1st 2nd and 3rd study guides

7/26/2019 1st 2nd and 3rd Study Guides

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General and Applied Linguistic

1stStudy Guide

1. What is linguistics? Consider Linguistics as a science, and as such, thecharacteristics proper to any science.

2. Consider the branches of Linguistics. Remember the main classification intoGeneral Linguistics and Applied Linguistics.

. What is descripti!e and comparati!e Linguistics? "o# are they different?$. "o# did Linguistics as a science emerge? Consider the history of Linguistics.

Remember it began #ith the %ndian &mpire. 'o not forget to mention the Gree(s,the Romans, the )iddle ages, the Renaissance, and the late 1* thand 2+thcenturies.

. "o# Linguistics changed from both America and &urope? Who #ere -erdinand deaussure and his ideas? And #hat about /oam Choms(y and his theories?

0. "o# does Linguistics obtain data? "o# has the computer age changed this process?. Which is the domain of Linguistics3. Which are the theories for the de!elopment of language? Refer to the different

sources such as the di!ine source, the natural sound source, anthropological

e!idence, archeological e!idence, primatological e!idenc, genetic e!idence, etc.*. 4ro!ide your o#n definition of language.1+. 5e able to e6plain different definitions of language such as the one gi!en by 'a!id

Crystal7language is the human vocal noise, or the representation of this noise in writing,used systematically and conventionally by a community for purposes ofcommunication.Compare the stated definition of language by 'a!id Crystal #ith7language can be defined as a system of conventional vocal signs by means ofwhich human beings communicate.

11. Consider the design features of language 8the properties of human language9 that

distinguish it from the different systems of communication used by animals.Compare language #ith the bee #aggle dance and the !er!et mon(ey calls.

12. What is sign language? What:s the difference bet#een sign language and gestures?What ma(es sign language so comple6? &6plain.

1. When did #ritten records appear? &6plain the de!elopment of #riting systemsconsidering pictograms, ideograms, logograms, the rebus system, the syllabic#riting, the alphabetic #riting, and pro!ide e6amples of each.

1$. Language history and change7 define #hat language family trees and cognates are."o# are languages reconstructed? "o# did &nglish change from ;ld &nglish to theContemporary !ersion #e use no#adays?

1. What is ociolinguistics? 'efine standard language. )a(e a difference bet#een

accent and dialect. What does dialectology study? What are regional dialects?What is an isogloss 8dialect boundaries9? What does the phrase dialectcontinuum refer to? What is the difference bet#een bilingualism and diglossia?What are pidgins and creoles?

10. Language and society7 dialects, regional dialects, accents, dialects of &nglish, socialdialects, the standard, African


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1. Language and culture7 #hat is culture? >he philosophy of language7 #hat islinguistic relati!ity? 'escribe the apir


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Macro linguistics:Adopts the broader !ie#. Concerned #ith the #ay languages areac@uired, stored in the brain and used for !arious functionsB interdependence of languageand cultureB physiological and psychological mechanisms in!ol!ed in language beha!ior.

.

Comparative linguistics:is a branch of historical linguistics that studies languages toestablish connections bet#een them. Connections may be genetic, meaning the languagesha!e a common ancestral language and belong to the same language family, or may resultfrom cultural contact bet#een unrelated languages. >he fundamental techni@ue ofcomparati!e linguistics is to compare phonological systems, morphological systems,synta6, and the le6icon of t#o or more languages using techni@ues such as the comparati!emethod.Descriptive linguistics7 is the #or( of ob=ecti!ely analying and describing ho# languageis actually used 8or ho# it #as used in the past9 by a group of people in a speech

community. %t is study of the description of the internal phonological, grammatical, andsemantic structures of languages.

$.

The history of Linguistics:

Certainly the most interesting non


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colleagues #ere slightly more systematic than their Gree( models but #ere essentiallyretrospecti!e rather than original. Dp to this point a field that #as at times called arsgrammatica #as a congeries of in!estigations, both theoretical and practical, dra#n fromthe #or( and interests of literacy, scribe ship, logic, epistemology, rhetoric, te6tualphilosophy, poetics, and literary criticism.

%t is possible that de!elopments in grammar during the )iddle Ages constitute one of themost misunderstood areas of the field of linguistics. %t is difficult to relate this periodcoherently to other periods and to modern concerns because surprisingly little is accessibleand certain, let alone analyed #ith sophistication. 5y the midhese #or(smust be analyed and studied in the light of medie!al learning, especially the learning ofthe schools of philosophy then current, in order to understand their true !alue and place.>he field of linguistics has almost completely neglected the achie!ements of this period.tudents of grammar ha!e tended to see as high points in their field the achie!ements of the

Gree(s, the Renaissance gro#th and Eredisco!eryF of learning 8#hich led directly tomodern school traditions9, the contemporary flo#ering of theoretical study 8people usuallyfind their o#n age important and fascinating9, and, since the midhere is no doubtthat linguistic and philological de!elopments of this period are interesting and significant.>#o ne# sets of data that modern linguists tend to ta(e for granted became a!ailable togrammarians during this period7 819 the ne#ly recognied !ernacular languages of &urope,for the protection and culti!ation of #hich there subse@uently arose national academies and

learned institutions that li!e do#n to the present dayB and 829 the languages of Africa, &astAsia, the /e# World, and, later, of iberia, Central Asia, /e# Guinea, ;ceania, the Arctic,and Australia, #hich the !oyages of disco!ery opened up. &arlier, the only non


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time9, #hich can be distinguished from!synchronic linguistics! "the comparati!e study ofmore than one language at a gi!en moment in time #ithout regard to pre!ious stages9."istorical linguistics #as among the first sub


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are lac(ing. 5ut it is possible to brea( through e!en this apparent barrier, by using thereconstruction: techni@ues of comparati!e philology. >he forms of 4roto


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bo#he early human tried to imitate the sound and usedit to refer to the thing associated #ith the sound.

ouch!, Ah!, oh!, ow! or "uck!:7 >hese sounds ha!e come from natural cries of

emotion such as pain, anger and =oy. 5asically, the e6pressi!e noises people ma(e inemotional reactions contain sounds that are not other#ise used in speechproduction.

