r v i c e o f t h e E a s t

In d ia C om pa ny . B r o w n l o w g a v e n e w s o f f o r m e r a r m y f r i e n d s n o w

l i v i n g in C a l c u tt a , i n c l u d i n g G e o r g e J e ph s on f o r m e r l y M o r t o n )

w ho w i sh e d t o b e r e m e m b er ed t o h im , a n d e n d e d by

c o n g ra t u la t in g h i m o n h i s ' r e s to r a t io n t o S o c ie ty ' . T h e e n ve l o pe

c o n ta i n i n g B r o w n l o w ' s l e t t e r h a s a l s o b e e n p r e s e r v e d :

i t

i s

a d d re s s e d t o C h a r l e s M as so n, E sq ., c / o C a p t a i n W ade a t

L ud h ia n a a n d s o n e a t l y l i n k s h i s r e a l a n d as su m ed n a m e s1 4 . A s

f o r t h e c o n j e c t u r e t h a t J am es L e w i s w a s a l s o a n a s su m e d n am e,

h i s b ap tis ma l c e r t i f i c a t e a n d o t h e r f a m i ly p a p e r s r u l e t h a t o u t .

B ro w n lo w h a d b o u g h t h i s d i s c h a r g e f r o m t h e a r m y in 1826

a n d h a d jo in e d a f i r m

in

C a l c u t t a . G e o r g e J e p h s o n h a d be co me

he ad o f t h e O f f i c e o f t h e A d ju t an t -G e n e r a l . T h e t h r e e m e n

h e n c e fo r th c o r r e s p o n d e d w i t h som e r e g u l a r i t y . F r o m t h e w a r m

to n e o f t h e i r l e t t e r s

i t

i s e v i d e n t t h a t J ames L e w i s h a d i m pr es s ed

t h e m v e r y f a v o u r a b l y in t h e p a s t. T h e s e l e t t e r s m a k e

i t

c l e a r

t h a t b o t h h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e a ls o ed u c ate d a n d c u l t u r e d

men. T h e y w e r e t o p r o v e h e l p f u l in v a r i o u s w a y s t o M as so n in

t h e f u t u r e .

T h e Narra t ive of Various ourneys i s s i l e n t a b o u t t h e

a u t h o r 's im m e dia te p a s t . H e d e l i b e r a t e l y a v o i d s a l l

r e f e r e n c e t o

it

b y s k i p p i n g s u c h p r e l i m in a r i e s a s t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t a n d p u r p o s e

o f h i s t ra v e ls . H e o p e ns h i s s t o r y w i t h o u t p r e a m b le :

In

t h e

a u tu m n o f 1826 h a v i n g t r a v e r s e d t h e R a j p u t S t a te s o f

S he kh aw a ti , a n d t h e k i n g d o m o f B i k a n i r ,

I

e n t e r e d t h e d e s e r t

f r o n t i e r s o f t h e

K h a n o f B a h a w a l p u r ; a n d p a s s i n g s u cc e ss iv e ly

t h e to w n s a n d ca s tle s o f P u la r a h , M i h r C h a r ,

Jam C h a r , M a r u t ,

a n d Moz G h a r , a r r i v e d a t t h e c i t y o f B a h a w a lp u r . ' T h i s d a te ,

1826, i s i n c o r r e c t ; i t s h o u l d b e 1827. T h e B e n g a l M u s t e r R o l l s

m us t b e r e g a r d e d a s a u t h o r i t a t i v e o n t h i s p o i n t .

In

a d d i t i o n

M asson l e f t a m a n u s c r i p t l i s t o f c e r t a i n d a te s w h e r e in e v e r y

case t h e y e a r a s o r i g i n a l l y w r i t t e n h as

b e e n c o r r e c t e d t o a y e a r

la te r . F o r e xa mp le , t h e e n t r y f o r D e r a G h a z i K h a n h a s b e e n

a l t e r e d f r o m De c e m b e r 1 826 t o De c e m b e r 1 82 7

\

C o r r o b o r a t i v e

e v i d e n c e i s p r o v i d e d by t h e d a t e o f C a p t a i n W ade's l e t t e r o f 15

O cto be r, 1827 a b o u t D r H a r l a n ' s d e p a r t u r e f o r P e sh aw a r. T h e

fa lse d a t e w as o r i g i n a l l y i n t e n d e d t o c on ce al t h e r e a l f a c t s w h e n


18/196

M as so n n e e d e d a c o v e r s t o r y . B u t i t w as n o t c o r r e c t e d

in

his

p u b l i s h e d w o r k in s p i t e o f t h e

t ruth

b e i n g k n o w n in Br i t i sh

I n d ia ; h e m a y h a v e a ss um e d t h a t

i t

w a s u n k n o w n t o t h e g eneral

p u b l i c in E n g la n d . B e t h a t a s i t may , t h e 1826 d a te ha s been

p e r p e t u a t e d

n o t o n l y

in t h e o p e n i n g s e n te n c e o f t h e N a r r a t i v e o f

V a r i o u s o u r n e y s but a l s o

in

i t s full t i t l e a n d h a s m i s l e d w ri te rs

o n Ma ss on e v e r s i n ce . R e t a i n i n g t h e fa l s e d a t e m ea n t t h a t

w h o l e y e a r w a s u n a c c o u n t e d f o r w h i c h t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e pa ucity

o f d a t e s m a de

it

d i f f i c u l t t o f o l l o w t h e s e q u en c e o f h i s j o u r ne y s .

M a ss on s d e s e r t i o n f ro m t h e a r m y r em a in e d

a

c r u c i a l f a c t o r

in h i s l i f e e v e n a f t e r h i s R o ya l p a r d o n in 1835.

I t

p r o v i d e d the

i n i t i a l i m p e t u s t o put a s m u c h t e r r i t o r y a s p o s s ib l e between

h im s el f a n d B r i t i s h l n d i a

in

o r d e r t o m i n i m is e t h e r i s k o f being

d e te c te d . T h e p r e t e n c e o f A m e r ic a n c i t i z e n s h i p a n d o f hav ing

r e a ch e d l n d i a o v e r l a n d h a d t h e s ame o b j e c t in view. Masson

s p e n t e x t e n d e d p e r i o d s o f t im e

in

t h e co m p a ny o f B r i t i s h army

o f f i c e r s a n d E a s t I n d i a C o m pa ny o f f i c ia l s

in

Pe rs ia , n on e of

w ho m a p p e a r t o h a v e s u s p e c t e d t h a t t h e i r co m pa n io n was

d e s e r t e r f r o m t h e r an k s1 6 I t i s r e m a r k a b l e t h a t h e escaped

d e te c t io n . C e r t a i n l y h e m u s t h a v e k e p t a v e r y tight r e i n o n his

t o n g u e i f o n l y t o a v o i d l e t t i n g s l i p a r e m a r k , s o e a s i ly d one,

d i s c l o s i n g f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h B r i t i s h l n d i a w h i c h h e was not

s u p p o s e d t o h a v e v i s i t e d o r w i t h t h e

I n d i a n A r m y . A t t h e same

t im e h e h a d t o k e e p up h i s A m e r i ca n

p e r s o n a

a n d b e c a r e f u l not

t o r em i n is c e a b o u t L o n d o n a n d h i s b o y h o o d t h e r e , o r indeed

a b o u t a n y a c t u a l p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s p r i o r t o 1827. S uch

e n f o r c e d r e t i c e n c e b e ca me a h a b i t w h i c h r e m a i n e d w i t h h i m even

a f t e r t h e n e e d n o l o n g e r e x is te d , w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t

in

his

b o o k s h e m ak es n o m e n t io n a t a l l

o f h i s f a m i ly a n d e a r l y l i fe in

E n g l a n d . I t i s o n l y a m on g h i s u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r s t h a t o n e finds

e v i d e n c e e v e n o f h i s e x - a r m y f r ie n d s . N o w o n d e r t h a t h e has

b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s t h e m o s t e n i g m a t i c o f t h e E u r o p e a n e x plo re rs

o f t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n b o r d e r l a n d s o f t h e I n d i a n s u b -c o n t i ne n t 1 7

