2 general research approaches

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deductive approach vs inductive approach

deductive research approach

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THEORY

HYPOTHESIS

OBSERVATION

CONFIRMATION

top-down approach

inductive research approach

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THEORY

TENTATIVE HYPOTHESIS

PATTERN

OBSERVATION bottom-up approach

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deductive or inductive

Exercise 1

Open coding Inductive analysis Exploratory research Theory building research

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Exercise 2

Coding with pre-defined categories Deductive analysis Theory Testing

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Agenda

2 Main QA approaches Coding exercise 1 Coding exercise 2 Slides on Qualitative Analysis Brainstorming Exercise Affinity Diagramming Exercise

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1. Analysis Considerations

1 Words2 Context (tone and inflection)3 Internal consistency (opinion shifts during

groups)4 Frequency and intensity of comments

(counting, content analysis)5 Specificity6 Trends/themes7 Iteration (data collection and analysis is an

iterative process moving back and forth)

2. The Procedures

1 Coding/indexing2 Categorisation3 Abstraction4 Comparison5 Dimensionalisation (relationships)6 Integration7 Iteration8 Refutation (subjecting inferences to scrutiny)9 Interpretation (grasp of meaning - difficult to

describe procedurally)

Qualitative Inquiry - Purpose

The purpose of qualitative inquiry is to produce findings. The Data Collection process is not an end in itself. The culminating activities of qualitative inquiry are analysis, interpretation, and presentation of findings.

Qualitative Inquiry - Challenge

To make sense of massive amounts of data, reduce the volume of information, identify significant patterns and construct a framework for communicating the essence of what the data reveal

Qualitative Inquiry - Problem

‘…have few agreed-on canons for qualitative data analysis, in the sense of shared ground rules for drawing conclusions and verifying sturdiness’ (Miles and Huberman, 1984)

The Creativity of Qualitative Inquiry

‘..the human element of qualitative inquiry is both its strength and weakness - its strength is fully using human insight and experience, its weakness is being so heavily dependent on the researcher’s skill, training, intellect, discipline, and

creativity. The researcher is the instrument of qualitative inquiry, so the quality of the research depends heavily on the qualities of that human being’

(Patton, 1988)

The Science and Art of Qualitative Inquiry (Patton, 1988) The Science

The scientific part is systematic, analytical, rigorous, disciplined, and

critical in perspective The Art

The artistic part is exploring, playful, metaphorical, insightful, and creative

Critical Thinking ‘Critical Thinking calls for a persistent effort to

examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to

which it tends’ (Glaser, 1941) or more simply!

Critical Thinking means weighting up the arguments and evidence for and against.

Critical Thinking• Key points (Glaser, 1941):

– Persistence: Considering an issue carefully and more than once

– Evidence: Evaluating the evidence put forward in support of the belief or viewpoint

– Implications: Considering where the belief or viewpoint leads; what conclusions would follow; are these suitable and rational; and if not, should the belief or viewpoint be reconsidered

Guidance for Creative Thinking

1 Be open2 Generate options3 Divergence before convergence4 Use multiple stimuli - triangulate5 Side track, zig-zag, and circumnavigate6 Change patterns of thinking7 Make linkages8 Trust yourself9 Work and play at it

The Credibility of Qualitative Analysis

1 Rigorous techniques and methods for gathering high-quality data that is carefully analysed, with attention to issues of validity, reliability, and triangulation

2 The credibility of the researcher, which is dependent on training, experience, track record, status, and presentation of self

3 Philosophical belief in the phenomenological paradigm, that is, a fundamental appreciation of naturalistic inquiry, qualitative methods, inductive analysis and holistic thinking

A Credible Qualitative StudyA credible qualitative study needs to address the following issues:

1 What techniques and methods were used to ensure the integrity, validity, and accuracy of the findings

2 What does the researcher bring to study in terms of qualifications, experience, and perspective

3 What paradigm orientation and assumptions ground the study

Principles of Analysing Qualitative Data1 Proceed systematically and rigorously

(minimise human error)2 Record process, memos, journals, etc.3 Focus on responding to research questions4 Appropriate level of interpretation appropriate

for situation5 Time (process of inquiry and analysis are

often simultaneous)6 Seek to explain or enlighten7 Evolutionary/emerging

Qualitative Research: Common Features of Analytic Methods (Miles & Huberman,1994)1 Affixing codes to a set of field notes

drawn from data collection2 Noting reflections or other remarks

in margin3 Sorting or shifting through the

materials to identify similar phrases, relationships between themes, distinct differences between subgroups and common sequences

Qualitative Research: Common Features of Analytic Methods (Miles & Huberman,1994)4 Isolating patterns and processes,

commonalties and differences, and taking them out to the filed in the next wave of data collection

5 Gradually elaborating a small set of generalisations that cover the consistencies discerned in the data base

6 Confronting those generalisations with a formalised body of knowledge in the form of constructs or theories

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Articulate:•who users are•their key tasks

User and task descriptions

Goals:

Methods:

Products:

Brainstorm designs

Task centered system design

Participatory design

User-centered design

Evaluate

Psychology of everyday things

User involvement

Representation & metaphors

low fidelity prototyping methods

Throw-away paper prototypes

Participatory interaction

Task / Cognitive scenario walk-through

Refined designs

Graphical screen design

Interface guidelines

Style guides

high fidelity prototyping methods

Testable prototypes

Usability testing

Heuristic evaluation

Completed designs

Alpha/beta systems or complete specification

Field testing

Interface Design and Usability Engineering

brainstorming

the point is: to generate MANY, WIDE-RANGING ideasnutty and absurd are GOOD. go for the

extremes (to get out of the rut)

riff off other’s ideas.

the point is NOT: to generate excellent, complete, feasible

ideas … pressure stifles

to develop or critique ideas … go wide. deep is for later.

process

1. prepare a list of topics / questionsahead of time; or in a preliminary brainstorm

2. facilitator takes team through list of topics switch topic when energy ramps down

3. Note taker takes notes (very important)

4. switch roles so everyone can play

5. ground rules

6. Follow up

brainstorming is like popcorn

ground rules Postpone and withhold your judgment of

ideas: never criticize

Encourage wild and exaggerated ideas

Quantity counts at this stage, not quality

Switch topics when the popcorn slows down

Build on the ideas put forward by others

Every person and every idea has equal worth

Elect a facilitator (calls switches) and a note-taker (one thought per post it!)

Form 5 groupsassign a facilitator, note taker

Problem: How to design the user interface for

a car proximity detection system

Brainstorm 3 aspects of the problem: (e.g., physical form factor, safety issues, input techniques, etc.)

go: 5 minutes

follow up collect the notes

go through carefully, with judgment turned on

look for interesting, surprising ideas that might work ideas that will combine well promising directions on which you should

brainstorm more

keep your notes. at a later design stage, come back to them and see if anything else has become useful in the meantime.

work consolidation:abstracting specific insights

one tool: the affinity diagram can use to “consolidate” insights from collected

or generated data. for example: brainstorming about design problems

categories of problems

brainstorming about design ideas categories of ideas

comments from users categories of desirable / successful features

how do you make an affinity diagram?

1. team writes down all data & insights on post-it notes; be sure you can link the post-it detail back to its source!

2. stick one post-it on the wall a whiteboard or big sheet of butcher paper is best

3. arrange the other post-its around it, grouping by affinity to each other. iteration will be required.

4. look at each group and see what it has in common; name and describe each group.

5. “snapshot” the result for documentation1. digital photo your design website or notebook2. transfer post-its onto xerox paper, 1 sheet / notes-

cluster scan website

why does an affinity diagram work?

• use physical arrangement/proximity to understand connections

• openness to serendipity

• low cost to rearrange ideas

• many variants:

arrange along axes rather than by affinity

tie causes to effects

group evidence under assertions

affinity diagram exercise

Now take your notes from the earlier brainstorming and create an affinity

diagram

go: 8 minutes

debrief