yoeeth, lips, mouth, laryn6 and pharyn6.The human $rain:%t is lateralied, it has specialied functions in each of the t#ohemispheres. >hose functions that control motor mo!ements in!ol!ed in things li(espea(ing and ob=ect manipulation are largely confined to the left hemisphere. Alllanguages, including sign language, re@uire the organiing and combining of sounds orsigns in specific arrangements. We seem to ha!e de!eloped a part of our brain thatspecialies in ma(ing these arrangements.The genetic source:"uman offspring are born #ith a special capacity for language. %t isinnate, no other creature seems to ha!e it, and it isn:t tied to a specific !ariety of language.>his innateness hypothesis#ould seem to point to something in human genetics, possiblya crucial mutation, as the source. >his #ould not ha!e been a gradual change, but

something that happened rather @uic(ly.

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Language:is the human capacity for ac@uiring and using comple6 systems ofcommunication. %s a human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as!oice sounds, gestures, or #ritten symbols. Also, #e can say that language is a body of#ords and system of communication by #ritten or spo(en #ord, #hich is used by thepeople of a particular country or area.

1+.

Different definitions of language:

I Language is a purely human and non


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A language is a system of arbitrary !ocal symbols by means of #hich a social groupcooperates. 85. 5loch and G. >rager, ;utline of Linguistic Analysis. Wa!erly 4ress, 1*$29I -rom no# on % #ill consider a language to be a set 8finite or infinite9 of sentences, eachfinite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements. 8/oam Choms(y, yntactictructures, 1*9I A language consists of symbols that con!eymeaning, plus rules for combining thosesymbols, that can be used to generate an infinite !ariety of messages. 8Wayne Weiten,4sychology7 >hemes And Jariations, th ed. >homson Wads#orth, 2++9

language is the human vocal noise, or the representation of this noise in writing, usedsystematically and conventionally by a community for purposes of communication.Compare the stated definition of language by 'a!id Crystal #ith7 language can be definedas a system of conventional vocal signs by means of which human beings communicate.>he first definition refers to the speech and hand#riting as language of community. %n theother hand, the second definition also refers to speech but the author focuses more in signsby a community for purpose of communication.

11.

The design features of language:

1his means that the standard human language occurs as a!ocal 8ma(ing sounds #ith the mouth9 type of communication #hich is percei!ed byhearing it.2his means that the humanlanguage signal is sent out in all directions, #hile it is percei!ed in a limited direction.-or spo(en language, the sound perpetuates as a #a!eform that e6pands from the point
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dfl.jpg


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of origin 8the mouth9 in all directions. >his is #hy a person can stand in the middle of aroom and be heard by e!eryone 8assuming they are spea(ing loudly enough9. "o#e!er,the listener hears the sound as coming from a particular direction and is notably betterat hearing sounds that are coming from in front of them than from behind them.his is a fundamental aspect of all communication systems. -or e6ample, in-rench, the #ord selmeans a #hite, crystalline substance consisting of sodium and

chlorine atoms. >he same substance is matched #ith the &nglish #ord salt. Anyonespea(er of these languages #ill recognie that the signal sel or salt refers to thesubstance sodium chloride.3his means that there is no necessary connection bet#een the form ofthe signal and the thing being referred to. -or e6ample, something as large as a #halecan be referred to by a !ery short #ord. imilarly, there is no reason that a four


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1+his means that the spea(er can tal( about things #hich are notpresent, either spatially or temporally. -or e6ample, human language allo#s spea(ers total( about the past and the future, as #ell as the present. pea(ers can also tal( aboutthings that are physically distant 8such as other countries, the moon, etc.9. >hey cane!en refer to things and e!ents that do not actually e6ist 8they are not present in reality9such as the &aster 5unny, the &arth ha!ing an emperor, or the destruction of >arain Gone #ith the Wind.11his means that human languages allo# spea(ers to create no!el,ne!er


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A sign language7 is alanguage#hich uses manual communicationandbody languagetocon!ey meaning, as opposed to acoustically con!eyed sound patterns. >his can in!ol!esimultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and mo!ement of the hands, arms orbody, andfacial e6pressionsto fluidly e6press a spea(erHs thoughts.Although both Sign and#esturesin!ol!e the use of the hands 8#ith other parts of thebody9, they are rather different. ign is li(e speech and is used instead of spea(ing. >hegestures are =ust part of the communicati!e act being performed.What ma(es sign language so comple6 is that it is con!entional and depend on social(no#ledge, % mean, #hat is and is not considered offensi!e in a particular social #orld. -ore6ample, in 5ritain, the use of t#o fingers 8the inde6 and middle fingers together9 raised ina J


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ta(en o!er as the symbol for the sound of the spo(en #ord used to refer to the entity. >hatsymbol then comes to be used #hene!er that sound occurs in any #ords.We can create an e6ample, #or(ing #ith the sound of the &nglish #ord eye. We canimagine ho# the pictogram could ha!e de!eloped into the logogram . >his logogram ispronounced as eye and, #ith the rebus principle at #or(, you could then refer to yourself as8E%F9, to one of your friends as 8ECrosseyeF9.Sylla$ic .riting:When a #riting system employs a set of symbols each one representingthe pronunciation of a syllable, it is described as syllabic #riting.)odern apanese can be #ritten #ith a set of single symbols representing spo(en syllablesand is conse@uently often described as ha!ing a 8partially9 syllabic #riting system, or asyllabary. >he Chero(ee community creates #ritten messages from the spo(en language. %nthese Chero(ee e6amples7 8ho9, 8sa9 and 8ge9,Alpha$etic .riting: An Alphabetis essentially a set of #ritten symbols, each onerepresenting a single type ofsound. Words #ritten in emitic languages such as Arabic and"ebre#, in e!eryday use, largely consist of symbols for the consonant sounds in the #ord,#ith the appropriate !o#el sounds being supplied by the reader 8or rdr9. >his type of

#riting system is sometimes called a consonantal alphabet. >he early Gree(s used separatesymbols to represent the !o#el sounds as distinct entities, and so created a remodeledsystem that included !o#els. >his change produced a distinct symbol for a !o#el soundsuch as a 8called alpha:9 to go #ith e6isting symbols for consonant sounds such as b8called beta:9, gi!ing us singlehe ultimate goal of thelanguage tree model is to find the mother tongue of all humans, if such a language e!ere6isted. >he creation of such tree models is a part of language comparison and is the resultof numerous studies into the origins and commonalities of languages across the #orld.Cognates are #ords that ha!e a common etymological origin. >his learned term deri!esfrom the Latin cognatus 8blood relati!e9. Cognates #ithin the same language are calleddoublets.Cognates do not need to ha!e the same meaning, #hich may ha!e changed as the languagesde!eloped separately.