Y e a r s l a t e r w h e n h e s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i s e d t h e p o l ic ie s and

c o m p e te n c e o f t h e l e a d i n g P o l i t i c a l O f f i c e r s , S i r William

M a c n a g h t e n , S i r C l a u d e W ade a n d S i r A l e x a n d e r B u r n e s , especia l

r e s e n t m e n t w a s a r o u s e d in c e r t a i n c i r c l e s by t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t

t h e a u t h o r o f t h e s e w r i t i n g s was a

p a r d o n e d d e s e r t e r . n genera l

i t w as f e l t t h a t h e wa s b r a z e n in p r e s u m in g t o c r i t i c i s e his

b e t t e r s .


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CHAPTER

I

:

TH

P O L I T I C A L B A C K G R O U N D T O M AS S O N S

J O U R N E Y S

The number of Orienta l names which i t is

necessary to introduce the repe titi on of

incidents

.

of conquest and re-conquest of

treache ry and counter- treachery of rebell ions

raised and suppressed creates a confusion in

the mind of the European reader.

i r W J a y e

History of

th

War in Afghanistan

B e f o r e g i v i n g

s o m e a c c o u n t

o f M a s s o n s j o u r n e y s , e s p e c i a l l y

those in A f g h an i s t a n , a n d o f h i s a n t i q u a r i a n a c t i v i t i e s

during

h i s

l o n g r e s i d e n ce

in

K a b u l ,

i t

w i l l b e w e l l t o l o ok a t t h e b r o a d

p o li t ic a l s i tu a t io n o f t h e r e g i o n

in

1828, t h z y e a r o f h i s a r r i v a l

in

t he c o u n t r y .

In

t h e P u n ja b, t h e g r e a t M a h ar a ja R a n j i t S i n g h h a d b r o u g h t

the S i kh e m p i re t o t h e r e n i t h o f i t s p o w e r a n d t h e S i k h a r m y t o

a p i t c h o f e f f i c ie n c y l i t t l e s h o r t o f t h a t o f t h e B r i t i s h I n d ia n

army.

H e p l a y e d s o i m p o r t a n t a

p a r t

in

t h e n e x t d ec ad e t h a t

i t

i s w o r th q u o t i n g t h r e e c o n t e m p o r a r y i m p r es s io n s o f t h a t

o u t s ta n d i n g f i g u r e . M a s so n, w h o s aw h i m

in

1829 , w r i tes :

In

p ers on t h e M a ha ra ja i s a l i t t l e b e lo w t h e m i d d l e s iz e, a n d v e r y

meagre. H i s c o m p l ex io n i s f a i r , a n d h i s f e a t u r e s r e g u l a r , w i t h a n

aqu i l ine nose .

H e c a r r i e s a l o n g w h i t e b ea r d , a n d w a n t s t h e l e f t

eye. T h o u g h a p p a r e n t l y f a r a d v a n c e d

in

y e a r s ,

I

b e l i e ve h e h a s

n o t co m p l e te d

f i f ty

O n t h e

r ight

s i d e o f h i s n e c k a l a r g e sc a r i s

v is ib le , p r o b a b l y t h e e f f e c t o f a w o u n d . In h i s d i e t h e i s

r e p re s e n t e d t o b e a b s t e m i ou s ,

but

h a s a l w a y s b e en p e r n i c i o u s l y

P rone t o co pio us c u p s o f t h e s t r o n g e s t s p i r i t s w h ic h , w i t h h i s

u nb ou nd ed s e ns u a l i ty , h a s b r o u g h t o n h i m p r e m a t u r e o l d a g e,

w it h a s e ri ou s b u r t h e n o f i n f i r m i t i e s : f o r som e a i lm e n t , h e m a k es

d a ily u s e o f la u d a n u m . S i m p l e

in

h i s d r e ss , w h i c h i s w h i t e l i ne n ,

h e w ears o n h i s a r m t h e c e l e b r a t e d d ia m o n d K o h - i -N u r , o f w h i c h

h e d e p r i v e d S h ah S u ja h a l M u l k h , w h o h a d p r o m i s e d

i t

t o h i m ,

b u t f i r s t a t te m p t e d t o d u p e h im , a n d th e n t o w i t h h o ld

it

a lt og e th e r T o s u m up h i s c h a r a c te r a s a p u b l i c m an, h e i s

a p r in c e o f co ns um m ate a b i l i t y , a w a r r i o r b r a v e a n d s k i l f u l , a n d

a

goo

but

c r a f t y s t a t e s m a n .

In

h i s p r i v a t e o r i n d i v i d u a l

c ap ac ity , h e h a s m a n y s h i n i n g q u a l i t i e s ;

but

t h e y a r e o b s c u re d

m any f a i l in g s a n d b y h a b i t s so g r o s s l y s e n su a l t h a t th e y c a n

Scarcely b e e x c u s ed b y t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e y m ay b e

a t t r ib u t e d t o t h e b a r b a r o u s p e r i o d a t w h i c h h e w as b o r n , o r b y


20/196

t h e f a c t t h a t

in

s u c h r e s p e c t h e i s n o t w o r s e t h a n m a ny o f his

c o m p a t r i o t s l . In p a s s i n g

i t

m a y b e r e m a r k e d t h a t M asson s

a c c o u n t of t h e r a p e o f t h e K o h - i - N w r i s m o r e f av o ur ab le

t

R a n j i t t h a n m o s t w h i c h d e p i c t h i m a s h a v i n g e x t o r t e d i t from

S h a h S h u ja w h e n h e w a s a f u g i t i v e a n d a t h i s m e r c y ) .

L o r d A u c k l a n d s n e p h e w a n d m i l i t a r y s e c r e ta r y , C aptain

W i ll ia m O s b o r n e , d e s c r i b e s t h e M a h a ra ja as h e f o u n d h i m

in

1838:

I l l - lo o k i n g a s h e u n d o u b t e d l y i s , t h e c o u nt en a n ce of

R u n j e e t S i n g h c a n n o t f a i l t o s t r i k e e v e r y o n e a s t h a t o f a ve ry

e x t r a o r d i n a r y m an; a n d t h o u g h a t f i r s t h i s ap pe a r a nc e g iv e s r ise

t o a d i s a g r e e a b l e f e e l i n g a l m o s t a m o u n t i n g t o d i s g u s t , a second

l o o k s h o w s s o m u c h i n t e l l ig e n c e , a n d t h e r e s t l e s s w a n d e ri n g of

h i s s i n g l e f i e r y e y e e x c i te s s o m u c h i n t e r e s t , t h a t y o u get

a c c us to m e d t o h i s p l a i nn e s s, a n d a r e f o r c e d t o c o n fe s s t h a t there

i s n o com mon d e g r e e o f i n t e l l e c t a n d a c u te n e ss d e v e l op e d in his

c o un te na nc e , h o w e v e r o d d a n d r e p u l s i v e i t s f i r s t a p pe ar an c e may

be .