%n the nineteenth centuries many philologists attempted to find some common roots ofcontemporary languages, as they noticed many similarities in their forms. >hus, certainfamily connections #ere traced and language genealogic trees #ere created. Dp to no#about thirty detailed trees ha!e been made describing relations bet#een $+++ distinctlanguages. >he family tree of %ndohe analysis of the relations bet#een languages is possible because of common #ords thate6ist in those languages and deri!e from a mutual ancestor. Words that ha!e a !ery similarform in different languages and share, or used to share their meaning are called cognates.


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-or instance the &nglish #ords motherandfatherare cognates of the German#ords$utterand %ater. When t#o languages share a large number of cognates certainprocedures are applied in order to reconstruct the original forms of the common ancestors.>he principles of such procedures are fairly simple7 if in a set of cognates consisting of ten#ords se!en of them begin #ith K( sound and three #ith Kg sound according to thema=ority principle it is assumed that the ma=ority of #ords ha!e (ept the original sound,#hile the rest changed #ith time. >he most natural de!elopment principle describes themost common soundhese -renchhis type of re!ersal is illustrated in the changed !ersions of these #ords from theirearlier forms.>he most s#eeping change in the form of &nglish sentences #as the loss of a large numberof inflectional affi6es from many parts of speech. /otice that, in the pre!ious e6amples, the


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forms sealde 8he ga!e:9 and sealdest 8you ga!e:9 are differentiated by inflectional suffi6es8#o other processes are described as broadening: and narro#ing: of meaning. Ane6ample of broadeningof meaning is the change from holy day as a religious feast to the!ery general brea( from #or( called a holiday.>he re!erse process, called narro#ing, has o!erta(en the ;ld &nglish #ord hund, once usedfor any (ind of dog, but no#, as hound, used only for some specific breeds. Anothere6ample is mete, once used for any (ind of food, #hich has in its modern form meatbecome restricted to only some specific types./one of these changes happened o!ernight. >hey #ere gradual and probably difficult todiscern #hile they #ere in progress. Although some changes can be lin(ed to ma=or socialchanges caused by #ars, in!asions and other uphea!als, the most per!asi!e source of

change in language seems to be in the continual process of cultural transmission. &ach ne#generation has to find a #ay of using the language of the pre!ious generation.

1.

>he term sociolinguistics is used generally for the study of the relationship bet#eenlanguage and society. >his is a broad area of in!estigation that de!eloped through theinteraction of linguistics #ith a number of other academic disciplines. %t has strongconnections #ith anthropology through the study of language and culture, and #ith

sociology through the in!estigation of the role language plays in the organiation of socialgroups and institutions. %t is also tied to social psychology, particularly #ith regard to ho#attitudes and perceptions are e6pressed and ho# in


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'egional dialects:%s used to describe features of grammar and !ocabulary as #ell asaspects of pronunciation. We recognie that the sentence7


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Dialects:A regional or social !ariety of a language distinguished by pronunciation,grammar, or !ocabulary, especially a !ariety of speech differing from the standard literarylanguage or speech pattern of the culture in #hich it e6ists.

'egional dialects:>he e6istence of different regional dialects is #idely recognied andoften the source of some humor for those li!ing in different regions. A lot of sur!eyresearch to the identification of consistent features of speech found in one geographicalarea compared to another. >he traditional study of regional dialects tended to concentrateon the speech of people in rural areas. >hese dialect sur!eys often in!ol!e painsta(ingattention to detail and tend to operate #ith !ery specific criteria in identifying acceptableinformants.

Social dialects:the study of social dialects has been mainly concerned #ith spea(ers into#ns and cities. %n the social study of dialect, it is social class that is mainly used to definegroups of spea(ers as ha!ing something in common.

/Standard language07 the !ariety of a language treated as the official language and used inpublic broadcasting, publishing and education. -or e6ample7 omeone #ants to learn&nglish as a second or foreignlanguage.

)sogloss7 represents a boundary bet#een areas #ith regard to that one particular linguisticitem. %f a !ery similar distribution is found for another t#o items, such as a preference forpail to the north and buc(et to the south, then another isogloss, probably o!erlapping thefirst, can be dra#n on the map. When a number of isoglosses come together in this #ay, amore solid line, indicating a dialect $oundary, can be dra#n.

Language contact:occurs #hen t#o or more languages or !arieties interact. >he study oflanguage contact is called contact linguistics. )ultilingualism has li(ely been commonthroughout much of human history, and today most people in the #orld are multilingual.When spea(ers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages toinfluence each other. Language contact can occur at language borders or as the result ofmigration, #ith an intrusi!e language acting as either a superstratum or a substratum.Language contact occurs in a !ariety of phenomena, including language con!ergence,borro#ing and rele6ification. >he most common products arepidgins, creoles, code+switching, and mi*ed languages. ;ther hybrid languages, such as &nglish, do not strictly fitinto any of these categories.

Lingua francas2 ,idgins and Creoles:

-or !arious reasons, groups of people spea(ing di!erse languages are often thro#n intosocial contact. When this occurs, a common language must be found to ser!e as a mediumof communication. ometimes, by common agreement, a gi!en language 8not necessarily anati!e language of anyone present9 (no#n to all the participants is usedB a language used inthis fashion is (no#n as a lingua franca. >he term lingua franca deri!es from a tradelanguage of this name used in )editerranean ports in medie!al times.