H is h e i g h t i s r a t h e r b e lo w t h e u s u a l s t a t u r e o f t h e S ikhs ,

a n d a n h a b i t u a l s t o o p c au s es h i m t o lo o k s h o r t e r t h a n h e rea lly

i s . H e i s

by

n o m eans f i r m o n h i s l e g s w h e n h e a t te m p ts to

w a l k , but a l l w e a k ne s s d i s a p p e a r s w h e n h e i s on c e on

h o r s e b a c k . H e h a s s t i l l a s l i g h t h e s i t a t i o n o f s pe ec h, the

c o n se q u en c e o f a p a r a l y t i c s t r o k e a b o u t t h r e e y e a r s ago; b u t

t ho s e a b o u t h i m a s s e r t t h a t h i s h e a l t h i s m u c h im p r o v e d w ith in

t h e l a s t t w e l v e m o n th . H i s l o n g w h i t e b e a r d a n d m oustachoes

g i v e h i m a m o r e v e n e r a b le a p p e a r a n ce t h a n h i s a c t u a l a ge w ou ld

le a d y o u t o e x p ec t ;

a n d a t f i f t y - e i g h t y e a r s o f a g e h e i s s t i l l a

h a le a n d h e a r t y o l d man , t h o u g h a n i m a g in a r y i n v a l i d .

. .

I t

i s h a r d l y p o s s ib le t o g i v e a n id ea o f t h e ceaseless

r a p i d i t y w i t h w h i c h h i s q u e s t io n s f lo w , o r t h e i n f i n i t e v a r ie t y of

s u b j e c t s t h e y e m b r a c e .

.

.

19 E m i l y E d en , L o r d A u c k l a nd s

s i s t e r , n e a t l y s um s h i m

up:

H e i s e x a c t l y l i k e a n o l d mouse,

w i t h g r e y w h i s k e r s a n d o n e e ye 2 0

Lying

b e tw e en B r i t i s h I n d i a a n d t h e A f g h a n t e r r i t o r i e s , the

S i k h k i n g d o m u n d e r R a n j i t S i n g h w as f o r

th i r ty

y e a r s

in

s t r o n g

a n d f r i e n d l y h a nd s .

I t

b ec am e o n e o f t h e fe w r e a l l y s u c c e ss fu l

b u f f e r s t a t e s in h i s t o r y 2 , n o t l e a s t be c a us e R a n j i t S i n g h k ne w

a n d a c c e p t e d ,

e v e n

i f

w i t h som e r e lu c t a n c e , t h e l i m i t s p la c e d b y

t h e B r i t i s h o n h i s t e r r i t o r i a l a m b i t io ns . T i l l h i s d e a th

in

1839 the

m a i n t e n a n c e o f good r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e M a h a ra ja r e m a i n ed a f ix e d

p r i n c i p l e o f B r i t i s h p o l i c y .

S i n d , t h o u g h s t i l l a n om i na l d e p e n d e n c y o f t h e A fg ha n

r u l e r s w h o c o n t i n u e d t o c la im t r i b u t e but r a r e l y r e c e i v e d i t and

t h e n o n l y a f t e r m i l i t a r y p r e s s u r e , h a d b e en v i r t u a l l y in d ep e nd en t

f o r m o r e t h a n

20

y e a r s .

I t

w as d i v i d e d a m on g t h e v a r io u s

b r a n c h e s o f t h e T a l p u r a c l a n i n t o a n u m b e r o f p e t t y i n de pe nd en t

s t a t e s e a c h h e a d e d

by

o n e o f t h e A m i r s o f S i n d w h o h a d p ro v ed

t oo i n d o l e n t t o s t r i v e f o r s u p re m a c y a n d t oo f oo l i sh t o u n i t e .


21/196


22/196

n t h e i r a n x i e t y t o b e l e f t a lo n e t h e A m i r s w e r e e x tr em e ly wary

o f E u r o p e a n t r a v e l l e r s a n d a b o v e a l l l o a t h t o a l lo w e xp lo ra t io n of

t h e l n d u s r i v e r a n d v a l l e y by t h e B r i t i s h , f e a r i n g , r i g h t l y

s

i t

t u r n e d o u t , t h a t f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e i r c o u n t r y w o u ld lead by

d e g r e e s t o s u b s t a n t i a l e n c ro a c h m e n t

by

t h e i r p o w e r f u l n e i g h b o u r

B r i t i s h I n d i a .

n

A f g h a n i s t a n , D o s t M a h o m e d K h a n h a d achieved

s u p r e m a c y

in

t h e c i t y a n d p r o v i n c e o f K a b u l a s r e c e n t l y as 1826

a f t e r a b i t t e r s t r u g g l e w i t h h i s n u m e r o u s h a l f - b ro t h e rs . H e was

s lo w l y b e g i n n i n g t o bring o r d e r in h i s l i m i t e d d o m a i n s o u t of the

c h ao s w h i c h h a d s u b s i s t e d f o r n e a r l y a d e c a d e a s a r e s u l t o f the

b r e a k - u p o f t h e D u r r a n i E m p ire , a n d

i t

w a s n o t

till

1834 that he

f e l t s t r o n g e n o u g h t o a s s u m e t h e t i t l e o f A m i r .

T h e D u r r a n i E m p i r e h a d b e e n c r e a te d by Ahmad Shah

A b d a l i , c h i e f o f t h e S ad oz ai c l a n o f t h e A b d a l i t r ib e . H e w s

o r i g i n a l l y t h e c o m m a nd e r o f t h e A f g h a n m e r c e n a r ie s w ho formed

t h e b o d y g u a r d o f N a d i r S h ah o f P e rs ia ,

but

a f t e r t h e la tte r s

m u r d e r by h i s P e r s ia n t r o o p s

in

1747, A h m a d S ha h took

a d v a n t a g e o f t h e c o n f u s i o n t h a t f o l lo w e d t o s eiz e t h e royal

t r e a s u r e . T h e s p o i l s i n c l u d e d t h e K o h - i -N o o r d ia m o n d w h i c h had

b e e n l o o t e d f r o m t h e M u g h u l E m p e r o r w h e n N a d i r S h ah sacked

D e l h i

in

1739. A h m a d S h a h a n d h i s m e n f o u g h t t h e i r w ay o u t of

t h e c a mp a n d h a s t e n e d t o K a n d a h a r w h e r e , t h a n k s t o his

f o rc e f u l p e r s o n a l i t y a n d t o h i s n e w l y a c q u i r e d w e a lth , h e was

e le c te d t h e f i r s t K i n g o f t h e A f g h a n s . T o m a r k h i s e le va tio n he

to o k t h e r e s o u n d i n g na me o f D u r - i - D u r r a n o r P ea rl o f Pearls

w h e r e u p o n t h e A b d a l i t r i b e be ca me k n o w n a s t h e D u r ra n i .

B e s i d e s b e i n g a g o o d a d m i n i s t r a t o r , h e t o o k c a r e t o seek the

a d v i c e a n d c o n s e n t o f h i s C o u n c i l o f c h ie f s . u n f o r tu n a t e l y

n e i t h e r o f t h e se t r a i t s w as t o b e i n h e r i t e d by h i s s o n s o r

g r a n d s o n s . B u t a b o v e a l l h e w as a f i n e s o l d i e r w ho fu lly

a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t t h e o n l y w a y t o a c h i e v e a d e g r e e o f u n ity

a m o n g t h e d i v e r s e r a c es , l a n g u a g e s a n d r e l i g i o n s of h is

t u r b u l e n t p e o p le w as t o l ea d th e m in w a r s a g a i n s t t h e i r

n e i g h b o u r s . A h m a d S ha h D u r r a n i w as f o r t u n a t e

in

h i s h o u r

i na s m u ch a s t h e M u g h u l E m p i r e h a d b e e n m u c h w ea ke ne d b y

N a d i r S h a h s c a m p aig n s a n d by i n t e r n a l c o m m o ti on s , w h i l e o n h is

w e s t e r n f r o n t i e r t h e d e a t h o f t h e P e r s i a n a u t o c r a t Was

im m ed a t e l y f o ll o w e d b y p r o l o n g e d a n a r c h y t h r o u g h o u t P ersia.