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Dntil about the eighteenth century, &uropean scholars used Latin as a lingua franca. %n thecontemporary #orld, &nglish ser!es as a lingua franca in numerous social and politicalsituations #here people re@uire a common language. -or e6ample, &nglish has become alingua franca for international scientific =ournals and international scientific meetings."istorically, another (ind of situation has often arisen in #hich people come into contact,sharing no common language7 namely, #hen one group is or becomes politically andeconomically dominant o!er another.>his has been typical of colonial situations, in #hich the dominant group desires trade #ith,or coloniation of, the subordinate group. %n such situations, pidgin languages 8or pidgins9ha!e de!eloped, ha!ing the follo#ing important properties71. >he pidgin has no nati!e spea(ers but is used as a medium of communication bet#eenpeople #ho are nati!e spea(ers of other languages.2. >he pidgin is based on linguistic features of one or more other languages and is asimplified language #ith reduced !ocabulary and grammatical structure.When a pidgin de!elops beyond its role as a trade or contact language and becomes the firstlanguage of a social community, it is described as a creole. A creole de!elops as the first

language of the children of pidgin spea(ers and there is an e6pansion of its !ocabulary andgrammar and begins to ac@uire rules. >hus, unli(e pidgins, creoles ha!e large numbers ofnati!e spea(ers.

Language in use:

lang7 slang or collo@uial speech:, describes #ords or phrases that are used instead ofmore e!eryday terms among younger spea(ers and other groups #ith special interests.

Ta$oo language3 uphemisms7 >aboo #ords are those that are to be a!oided entirely, or atleast a!oided in mi6ed company:: or polite company.:: >ypical e6amples in!ol!ecommon s#ear #ords such as 'amnM or hitM. >aboo language is not limited to obscenity

sacred language can also be taboo.%n place of these #ords, certain euphemismsthat is, polite substitutes for taboo #ordscan be used, including #ords such as darn 8a euphemism for damn9, hec( 8a euphemism forhell 9, gee or =ee 8a euphemism for the e6clamation esusM9, and so on. An amusinge6ample is the current e6pression, the -:: #ord, #hich is a euphemism for that notorious&nglish #ord that many ne#spapers spell as f


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Social barrierssuch as discrimination and segregation ser!e to create mar(ed differencesbet#een social dialects. %n the case of AA&, those different features ha!e often beenstigmatied as bad: language. Although AA& spea(ers continue to e6perience the effects ofdiscrimination, their social dialect often has co!ert prestige among younger spea(ers inother social groups, particularly #ith regard to popular music, and certain features of AA&may be used in e6pressions of social identity by many #ho are not African American.

5argon and Argot:;ne of defining feature of a register is the use of =argon, #hich isspecial technical !ocabulary associated #ith a specific area of #or( or interest. %n socialterms, =argon helps to create and maintain connection among those #ho see themsel!es asinsiders: in some #ay and to e6clude outsiders:. &!en the criminal under#orld has itso#n =argon, often referred to as argot.

Language and se6ism:5y typical definition, se6ist language is considered to be anylanguage that is supposed to include all people, but, unintentionally 8or not9 e6cludes agenderhe particular language #elearn through the process of cultural transmission pro!ides us, at least initially, #ith areadymade system of categoriing the #orld around us and our e6perience of it.According to linguistic relati!ity it seems that the structure of our language, #ith itspredetermined categories, must ha!e an influence on ho# #e percei!e the #orld. %n its#ea( !ersion, this idea simply captures the fact that #e not only tal(, but to a certain e6tentprobably also thin( about the #orld of e6perience, using the categories pro!ided by ourlanguage. %n its strong !ersion, called linguisticdeterminism, the idea is restated asElanguage determines thoughtF, meaning that #e can only thin( in the categories pro!idedby our language.

%n linguistics, the apir


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not participate in #ar. o, the hypothesis is that #e must be able to thin( of somephenomenon before #e can name it or e6perience it.While &s(imos and /or#egians ha!e many different #ords for sno#, describing it in #aysthat #ould probably the meaningless to us, people #ho li!ed in tropical rain forests #ouldnot ha!e had e!en a single #ord for sno#. >oday, because of the ubi@uity masscommunications, sno# is probably uni!ersally understood.Cogniti!e categories7As a #ay of analying cognition, or ho# people thin(, #e can loo( at language structure forclues, not for causes. >he fact that "opi spea(ers inherit a language system in #hich cloudsha!e animate: as a feature may tell us something about a traditional belief system, or #ayof thin(ing, that is part of their culture and not ours. %n the agua language, spo(en in 4eru,the set of entities #ith animate: as a feature includes the moon, roc(s and pineapples, as#ell as people. %n the traditions of the agua, all these entities are treated as !alued ob=ects,so that their cultural interpretation of the feature animate: may be closer to the conceptha!ing special importance in life: rather than the concept ha!ing life:, as in the culturalinterpretation of most &nglish spea(ers.

Classifiers7We (no# about the classification of #ords in languages li(e agua because of grammaticalmar(ers called classifiers that indicate the type or class: of noun in!ol!ed. -or e6ample, in#ahili 8spo(en in &ast Africa9, different prefi6es are used as classifiers on nouns forhumans 8wa+9, non


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grammatical class of nonhese are categories of social organiation that #e can use to say ho# #e areconnected or related to others. We can pro!ide technical definitions 8e.g. parent:s brother:9,but in many situations a #ord such as uncleis used for a much larger number of people,including close friends, #ho are outside the class of indi!iduals co!ered by the technicaldefinition. >he #ord brother is similarly used among many groups for someone #ho is nota family member. We can use these #ords as a means of social categoriation, that is,mar(ing indi!iduals as members of a group defined by social connections.

13.