A h m a d S ha h soon c a p t u r e d K a b u l a n d t h u s f in a l l y b r o k e ~ u g h u l

r u l e in E a s t e r n A f g h a n i s t a n w h i c h h a d l a s t e d s i n c e t h e tim e of

t h e E m p e r o r B a b u r , w i t h t h e e x c e p t io n o f a b r i e f i n te r lu d e

u n d e r N a d i r S ha h. H e l i k e w i s e d e s t r o y e d P e r s i a n c o n t r o l of

N o r t h - W e s t e r n A f g h a n i s t a n

by

t h e c a p t u r e o f H e r a t . BY

e x t e n d i n g h i s c o n q u e s t s n o r t h - e a s t w a r d s t o e nc om pa ss the

C i s -O x u s t e r r i t o r i e s a s f a r a s B a d a k s h a n h e g a v e A fg ha n is ta n

a p p r o x i m a te l y h e r p r e s e n t b o u n d a r i e s in t h e w e s t a n d n o r t h . For


23/196

the f i rs t t ime Afgh anista n became a separate ent i ty, ru le d b y

one of he r own people.

Tu rn i ng h is a t tent ion to Ind ia ,

in

the course o f th ree

campaigns he cap tu re d Laho re

in

1751-2 a nd was onl y def lec ted

from advancing on Delh i by th e ac tion o f th e Emperor o f De lhi

in

marry ing h is daughter t o Ahmad Shah s son Timur , wi th the

Punjab as dowry. Hi s fo ur th invasion resul ted in th e sack o f

Delhi

in

1757, w hi le h i s

f i f th

was marked

by

the catastrophic

defeat of th e Marathas a t Panipat in 1761. The Mu gh ul Empire

was b y then no longer a n eff ect ive power. Ahmad Shah proved,

however, unable t o consolidate h i s gains. His Afg ha n tr ibesmen

were too indiv idual ist ic, too unsophist icated an d ign ora nt: the y

knew how to conquer but no t how to rule. Nevertheless, when

he died

in

1773, th e va st D ur ra ni Empire extended ov er

present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan ( inc luding Baluchis tan to

the sea), Kashmir, as well as pa rt s o f India, I r a n and Soviet

rurkestan. B u t even he had had to re l in quish some of h i s

conquests, notably central Punjab to th e Sikhs whi ls t reta ini ng

Peshawar and th e n o rt he r n Punjab.

Dur i ng the re ign o f h i s son, Ti mu r Shah, th e Sikhs star ted

to nibble at the Afghan possessions

in

th e Punjab, whi le Sind

succeeded

in

becoming prac ti ca ll y independent, as we ha ve seen.

Timur Shah moved his c apital fro m Kandahar to Kabul, a more

central locat ion both pol i t ica l ly an d strategical ly, an d a t h i s

death

in

1793 the Empire was sti l l of considerable extent.

He lef t

twenty-three sons,

ut

fa iled to nominate an he i r , an d th e ne xt

twenty-f ive years were f i l le d w i t h t he fr an t i c jealousies and

feuds of rival

claimants to the throne,

until

the Durran i Empi re

finally collapsed. The

in-fighting

between the Sadozai princes

was fur th er compl icated b y t he grow ing inf luence of th e powerful

Barakzai ( o r Muhommadzai) c lan o f th e Du rr an i t r i be, headed b y

Payindah Khan?

Zaman Shah (1793-1800), t he f i f th son of T im ur Shah, was

fortunate enough to be in Kabul when h is father died and w i th

the backing o f Payindah Khan succeeded to th e throne. Payin dah

Khan was rewarded

by

being made v iz ier o r ch ief min is ter. B u t

soon the new K in g was attacked b y one disappointed br ot he r

from Kandahar and later

by

ano the r, Shah Mahmud, from Herat.

Having dealt wi th both, he conducted desu lto ry campaigns

in

t he

Punjab but never advanced beyond Lahore. Ineffect ive th oug h

they were, they raised t he spectre o f th e devas t ing rai ds of

Ahmad Shah s formidable Afg han horsemen f o r t y years before

and caused the authorit ies in Bri t ish India to real ise how

ignorant they were of a f fa i rs

in

Afghanistan.

In

1799, Zaman

Shah confirmed Ran jit Singh

in

his tutelary possession of

Lahore. T h i s move

did

no more than legi t imise a

fait accompli

Also known y his t i t le of Sirafraz Khan: he is thus named y Masson


24/196

but

i t e n h a n c e d t h e p r e s t i g e o f R a n j i t S i n g h w h o w a s th e n only

n i n e te e n a n d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s s p e c t ac u la r ca re er . e

f i n a l l y t h r e w o f f A f g h a n s u z e r a i n t y s o o n a f t e r . Zam an S ha h

was

u n w i s e e n o u g h t o d i sm i s s P a y i n d a h K h a n a n d in 1799 had him

e x e c u t e d a t K a n d a h a r . T h e v i c t i m l e f t t w e n t y - t w o sons, the

e l d e s t o f w h om , F a t h K h a n , e s c a pe d t o P e r s ia w h e r e h e inc ite d

S h a h M a h m u d w h o h a d f le d t h e r e f r o m H e r a t , t o r i s e on ce more

a g a i n s t Z a m a n S h a h .

In

1800 t h e l a t t e r w a s d e p o s e d

in

f a v o u r

of

S h a h M a hm u d, b l i n d e d a n d e x i le d . F a t h K h a n s f i r s t essay in

k i n g - m a k i n g r e s u l t e d in h i s a p p o i n tm e n t a s v i z i e r .

S h a h M a h m u d , ( 18 0 0 -3 a n d 1 80 9-1 81 8) r e i g n e d f o r a mere

t h r e e y e a r s b e f o r e h e w as o u s t e d by y e t a n o t h e r b r o t h e r , Shah

S h u j a - u l - M u l k 1803- 1809 a n d 1839-42) . t wa s t o Sh a h Shuja

t h a t t h e w e l l - k n o w n m i s s io n o f M o u n t s t u a r t E l p h i n s t o n e w as sent

in 1809 by L o r d M i n to , t h e G o v e r n o r -G e n e r a l , w i t h a v ie w to

s e c u r i n g h i s g o o d w i l l a g a i n s t a p o s s ib l e i n v a s i o n o f ln d ia by

N a po le on . B u t t h e K i n g s a u t h o r i t y w a s a l r e a d y t h re a te n e d by

S h a h M a h m u d w h o w a s a p p r o a c h i n g K a b u l w i t h a n a rm y . The

l a v i s h m i s s io n w a s t h e r e f o r e r e c e i v e d a t P es ha w ar , t h e win te r

c a p i t a l. A t r e a t y w a s s i g n e d

but

l a p s e d w i t h i n w e e k s w i t h the

d o w n f a l l o f t h e K i n g .

n

a n y c a s e A f g h a n m o n a r c h s w e r e n o t

i n t e r e s t e d

in

t h e d e s i g n s o f t h e f a r - o f f F r e n c h . M u c h th e best

a n d m o st l a s t i n g r e s u l t o f t h e m s s io n w as E l p h in s to n e s ccount

o f

the

K i n g d o m o f aubul

t h e f i r s t t h o r o u g h s t u d y o f that

r e m o t e r e a l m . t h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s t h e g r e a t e s t a n d most

r e a da b l e v o lu m e w e p os se ss o n t h e A f g h a n c o u n t r y a n d the

A f g h a n p e o p l e .

t

i s o f a n a m a z in g a c c u r a c y s t i l l t o da y 2 3

E q u a l l y ,

i t

i s r e g a r d e d

by

A f g h a n s a s t h e m o s t sy m p a th e ti c

o

a l l E u r o p e a n w r i t i n g s a b o u t t h e i r c o u n t r y , a c c o r d i n g t o my

A f g h a n f r i e n d s . A l l t h i s d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t P e sh aw a r, t h e n the

r i c h e s t p o r t i o n o f t h e K i n gd o m , w as o n l y t h e w i n t e r r e s o r t and

t h e B r i t i s h E n v o y a n d h i s s u i te h a d n o o p p o r t u n i t y o f t r a v e rs in g

t h e K h y b e r P as s a n d p e n e t r a t in g i n t o t h e h e a r t la n d of

A f g h a n i s t a n . T h e M i s s i o n w as o n i t s w ay b a c k t o l n d i a a n d on

t h e

p o i n t o f l e a v i n g D u r r a n i t e r r i t o r y w h e n t h e n e w s came

that

F a t h K h a n h a d h e l p e d S h a h M a h m u d t o d e f e a t S h a h S h u ja at

N im la a n d s o r e g a i n t h e t h r o n e .

A f t e r v a r i o u s a t t e m p t s t o r e c o u p h i s f o r t u n e s , S h a h Shuja

w as o b l i g e d t o g o i n t o e x i l e a t L u d h i a n a w h e r e h e jo in e d his

b r o t h e r , t h e

blind

Z am a n S h a h . B o t h f o r m e r m o n a r c h s Were

g i v e n p e n s io n s b y t h e B r i t i s h . S h a h S h uja s v e r y e x is te n c e was

t o h a v e a d i v i s i v e e f f e c t o n h i s f a c t i o n - to r n c o u n t r y . His

i n t r i g u e s a n d m ove s t o r e g a i n h i s t h r o n e r u m b l e d o n f o r years

b e f o r e a n d during M a s s o n s t i m e

unti l

h e w as r e s t o r e d t o the

t h r o n e

in

1 8 3 9

by

B r i t i s h f o rc e s

in

t h e F i r s t A f g h a n W ar.

D e s p i t e t h e o b l i g a t i o n s o f S h a h M a hm u d t o F a t h K h a n who

h a d t w i c e put h i m o n t h e t h ro n e ,

but

w h o s e l o y a l t y h a d become

s u sp e ct , h e a n d h i s s on P r i n c e K a m r a n h a d t h e B a r a k z a i v iz ie r


25/196

b lin de d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y m u r d e r e d in 1818. H i s I l l a n y b r o t h e r s

im m e d ia t e l y t o o k

up

a r m s a g a i n s t t h e S ad oz ai w h o w e r e fo r c e d t o

t a k e r e f u g e in H e r a t . n t h i s f a s h i o n t h e S ad oz ai d y n a s t y c am e

to

a n i n g lo r i o u s e n d t h a t y e a r . M asso n, d e s c r i b i n g t h i s

m om entous e ve n t , w r i t e s t h a t t h e a f f a i r s o f A f g h a n i s t a n h a d

become v e r y c o m p lic a te d , a n d t h e u tm o s t e n e r g y w o u l d h a v e

been r e q u i r e d t o s u s t a i n i t u n d e r t h e p r e s s u r e o f a t t a c k s f ro m

t h e P ers ia n s o n t h e o n e s id e , a n d t h e S i k h s o n t h e o t h e r - T h e

s eiz ure o f F a t h K h a n w a s t h e p r e l u d e t o t h e e na c tm e n t, in r a p i d

su cce ss io n, o f a s m a n y s t r a n g e e v e n t s , a n d o f a s m a n y e n o r m o u s

cr im es a n d p e r f i d i e s a s c a n b e f o u n d in t h e a n n a ls o f a n y

c o u n t r y ?

H e n c e f o r t h , in s p i t e o f s t r e n u o u s e f f o r t s by P r i n c e K a m r a n ,

h e a n d S h ah M a hm u d w i t h o t h e r m e m b e rs o f t h e S a d oz ai c l a n

w ere t o b e c o n f i n e d t o t h e H e r a t d i s t r i c t . T h e m u r d e r e d F a t h

K han s b r o t h e r s d i v i d e d t h e r e s t o f t h e c o u n t r y b e tw e e n th em ,

fo u r ta k i n g o v e r t h e P e s ha w a r v a l le y a n d f i ve , K a n d a h a r , w h i l e

D ost M ahom ed K h a n h e l d G h a zn i , t h e n g r a d u a l l y e x t e n d e d h i s

c o nt r o l t o K a b u l . T h u s i t w as t h a t t h e k i n g d o m d is i n t e g ra t e d ,

t o r n t o p ie ce s f i r s t

by

t h e s t r u g g l e s f o r p o w e r a mo ng t h e

S a d o z a i a n d t h e n by t h e b lo o d - f e u d w h i c h d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n

them a nd t h e B a r a k z a i b r o t h e r s . T h e B a r a k z a i in turn f o u g h t f o r

p r i m ac y a mo ng th e m se lv e s. I n e v i t a b l y , o n c e t h e c e n t r a l c o n t r o l

h ad b e en re mo ve d, t h e o u t l y i n g p a r t s o f t h e D u r r a n i E m p i re a ls o

co llap sed u n d e r i r r e s i s t i b l e e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e . n 1828, w h a t i s

n ow A f g h a n i s t a n w a s s t i l l

in

a s t a t e o f a n a r c h y a n d s p l i t i n t o

three ma

in

p r i n c i p a l i t i e s w i t h e v e r - s h i f t i n g b o u n d a r i e s .

F u r t h e r m o r e B a l k h h a d b e e n s e i z e d by t h e A m i r o f B o k h a r a ,

w hi le K u n d u z u n d e r i t s U z b e k c h ie f , t o g e t h e r w i t h o t h e r s m a l le r

t e r r i t o r i e s

in

A f g h a n T u r k e s t a n , m a i n ta in e d a p r e c a r io u s

independence .

E x c ee d in g ly c o n v o l u t e d th o u g h t h e s i t u a t i o n in A f g h a n i s t a n

h ad becom e a s a r e s u l t o f t h e e v e n t s r e l a t e d a b o ve , i t n e e d s t o

b e u n d e rs to o d s i n c e t h e p e r s o n a l i t i e s c o n c e r n e d f i g u r e d s o

l a r g e l y in M asson s s t o r y a n d p l a y e d i m p o r t a n t r o l e s in t h e

d e v el op m e n ts l e a d i n g up t o t h e F i r s t A n g l o - A f g h a n w a r .