Brain plasticityand laterali+ationin early life, the critical period: >he apparent

specialiation of the left hemisphere for language is usually described in terms of lateraldominance or laterali+ation 8one


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7ndStudy Guide

1. What is phonetics? What does it study? What are allophones?2. What is phonology? What are phonemes? What:s the difference bet#een phonetics

and phonology?. What are !o#el sounds? What are consonant sounds?$. What is the !o#el diagram, #hat does it represent? What are cardinal !o#els

8definition only9?. Which are the changes or alterations that !o#els can undergo? Refer to lengthening,

shortening, rhoticiation and nasaliation.0. "o# can consonants be described or analyed? Refer to manner of articulation,

place of articulation, and !oicing.. 4ro!ide a definition of syllable. What:s the structure for syllables in &nglish?3. What are prosodic features of language? 5e able to tal( about intonation, rhythm,

accentuation and tempo.

*. What:s tone? What are tone languages?1+. What is morphology? What does it study? Refer to morphemes, and their

classification into bound and free morphemes, and into the four main categories of

morphemes7 inflectional, deri!ational, le6ical and functional. 5e prepared to

analye an utterance into its morphemes.11. What are allomorphs? 4ro!ide e6amples.12. What is grammar? 4ro!ide a definition of grammar.1. )a(e a distinction bet#een the t#o main approaches of studying grammar7

prescripti!e and descripti!e grammar.1$. Which are the parts of speech? What:s agreement in grammar analysis? What:s

grammatical gender?1. What is Dni!ersal Grammar and the Dni!ersal Grammar 'e!ice? 8/. Choms(y910. What:s synta6? 4ro!ide a definition of synta6 and phrase.

1.

,honetics:%s the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds. %t is di!ided into main branches, corresponding to these distinctions7


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Articulatory phonetics, #hich is the study of ho# speech sounds are made, or

articulated:. Acoustic phonetics, #hich deals #ith the physical properties of speech as sound

#a!es in the air.

Auditory phonetics 8or perceptual phonetics9 #hich deals #ith the perception, !iathe ear, of speech sounds.

Allophones7 %n phonology, an allophone is one of a set of multiple possible spo(en sounds8or phones9 used to produce a simple phoneme. Although a phoneme:s allophones are allalternati!e pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophone selected in a gi!ensituation is often predictable.

2.

,honology: is based on a theory of #hat e!ery spea(er of a language unconsciously (no#sabout the sound patterns of that language. 5ecause of phonology is concerned #ith theabstract set of sounds in a language that allo# us to distinguish meaning in the actualphysical sounds that #e say and hear.,honeme7 &ach one of these meaninghey:re typically !oiced. >odescribe !o#el sounds, consider the #ay in #hich the tongue influences the shape: trough#hich the airflo# must pass.Consonant sounds: is a speech sound that is articulated #ith complete or partial closure ofthe !ocal trac(.

$.

A vo.el diagramor vo.el chartis a schematic arrangement of the !o#els.'epending onthe particular language being discussed, it can ta(e the form of a triangle or a @uadrilateral.Jertical position on the top of the diagram denotes the !o#el closeness, #ith close !o#elsat the top of the diagram, and horiontal position denotes the !o#el blac(ness, #ith front!o#els at the left of the diagram. %n the !o#el diagram, con!enient reference points arepro!ided for specifying tongue position.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowelhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vowel


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Cardinal vo.els: >he cardinal !o#el 8CJ9 #as de!ised to pro!ide a set of reference pointsfor the articulation and recognition of !o#els. %ts dimension corresponds to the !o#el spacein the centre of the mouth #here these sounds are articulated. >he positions of the frontcentre and bac( of the tongue are represented by !ertical lines.

.

The changes or alterations of vo.els:

Lengthening of vo.els: %n linguistics, !o#el length is the percei!ed duration of a

!o#el sound.

>raditionally, the !o#els T e T


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go abruptly. >his type of consonant sound, resulting from a bloc(ing or stopping

effect on the airstream, is called a stop 8or a plosi!e:9. 4ricatives: >he manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds Kf, K!,

K[,Kd, Ks, K, K, K\ in!ol!es almost bloc(ing the airstream and ha!ing the airpush

through the !ery narro# opening. As the air is pushed through, a type offriction isproduced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives.

Affricates: %f you combine a brief stopping of the airstream #ith an obstructed

release#hich causes some friction, you #ill be able to produce the sounds Kt and

Kd . 8asals: #hen the !elum is lo#ered and the airstream is allo#ed to flo# out through

the nose to produce Km, Kn, and K], the sounds are described as nasals. >hese three

sounds are all !oiced. Li9uids: >he Kl sound is called a lateral li@uid and is formed by letting the airstream

flo# around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue ma(es contact #ith the

middle of the al!eolar ridge. >he Kr sound is formed #ith the tongue tip raised andcurled bac( near the al!eolar ridge. >hey are both !oiced

Glides: >he sounds K# and K= are described as glides. >hese sounds are typically

produced#ith the tongue in motion 8or gliding:9 to or from the position of a !o#el

andare sometimes called semihey are both !oiced. >he

sound Kh is !oiceless and can be classified as a glide because of the #ay it combines

#ith other sounds. %n some descriptions, it istreated as a fricati!e.

,lace of articulation:;nce the air has passed through the laryn6, it comes up and outthrough the mouth andTor the nose. )ost consonant sounds are produced by using the

tongue and other parts of the mouth to constrict, in some #ay, the shape of the oral ca!itythrough #hich the air is passing. >he terms used to describe many sounds are those #hichdenote the place of articulation of the sound7 that is, the location inside the mouth at #hichthe constriction ta(es place.

Bila$ials: >hese are sounds formed using both 8O bi9 upper and lo#er lips 8O labia9.

>he initial sounds in the #ordspat, bat and mat are all $ila$ials. La$iodentals: >hese are sounds formed #ith the upper teeth and the lo#er lip.

Dentals: >hese sounds are formed #ith the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth.

>he term interdentals: is sometimes used for these consonants #hen they are

pronounced #ith the tongue tip bet#een 8O inter9 the upper and lo#er teeth.

Alveolars: >hese are sounds formed #ith the front part of the tongue on the al!eolarridge,#hich is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and abo!e the upper teeth.

,alatals: %f you feel bac( behind the al!eolar ridge, you should find a hard part in the

roof of your mouth. >his is called the hard palate or =ust the palate. ounds #hich are

produced #ith the tongue and the palate are called palatals 8or al!eopalatals9.


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%elars: &!en further bac( in the roof of the mouth, beyond the hard palate, you #ill

finda soft area, #hich is called the soft palate, or the !elum. ounds produced #ith

the bac( of the tongue against the !elum are called velars. Glottals: >here is one sound that is produced #ithout the acti!e use of the tongue

and otherparts of the mouth. >his sound is usually described as a !oiceless glottal.>he glottis: is the space bet#een the !ocal cords in the laryn6. When the glottis is

open, as in the production of other !oiceless sounds, and there is no manipulation of

the air passing out of the mouth, the sound produced is that represented by Kh.

%oicing:

%oiceless:TpT


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%n linguistics, intonationis !ariation of spo(enpitchthat is not used to distinguish #ordsBinstead it is used for a range of functions such as indicating the attitudes and emotions ofthe spea(er, signalling the difference bet#een statements and @uestions, and bet#eendifferent types of @uestions, focusing attention on important elements of the spo(enmessage and also helping to regulate con!ersational interaction.%n linguistics, stressis the relati!e emphasis that may be gi!en to certain syllablesin a#ord, or to certain #ords in a phrase or sentence. tress is typically signalled by suchproperties as increased loudnessand !o#el length, full articulation of the !o#el, andchanges inpitch. >he termsstressandaccentare often used synonymously, but they aresometimes distinguished, #ith certain specific (inds of prominence 8such aspitch accent,!ariously defined9 being considered to fall under accent but not under stress. %n this case,stress specifically may be called stress accent or dynamic accent.Although rhythmor isochrony, is not a prosodic !ariable in the #ay that pitch or loudnessare, it is usual to treat a languageHs characteristic rhythm as a part of its prosodic phonology.%t has often been asserted that languages e6hibit regularity in the timing of successi!e unitsof speech, a regularity referred to as isochrony,and that e!ery language may be assigned

one of three rhythmical types7 stresshere are 2 types of morphemes7 -ree morphemes7 are morphemes that can stand be themsel!es as single #ords. -or

e6ample7 open, tour, etc. 5ound morphemes7 >he morphemes that cannot normally stand alone and are

typically attached to another form. -or e6ample7


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Le6ical morphemes7 >hey are ordinary nouns, ad=ecti!es and !erbs that #e thin( of

as the #ords that carry the content of the message #e transmit. -unctional morphemes7 >his set consists largely of the function #ords in the

language such as con=unctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.

5ound morphemes are classified into t#o categories7 'eri!ational and inflectional morphemes

'eri!ational morpheme7 >hey are used to ma(e ne# #ords or to ma(e #ords of a

different grammatical category from the stem. -or e6ample7 affi6es.

%nflectional morphemes7 >hey are not use to produce ne# #ords in the language, but ratherto indicate aspects of the grammatical function of the #ord. -or e6ample7 he t#o main approaches of studying grammar7 #prescriptive#and #descriptive#grammar. >he descripti!e approach7 %t is interested to describe the regular structures of the

language as it #as used, not according to some !ie# of ho# it should be used. >he prescripti!e approach7 %t is characteried as an approach #hich set out rules for

the proper use of a language. -or e6ample7 ou must no t end a sentence #ith a

preposition

1$.

,arts of Speech: >raditional grammar classifies #ords based on 3 parts of speech7 the!erb, the noun, the pronoun, the ad=ecti!e, the ad!erb, the preposition, the con=unction, andthe inter=ection.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clause_(linguistics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semanticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmaticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structuralhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clause_(linguistics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrasehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonologyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoneticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semanticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics


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&ach part of speech e6plains not #hat the #ord is, but ho# the #ord is used. %n fact, thesome #ord can be a noun in one sentence and a !erb or ad=ecti!e in the ne6t sentence.Agreement: %s the concordance that must e6ist #ithin a sentence bet#een the pronoun,noun, !erb, etc.>his concordance consists in7

/umber7 #hether the noun is singular or plural

4erson7 1st, 2nd, rd.

>ense7 the form of the !erb.

Gender7 female entities 8she, her9 male entities 8he, his9 and things or creatures 8it,

its9

Grammatical Gender: %s based on the type of the noun 8masculine and feminine9 and isnot tied to se6. /ouns are classified according to their gender class and, typically, articlesand ad=ecti!es ha!e different forms to Eagree #ithF the gender of the noun.

1.

niversal Grammar and the niversal Grammar Device $y 83 Choms*y

>he author argued that human brain contains a limited set of rules for organiing language.>his implies in term that all languages ha!e a common structural basisB the set of rules is#hat is (no#n as -niversal #rammar. >he Dni!ersal Grammar consists of a set ofunconsciously constraints that let us decide #hether a sentence is correctly formed. >heprocess by #hich, in any gi!en language, certain sentences that come to their minds, onlythose that conform to a Edeep structureF encoded in the brain is circuits.

10.

%n linguistics, synta6is the set of rules, principles, and processes that go!ern the structureof sentencesin a gi!en language. When #e concentrate on the structure and ordering ofcomponents #ithin a sentence, #e are studying the synta6 of a language. >he termsynta*is also used to refer to the study of such principles and processes. >he #ord synta6: comesoriginally from Gree( and literally means a putting together: or arrangement:.

;rdStudy Guide

1. What is ociolinguistics? 'efine standard language. )a(e a difference bet#eenaccent and dialect. What does dialectology study? What are regional dialects?What is an isogloss 8dialect boundaries9? What does the phrase dialect
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_languagehttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguisticshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language


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continuum refer to? What is the difference bet#een bilingualism and diglossia?What are pidgins and creoles? What is language planning?