F o u r A f g h a n c i t i e s w e r e o f c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e : P e sh aw a r,

K a bu l, K a n d a h a r , a n d H e r a t . P e s ha w a r w as h e l d by f o u r

B a ra kz ai b r o t h e r s a l l b o r n o f t h e sam e m o t h e r : S u l t a n M ah om ed

K ha n, S a i y a d M ah om e d K h a n , P i r M a ho m ed K h a n a n d Y a r

Mahomed K h a n . T h e V a le o f P e sh aw a r w a s a n d i s in h a b i t e d

by

S u n n i P a th an s ( P u s h t u n s ) , i . e . o f t h e same f a i t h a n d r a c e a s

the m a j or it y o f A f g ha n s . T h e c i t y i t s e l f h a d l o n g b e e n t h e w i n t e r

a n d was r e g a r d e d a s q u i n t e s s e n t i a l l y A f g h a n, B y t h e

o f A m r i t s a r

in

1809, t h e B r i t i s h h a d g i v e n R a n j i t S i n g h a

P r e t t y f r e e h a n d in l a n d s

up

t o a n d b e y o n d t h e I n d u s , o t h e r

than S ind .

e

t o o k a d va n ta g e o f t h e b r e a k - u p o f t h e D u r r a n i

t o c o n t r o l P e s h a w ar f r o m a d i s t a n c e a f t e r 1 819 b y


26/196

a l lo w i n g t h e B a r a k z a i s i r d a r s t o r e m a i n t h e r e

in

r e t u r n for

n

a n n u a l t r i b u t e a n d t h e d i s p a t c h o f o n e o r m o r e o f t h e i r sons

s

h o s ta g e s a t h i s c o u r t

in

L a h o r e .

n

e f f e c t t h e r e f o r e t h e Barakzai

b r o t h e r s h e l d P e s ha w a r e n t i r e l y a t t h e p l e a s u r e o f t h e Maharaja.

T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t l a s te d

until

S h a h S h u j a w a s a b o u t t o launch

h i s c a m p a i g n o f 1833-34 t o r e g a i n h i s t h r o n e . H i s p r e s s i n g need

f o r S i k h s u p p o r t a n d f o r p e r m i s s i o n t o m a r c h t h r o u g h their

t e r r i t o r y , f o rc e d h i m t o c o n c l u d e a t r e a t y w h i c h f o r m a ll y

ceded

s u b s t a n t i a l A f g h a n t e r r i t o r y , i n c l u d i n g P e sh aw a r, t o Ranjit

S i n g h ,

i f h e c o u l d d is p o s s es s t h e B a r a k z a i s i r d a r s . So, o n 6 May

1834, w h i l e S h a h S h u j a a n d h i s a r m y w e r e s t r u g g l i n g th rou gh

t h e B o l a n P as s e n r o u t e t o K a n d a h a r , R a n j i t S i n g h fo re clo se d on

h i s b a r g a i n , s e n t a n a r m y u n d e r H a r i S i n g h t o s e iz e Peshawar

a n d d r i v e o u t t h e s i r d a r s . M a ss on was t h e r e a t t h e t im e and

g i v e s a v i v i d e y e -w i tn e s s a c c ou n t ( se e C h a p t e r I X ) .

ith

a small

f o rc e t h e S i k h g e n e r a l h a d t h u s p o ss e ss e d h i m s e l f o f a region

w h i c h , som e y e a r s b e fo re , R a n j i t S i n g h

in

person , w i th

t w e n t y - f i v e t h o u s a n d m en, h a d n o t v e n t u r e d t o r e t a i n . As

M a ss on r e m a r k s : T r u e

i t

i s , t h a t s i n c e t h a t p e r i o d t h e s p ir i t of

t h e M a h om e d an s h a d b ec om e d e j e c t e d by repea ted de fea ts , and

t h a t t h e r e was, a s t h e r e u n i v e r s a l l y is , t r e a c h e r y in t h e D u r r a n i

c a m p a n d c o u n c il s

.

T h e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t o f c l a n t r e a c h e r y , D o s t M ahom ed Khanl

w a s

in

n o p o s i t io n t o g o t o t h e a i d o f P e sh aw a r a s h e was busy

d e f e a t in g S h a h S h u j a a t K a n d a h a r

( 2

J u l y 1 8 34 ) . T h e lo ss of

P e s h a w a r i n f u r i a t e d D o s t M a h o m e d ,

but

a n a t t e m p t t o r e t ak e i t

t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r p e t e r e d o u t w h e n S u l t a n M ah om ed K h a n and

h i s b r o t h e r s w e n t s o f a r a s t o a c c e p t l a n d s

in

t h e v i c i n i t y o f the

c i t y f r o m t h e h a n d s o f R a n j i t S i n g h . H e n c e f o r t h , t h e A m i r of

K a b u l a n d t h e M a h a r a j a w e r e im p l a c a b l e e ne m ie s, w h i l e re la tio ns

b e tw e e n t h e A m i r a n d h i s h a l f b r o t h e r s , t h e P es ha w ar s i rd a rs ,

b ec am e m o r e s t r a i n e d t h a n e v e r . T h e lo s s o f P e sh a w ar a n d the

r e f u s a l o f t h e B r i t i s h G o v e rn o r -G e n e ra l t o d i s t u r b h i s

goo

r e la t io n s w i t h t h e M a h a ra ja

by bringing

p r e s s u r e t o b e a r o n him

t o r e s t o r e t h e c i t y t o t h e A f g h an s , w e r e t h e m a in ca us es o f Dost

M a ho me d K h a n s e v e n t u a l d i s i l lu s i o n w i t h t h e B r i t i s h , his

f l i r t a t i o n w i t h t h e R u s s i a n s a n d t h e f a i l u r e o f A lex and er

B u r n e s s m i s s io n

in

1838. T h e s e w e r e a l l f a c t o r s w h i c h l e d t o the

F i r s t A n g l o - A f g h a n W ar.

t

s h o u l d b e s a id t h a t t h e A fg h a n s have

n e v e r b e co m e re c o n c i l e d t o t h e l o s s o f t h e i r b e l o v e d P eshawar

a n d i t s a d ja c e n t d i s t r i c t s w h i c h l a t e r becam e p a r t o f the

N o r t h w e s t F r o n t i e r P r o v i n c e . A s terr i r r i ento t h a t p r o v i n c e

i s

t h e c o r n e r - s t o n e o f su c c e s s i v e A f g h a n G o v e r n m e n ts a g i ta t io n for

a n a u to n o m o u s P u s h t u n i s t a n w h i c h h a s s o be de vi l le d

A f g h a n - P a k i s t a n r e l a t i o n s s i n c e d e p e n d e n c e t o t h e p re se nt

d a y .

A s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e o f t h e A f g h a n o b s es s io n o c c u r r e d when

K i n g Z a h i r S h a h p a i d a s em i - of f i c ia l v i s i t t o P a k i s t a n

in 196


27/196

( w h i ch wa s i n t e n d e d t o b e a b r i d g e - b u i l d i n g e x e r c i s e ) a n d f l a t l y

r efu s ed t o i n c l u d e P e s h a w a r in h i s i t i n e r a r y .

T h e K a n d a h a r s i r d a r s w e r e F u r ( o r P o o r ) D i l K h a n , K o h im

D i l K ha n, R a h im D i l K h a n a n d M e h e r D i l K h a n ; t h e e l de s t , S h i r

D i l K h an , h a d d i e d

in

1826. T h e y w e r e a l l full b r o t h e r s , ut

o n ly h a l f - b ro t h e rs o f t h e P e sh aw a r s i r d a r s a n d o f D o s t M ohom ed

K ha n. M asson p o i n t s o u t h o w c u r i o u s l y t h e y w e r e s e p a r a t e d i n t o

g r o u p s , a f f e c t e d

y

t h e i r m a te r n a l d es ce n t . A h i s t o r y o f t h e

B a r a k Za i f a m i l y w o u l d i l l u s t r a t e t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d

d i sa d v a nt ag e s o f p o l y g a m y 2 6 T h e b r o t h e r s q u a r r e l l e d am on g

th em se lve s a n d w h e n M a ss on v i s i t e d K a n d a h a r h e f o u n d t h a t tw o

s ep ara te D u r b a r s w e r e h e l d e a c h w e ek , o n e y F u r D i l K h a n a n d

t he o t h e r y K o h im D i l K h a n 27.

T h e K a n d a h a r s i r d a r s w e r e as i l l - d i s p o s e d t o w a r d s D o s t

M oham ed as w e r e t h e P e s h a w a r s i r d a r s . e s p e c i a l l y a f t e r h e t o o k

K a b ul. B o t h g r o u p s s om e tim e s c o m b i n e d t o put p r e s s u r e o n h im ,

b y f or c e o f a rm s

i f

n e c e s s a r y . O c c a s i o n a l ly t h e y c am e t o e a c h

o t h e r s a i d in t h e f a ce o f P e r s i a n a n d S i k h t h r e a t s . F o r

c e ntu r ie s K a n d a h a r h a d o s c i l la t e d b e t w e e n P e r s ia n r u l e a n d

domina t ion

y

t h e M u g h u l E m p e r o r s .

n

1738, N a d i r S h a h o f

Pers ia c a p t u r e d a n d d e s t r o y e d t h e f o r t a n d c i t y * a n d l a i d o u t a

new c i t y o n a n ew s i te . B u t w i t h t h e a cc e ss io n o f A h m e d S h a h

D u r r a n i

in

1747

i t

b eca me t h e c a p i t a l o f h i s E m p ir e. T h e

P ers ia ns , h o w e v e r, h a d n e v e r g i v e n

up

t h e i r c la im t o K a n d a h a r

and H era t a n d t h e i r e f f o r t s t o r e g a i n th e s e t e r r i t o r i e s f u r t h e r

d i s tu r b e d t h e A f g h a n s c en e

during

M a s s o n s t im e .

H e r a t , a s h a s b e e n s a i d ,

w a s n o w t h e l a s t s t r o n g h o l d o f t h e

Sadozai

c la n w ho w e r e n o t o n l y e ne mie s o f t h e B a r a k z a i but e v e n

h o st i le t o t h e i r o w n k i n s m a n S h a h S h u ja . S h a h M a hm u d d i e d in

1829 and was succeeded y K a m ra n , a s t r o n g e r c h a r a c t e r until

enfeebled y d e b a u c h e ry a n d t h e o p p o n e n t m o s t fe a r e d

y

D o s t

Mahomed K h a n . H e r a t w as t h e k e y t o A f g h a n i s t a n :

i t

w a s s o o n t o

b e c o m e a t h o r n in t h e f le s h o f G o v e rn o r s- G e n e ra l o f I n d i a a n d o f

B r i t i s h C a b i n e t s in L o n do n , t h e c a us e o f c o n f l i c t s a n d a la rm s f o r

years to come.

T h e y w e r e e x c a v a t e d y t h e B r i t i s h I n s t i t u te o f A f g h a n S t u d ie s

1974 78.

15


28/196

C H A P T E R

I I

T H E G R E A T G A M E I N A S I A

When everyone is dead the Great ame

i s

f inished not before.

ipl~ng im

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in

A f g h a n i s t a n , u n r e s t in Pers ia and endemic

m i s r u l e in t h e K h a n a t es o f T ra n s o x ia n a , w e r e o f d u b i o u s va lue

t o

t h e s e c u r i t y o f B r i t i s h I n d i a . A f o r e i g n p o w e r m i g h t w ell take

a d v a n t a g e o f s u c h c o n d i t io n s t o c r e a te t r o u b l e in Ind ia. There

h a d b e e n a b r i e f

f lurry

o f c o n c e r n w h e n N a po le o n w as

in

Egypt

a n d t u r n e d h i s e y e s t o w a r d s t h e Ea s t , a n d a g a in w h en the

T r e a t y o f T i l s i t in 18 07 m a d e R u s s i a a n a l l y o f F r a n c e . B ut,

f r o m 1829 o n w a r d s , t h e s e c u r i t y o f B r i t i s h l n d i a be ca me a matter

o f s e r i o u s d e b a te in L o n d o n a n d C a l c u t t a . A l a n n a s t o Russia s

i n t e n t i o n s in C e n t r a l A s ia a n d b e y o n d w as s p a r k e d o f f in that

y e a r by t h e T r e a t y o f A d r i a n o p l e w h i c h f o l l ow e d t h e de fea t of

T u r k e y by R u ss ia . T h e D u k e o f W e l l i n g to n r e g a r d e d

it

as the

d e a t h b l ow t o t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e O t to m a n P o r t e a n d the

f o r e r u n n e r o f t h e d i s s o l u t i o n a n d e x t i n c t i o n o f i t s p o w e r . Earlier

R u s s i a n s u cc e ss e s a g a i n s t P e r s i a w h i c h h a d l e d f i r s t t o t h e loss

o f G e o r g ia , t h e n t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f P e r s i a n v e s s el s f ro m the

C a s p ia n , a n d f i n a l l y t o t h e h u m i l i a t i n g p ea ce o f T u rk m a n c h a i in

1828, h a d a l r e a d y c a u s e d u n e a s i n e s s in L o n d o n .

I t began to look

a s i f b o t h T u r k e y a n d P e r s ia w o u l d b e f o r e l o n g e i t h e r become

R u s s i a n p r o t e c t o r a t e s o r w o u l d s u f f e r d is m e m b er m en t w i t h large

p o r t i o n s b e i n g a b s o r b e d by R u s s i a . T h s u n w e l c o m e de ve lo pm en t

cam e c lo s e r a s r e g a r d s T u r k e y w i t h t h e T r e a t y o f U nk iar

S k e l e s s i ( 1833) a n d s ee me d t o p o s e a s h a r p e r t h r e a t t o B ri ti sh

I n d ia . T h e s u p p o r t o f t h e T u r k i s h E m p i re a g a i n s t Russian

e n c r o a c h m e n t n o w be ca me , a n d r e m a i n e d during t h e r e s t of the

c e n t u r y , a m a jo r B r i t i s h i n t e r e s t .

I t

i s

in

t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f

B r i t i s h p o l i c y to w a r d s R u s s ia in t h e N e a r a n d M i d d l e E a st that

t h e e x p la n a t i o n o f m u c h t h a t h a p p e n e d in t h e t w o A f g h a n w ars s

t o b e f o u n d . I f a r g u e d P a l m e r s to n , R u s s i a c o u l d a la r m the

B r i t i s h

in

l n d i a by m o v e s in P e r s i a ,

w h y s h o u l d n o t t h e B r i t is h

in l n d i a a la r m t h e R u s s i a n s by m o v e s

in

A f g h a n i s t a n ? S i m i l a r l y

t h e R u s s i a n s c o u l d bring p r e s s u r e t o b e a r o n t h e B r i t i s h in

E u r o p e b y m a k in g t h e i r f l e s h c r e e p in I n d i a . B o t h s id e s , t h e one

t h r o u g h t h e p o s se ss io n o f i n t e r i o r l a n d l in e s , a n d t h e o ther

t h r o u g h s ea -p ow e r, w e r e a b l e t o t h r e a te n t h e o t h e r in ei ther

d i r e c t i o n . E v e n t s

in

o n e t h e a t r e c a n n o t t h e r e f o r e b e u nd e rs to o d

w i t h o u t r e fe r e n ce t o e v e n ts in t h e o t h e r ; t h e A f g h a n w a r s were

e s s e n ti a l l y a p a r t o f t h e E a s t e r n Q u e s t i o n

* .