2. Language and society7 dialects, regional dialects, accents, dialects of &nglish, socialdialects. What role do education and occupation play? What are social mar(ers?And speech style and style shifting? What is understood by the standard language?What is African


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connections #ith anthropology through the study of language and culture, and #ithsociology through the in!estigation of the role language plays in the organiation of socialgroups and institutions. %t is also tied to social psychology, particularly #ith regard to ho#attitudes and perceptions are e6pressed and ho# in


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Dialect continuum:Refer to a range ofdialectsspo(en across some geographical area thatdiffer only slightly bet#een neighboring areas, but as one tra!els in any direction, thesedifferences accumulate in such a #ay that spea(ers from opposite ends of the continuumare no longermutually intelligible.

Language planning:choosing and de!eloping an official language or languages for use ingo!ernment and education.

Diglossia:is #hen t#o languages or language !arieties e6ist side by side in a community.e.g. "igh !ariety #hich is used in go!ernment, the media and education. >he other Lo#!ariety used #ith family, friends etc. 8%ndonesia is a good e6ample9

Bilingualism:is the use of t#o languages either by an indi!idual or by a group of spea(ers.>he difference bet#een 'iglossia and 5ilingualism #ould be ho# the languages are used insociety i.e. 'iglossia < clear usage differences < "igh !s Lo#.

2.

Dialects:A regional or social !ariety of a language distinguished by pronunciation,grammar, or !ocabulary, especially a !ariety of speech differing from the standard literarylanguage or speech pattern of the culture in #hich it e6ists.

'egional dialects:>he e6istence of different regional dialects is #idely recognied andoften the source of some humor for those li!ing in different regions. A lot of sur!eyresearch to the identification of consistent features of speech found in one geographical

area compared to another. >he traditional study of regional dialects tended to concentrateon the speech of people in rural areas. >hese dialect sur!eys often in!ol!e painsta(ingattention to detail and tend to operate #ith !ery specific criteria in identifying acceptableinformants.

Accent:Aspects of pronunciation that identify #here a spea(er is from, in contrast todialect.

Dialects of nglish:>he ma=or nati!e dialects of &nglish are often di!ided by linguists intothree general categories7 the 5ritish %sles dialects, those of /orth America, and those ofAustralasia. 'ialects can be associated not only #ith place, but also #ith particular social

groups. Within a gi!en &nglishhe study of social dialects has been mainly concerned #ith spea(ers into#ns and cities. %n the social study of dialect, it is social class that is mainly used to definegroups of spea(ers as ha!ing something in common.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_intelligibilityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_intelligibilityhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectshttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility


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Although the uni@ue circumstances of e!ery life result in each of us ha!ing an indi!idual#ay of spea(ing, a personal dialect or idiolect, #e generally tend to sound li(e others #ith#hom #e share similar educationalbac(grounds andTor occupations. Among those #holea!e the educational system at an early age, there is a general pattern of using certainforms that are relati!ely infre@uent in the speech of those #ho go on to complete college.>hose #ho spend more time in the educational system tend to ha!e more features in theirspo(en language that deri!e from a lot of time spent #ith the #ritten language, so thatthre# is more li(ely than thro#ed and #ho occurs more often than #hat in references topeople. >he obser!ation that some teacher Etal(s li(e a boo(F is possibly a reflection of ane6treme form of this influence from the #ritten language after years in the educationalsystem.As adults, the outcome of our time in the educational system is usually reflected in ouroccupation and sociohe #ay ban( e6ecuti!es, as opposed to #indo#cleaners, tal( to each other usually pro!ides linguistic e!idence for the significance of thesesocial !ariables. %n one of the earliest studies in sociolinguistics, Labo! 81*009 combined

elements from place of occupation and sociohey #ere a(s-ifth A!enue 8#ith e6pensi!e items, upper


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When spea(ers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages toinfluence each other. Language contact can occur at language borders or as the result ofmigration, #ith an intrusi!e language acting as either a superstratum or a substratum.Language contact occurs in a !ariety of phenomena, including language con!ergence,borro#ing and rele6ification. >he most common products are pidgins, creoles, codehe term lingua franca deri!es from a trade language of this name used in )editerraneanports in medie!al times.Dntil about the eighteenth century, &uropean scholars used Latin as a lingua franca. %n the

contemporary #orld, &nglish ser!es as a lingua franca in numerous social and politicalsituations #here people re@uire a common language. -or e6ample, &nglish has become alingua franca for international scientific =ournals and international scientific meetings."istorically, another (ind of situation has often arisen in #hich people come into contact,sharing no common language7 namely, #hen one group is or becomes politically andeconomically dominant o!er another.>his has been typical of colonial situations, in #hich the dominant group desires trade #ith,or coloniation of, the subordinate group. %n such situations, pidgin languages 8or pidgins9ha!e de!eloped, ha!ing the follo#ing important properties71. >he pidgin has no nati!e spea(ers but is used as a medium of communication bet#eenpeople #ho are nati!e spea(ers of other languages.

2. >he pidgin is based on linguistic features of one or more other languages and is asimplified language #ith reduced !ocabulary and grammatical structure.When a pidgin de!elops beyond its role as a trade or contact language and becomes the firstlanguage of a social community, it is described as a creole. A creole de!elops as the firstlanguage of the children of pidgin spea(ers and there is an e6pansion of its !ocabulary andgrammar and begins to ac@uire rules. >hus, unli(e pidgins, creoles ha!e large numbers ofnati!e spea(ers.