29/196

d i r e c t in v a s io n o f B r i t i s h l n d i a

by

R u s s i a

in

t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s

was n o t t h e m o s t s e r i o u s t h r e a t ,

but

r a t h e r R u s s i a n e x p an s io n

in

T u r k e y , P e rs ia a n d C e n t r a l A s ia . W e l l i ng t on t o l d L o r d A b e r d e e n

t h a t t h e R u s s ia n s ' h a v i n g t h e d e s i r e t o m i x t h em s e l v es up

a s p r i n c i p a l s

in

e v e r y c o n ce rn , a n d h a v i n g a r e a l i n t e r e s t

in

none, I am n o t q u i t e c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y a r e n o t t h e m o st

i n ~ o n v e n i e n f ~ f o r s t o d e a l w i t h

in

f r i e n d l y t e r m s o f a n y p o w e r

i n E uro pe ' L o r d E l le n b o ro u g h , P r e s i d e n t o f t h e B o a r d o f

C o nt ro l o f t h e E a s t l n d i a C o m p a n y

in

1828, w r o t e ' t h a t R u s s i a

w i l l a t t e m p t ,

by

c o n q u e s t o r by i n f l u e n c e , t o s e c u r e P e rs ia a s a

ro ad t o t h e I n d u s ,

I

h a v e t h e m o s t i n t im a t e c o n v i c t i o n .

I t

i s

e v id en t t h a t t h e l a t t e r J . n d s u r e r m ode, t h a t o f i n f l u en c e , i s t h e

one sh e n o w se l e c t s ' O f f i c i a l s

in

B r i t i s h I n d i a , w i t h som e

n o t a b l e e xce p t i o n s , did n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e r e w as a r e a l d a n g e r

o f a d i r e c t R u s s ia n i n va s io n . T h e y w e r e f a r m o r e c o n c e rn e d l e s t

th e s p re a d o f R u s s i a n i n f l u e n c e

in

P e rs ia a n d A f g h a n i s t a n s h o u l d

ca u se u n r e s t

in

I n d i a , p a r t i c u l a r l y a m o n g h e r M os le m

inhab i tan ts ,

but

a ls o a m on g t h e p r i n c e s 3 ' I n c r e a s e d m i l i t a r y

e x pe n d i t u r e t o m ee t t h e i n t e r n a l t h r e a t m i g h t b e d is a s t r o u s t o

t he f in a nc e s o f B r i t i s h I n d i a .

In

o t h e r w o rd s , t h e B r i t i s h b e g a n

t o p l a y t h e G r e a t G am e

in

A s i a

in

1829, l es s t o p r e v e n t t h e

in va sio n o f l n d i a t h a n t o

re vent

b a n k r u p t c y a n d r e b e l l io n

3 2

T h i s d i s t in c t i o n b e tw e e n a c tu a l i n v a s i o n a n d t h e l o n g - r a n g e

e ffe cts o f g r o w i n g R u s s i a n i n f l u e n c e , p o l i t i c a l a n d c o m m er cia l,

was n o t a lw a y s d r a w n b y t h o s e c on c e rn e d . T h e s o l d ie r s t e n d e d

t o t h i n k

in

t e rm s o f m i l i t a r y c a m p a ig n s w h i c h w o u l d bring t h e

Russians b y s ta ge s e i th e r a c r o s s t h e K h a n a te s o f C e n t r a l A s ia t o

th e O xus , t h e H i n d u K u s h a n d K a b u l , a n d f i n a l l y t o t h e I n d u s ,

o r t h r o u g h P e rs ia , H e r a t a n d B a lu c h i s ta n . T h e c i v i l ia n s ,

e sp ec ia lly t h e E v a n g e l i c a ls a n d U t i l i t a r i a n s , w e r e f i r m b e l i e v e r s

i n th e c i v i l i s i n g v a l u e o f com merce. A c c o r d i n g t o C o b d e n

'Com merce i s t h e g r a n d p a n a c e a

N o t a b a le o f m e r c h a nd i se

l e a ve s o u r sh o r e s

but i t

b e a r s t h e s ee ds o f i n t e l l ig e n c e a n d

f r u i t f u l t h o u g h t t o t h e m e m b e r s o f som e l es s e n l i g h t e n e d

com m unity I 3 r i t i s h a n d I n d i a n m a n u f a c t u r e d g o o d s

were t h e r e fo r e t o b e p u s h e d a s h a r d a s p o s s i b le

in

a l l

d ire c t io ns , e v e n t o C e n t r a l A s ia w h e r e t h e y m i g h t s u cc e ed

in

o u s ti ng t h e R u s s i a n c o m p e t i t io n , bringing e n l i g h t m e n t t o B o k h a r a

a nd K h iv a , a n d p e r h a p s e n l i s t i n g t h e i r h e l p

in

s t e m m i n g t h e

Russ ian advance .

B o t h v ie w s w e r e so m e w ha t n a i v e . F r o m a m i l i t a r y

R u s s i a

in

t h e 1 82 0's w a s s t i l l som e 1 80 0 m i l e s f r o m

the I n du s . O f g r a v e r i m p o r t , t h e r o u t e l a y a c r o s s v a s t d e s e r t s ,

lo ng s t r e t c h e s o f s e m i -a r id t r a c t s a n d o v e r f o r m i d a b l e m o u n t a i n s ,

w ith e x t re m e s o f t e m p e r a t u r e s t h r o u g h o u t .

I t

w o u ld h a v e b e e n

f o r a n a r m y o f t h e r e q u i s i t e s i z e t o l i v e o ff t h e l a n d

Since s u r p l u s f o o d s t u f f s w e r e r a r e l y a v a i la b l e .

I m m e n s e s u p p l y

tra in s w o u ld t h e r e f o r e b e e s s en t ia l . M o r e o v e r l a c k o f w a t e r f o r


30/196

men a nd animals was a n ever-p rese nt hazard. In Afghanistan

proper , to move ar t i l l e ry by any route was a tremendous task,

These cond it ions were ei th er un kn ow n o r scarcely appreciated in

London an d on ly guessed a t

in

Calcut ta an d even in Teheran.

Hence i t was possib le f o r S i r John Macdonald, th e Br it is h Envoy

to Pers ia t o wr i t e in

1829 t o S i r Rob ert Gordon, h is colleague in

Constantinop le, th a t t he Russians wou ld easily conquer

Transcaspia, an d th a t as soon as the y h ad cap tur ed Bokhara

'th e way i s s ho rt an d easy fr om th e Oxus to th e Indus. The

Russians would be aston ished a t t h e fa ci l i ty o f th ei r conquestslJ."

As for th e Benthamites' fa i th

in

commerce, they had given

l i t t le tho ug ht t o the quest ion of how th e recipient States were t o

pay for th e impor ts from Br i ta in and Ind ia : in rea l i ty they had

few commodities to of fe r

in

exchange and moreover were

extremely poor, as Afghanis tan st i l l i s t o this day.

Ellenb orough, however, saw t h e po in t a n d confided to hi s diary

th at 'what the Bokhar ians are to send us

in

r e t u r n do not well

see, ex cept yrquoises, lapi s lazuli, a nd t h e du ca ts they receive

from Russia' L o r d He yte sbu ry, th e B ri t i s h Ambassador at St. ,

Petersburg,

t r ie d t o in jec t a note o f realism i nt o the debate. I n

a despatch t o L o r d Aberdeen o f 18 January, 1830 he wrote:

'There cannot b e t he sl ig htes t do ub t that th e at tent ion of the

Russians has of lat e been v e r y much di rect ed towards India, and '

th a t t he establishment o f commercial relations a t least, with the

several in te rv en ing States between th e Caspian an d the Indus,

has been for many years a p ri mary object'. A f t e r gi vi ng some

examples of Russian interest in v is it or s

1986 charles masson of afghanistan by whitteridge s.pdf

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