African American %ernacular nglish "AA%(3>he term !ernacular: has been usedsince the )iddle Ages, first to describe local &uropean languages 8lo# prestige9 in contrastto Latin 8high prestige9, then to characterie any non


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Slang:slang or collo@uial speech:, describes #ords or phrases that are used instead ofmore e!eryday terms among younger spea(ers and other groups #ith special interests.Ta$oo language3 uphemisms:>aboo #ords are those that are to be a!oided entirely, or atleast a!oided in mi6ed company:: or polite company.:: >ypical e6amples in!ol!ecommon s#ear #ords such as 'amnM or hitM. >aboo language is not limited to obscenitysacred language can also be taboo.%n place of these #ords, certain euphemismsthat is, polite substitutes for taboo #ordscan be used, including #ords such as darn 8a euphemism for damn9, hec( 8a euphemism forhell 9, gee or =ee 8a euphemism for the e6clamation esusM9, and so on. An amusinge6ample is the current e6pression, the -:: #ord, #hich is a euphemism for that notorious&nglish #ord that many ne#spapers spell as f


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The philosophy of language:

We use the term culture to refer to all the ideas and assumptions about the nature of thingsand people that #e learn #hen #e become members of social groups. %t can be defined associally ac@uired (no#ledge:. >his is the (ind of (no#ledge that, li(e our first language,#e initially ac@uire #ithout conscious a#areness. We de!elop a#areness of our (no#ledge,and hence of our culture, only after ha!ing de!eloped language. >he particular language #elearn through the process of cultural transmission pro!ides us, at least initially, #ith areadymade system of categoriing the #orld around us and our e6perience of it.According to linguistic relati!ity it seems that the structure of our language, #ith itspredetermined categories, must ha!e an influence on ho# #e percei!e the #orld. %n its#ea( !ersion, this idea simply captures the fact that #e not only tal(, but to a certain e6tentprobably also thin( about the #orld of e6perience, using the categories pro!ided by ourlanguage. %n its strong !ersion, called linguisticdeterminism, the idea is restated asElanguage determines thoughtF, meaning that #e can only thin( in the categories pro!idedby our language.

%n linguistics, the apir


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We (no# about the classification of #ords in languages li(e agua because of grammaticalmar(ers called classifiers that indicate the type or class: of noun in!ol!ed. -or e6ample, in#ahili 8spo(en in &ast Africa9, different prefi6es are used as classifiers on nouns forhumans 8wa+9, non


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8eurolinguistics:%s the study of the relationship bet#een language and the brain.-ernic*e>s area:>he part sho#n as 829 in the illustration is the posterior speech corte6:, apart of the brain in the left hemisphere in!ol!ed in language comprehension.Broca>s area:>he part sho#n as 819 in the illustration is technically described as the

anterior speech corte6:, a part of the brain in the left hemisphere in!ol!ed in speechproduction.>he part sho#n as 89 in the illustration is the motor corte6, an area that generally controlsmo!ement of the muscles 8for mo!ing hands, feet, arms, etc.9.>he part sho#n as 8$9 in the illustration is a bundle of ner!e fibers called the arcuatefasciculus. >his #as also one of Wernic(e:s disco!eries and is no# (no#n to form a crucialconnection bet#een Wernic(e:s and 5roca:s areas.

pecific aspects of language ability can be accorded specific locations in the brain. >his iscalled the localiation !ie# and it has been used to suggest that the brain acti!ity in!ol!edin hearing a #ord, understanding it, then saying it, #ould follo# a definite pattern. >he

#ord is heard and comprehended !ia Wernic(e:s area.

>his signal is then transferred !ia the arcuate fasciculus to 5roca:s area #here preparationsare made to produce it. A signal is then sent to part of the motor corte6 to physicallyarticulate the #ord.


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The tip of the tongue phenomenon7 'ifficulty in getting brain and speech production to#or( together smoothly. )inor production difficulties of this sort may pro!ide possibleclues to ho# our linguistic (no#ledge is organied #ithin the brain.>here is, for e6ample, the tip of the tongue phenomenon in #hich #e feel that some #ord is=ust eluding us, that #e (no# the #ord, but it =ust #on:t come to the surfaceB that some#ords in the store are more easily retrie!ed than others.-or e6ample, spea(ers produced secant, se6tet and se6ton #hen as(ed to name a particulartype of na!igational instrument 8se6tant9.)ista(es of this type are some times referred to as7 malapropisms.

Slips of the tongue:Another type of speech error is commonly described as a slip of thetongue. >his produces e6pressions such as a long shorystort 8instead of ma(e a long storyshort:9, use the door to open the (ey, and a fiftys aphasia:a language disorder in #hich speech production is typically reduced,distorted, slo# and missing grammatical mar(ers.-ernic*e>s aphasia:a language disorder in #hich comprehension is typically slo# #hilespeech is fluent, but !ague and missing content #ords.Conduction aphasia:a language disorder associated #ith damage to the arcuate fasciculusin #hich repeating #ords or phrases is difficult.

An e6perimental techni@ue that has demonstrated a left hemisphere dominance for syllableand #ord processing is called the dichotic listening test. >his techni@ue uses the generallyestablished fact that anything e6perienced on the righthe apparentspecialiation of the left hemisphere for language is usually described in terms of lateral


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dominance or laterali+ation 8one


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'uring the first t#o or three years of de!elopment, a child re@uires interaction #ith otherlanguagehe crucial re@uirement appears to bethe opportunity to interact #ith others !ia language.

The ac9uisition schedule: the child as ha!ing the biological capacity to cope #ithdistinguishing certain aspects of linguistic input: at different stages during the early yearsof life. %t is sufficiently constant type of input: from #hich the basis of the regularities in aparticular language can be #or(ed out. oung children are seen as acti!ely ac@uiring thelanguage by identifying the regularities in #hat is heard and then applying thoseregularities in #hat they say.Caregiver speech: human infants are certainly helped in their language ac@uisition by thetypical beha!iour of older children and adults in the home en!ironment. >hecharacteristically simplified speech style adopted by someone #ho spends a lot of time

interacting #ith a young child is called caregiver speech.

*.

Cooing and $a$$ling: >he earliest use of speech


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period, traditionally called the one+word stage, is characteried by speech in #hich singleterms are uttered for e!eryday ob=ects such as mil(:, coo(ie:, cat:, cup: and spoon:. theterm holophrastic8meaning a single form functioning as a phrase or sentence9 to describean utterance that could be analyed as a #ord, a phrase, or a sentence.

The t.o&.ord stage: can begin around eighteen to t#enty months, as the child:s!ocabulary mo!es beyond fifty #ords. >he adult interpretation of such combinations is, ofcourse, !ery much tied to the conte6t of their utterance.Telegraphic speech: 5et#een t#o and t#o


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4orming 9uestions:

>he child:s first stage has t#o procedures. imply add a Wh

1st 2nd and 3rd study guides

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