Tool and Guideline # 2

Practical Tools on Land Management - GPS, Mapping and GIS

Rwanda Environment Management Authority Government of Rwanda

Kigali, 2010

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PREFACE In 2010, REMA prepared 11 practical technical tools intended to strengthen environmental management capacities of districts, sectors and towns. Although not intended to provide an exhaustive account of approaches and situations, these tools are part of REMA’s objective to address capacity-building needs of officers by providing practical guidelines and tools for an array of investments initiatives. Tools and Guidelines in this series are as follows: # TOOLS AND GUIDELINES 1 Practical Tools for Sectoral Environmental Planning :

A - Building Constructions B - Rural Roads C - Water Supply D - Sanitation Systems E - Forestry F - Crop Production G - Animal Husbandry H - Irrigation I - Fish Farming J - Solid Waste Management

2 Practical Tools on Land Management - GPS, Mapping and GIS 3 Practical Tools on Restoration and Conservation of Protected Wetlands 4 Practical Tools on Sustainable Agriculture 5 Practical Tools on Soil and Water Conservation Measures 6 Practical Tools on Agroforestry 7 Practical Tools of Irrigated Agriculture on Non-Protected Wetlands 8 Practical Tools on Soil Productivity and Crop Production 9 Practical Technical Information on Low-cost Technologies: Composting Latrines &

Rainwater Harvesting Infrastructure 10 Practical Tools on Water Monitoring Methods and Instrumentation 11 11.1 Practical Tools on Solid Waste Management of Imidugudu, Small Towns and Cities

: Landfill and Composting Facilities 11.2 Practical Tools on Small-scale Incinerators for Biomedical Waste Management

These tools are based on the compilation of relevant subject literature, observations, experience, and advice of colleagues in REMA and other institutions. Mainstreaming gender and social issues has been addressed as cross-cutting issues under the relevant themes during the development of these tools. The Tool and Guideline # 2 provides practical land management tools including Global Positioning System, mapping tools, and Geographic Information Systems. These tools could not have been produced without the dedication and cooperation of the REMA editorial staff. Their work is gratefully acknowledged. Dr. Rose Mukankomeje Director General, Rwanda Environment Management Authority

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TABLE OF CONTENT 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 4

1.1 OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................... 4 1.2 PURPOSE ................................................................................................................................... 5 1.3 GENDER AND SOCIAL ISSUES .................................................................................................. 5

2. PRACTICABLE TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS USED IN LAND-MANAGEMENT ......... 7 2.1 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM .............................................................................................. 7 2.2 MAPPING TOOLS ...................................................................................................................... 8

2.2.1 Google Maps ....................................................................................................................... 8 2.2.2 Google Earth ....................................................................................................................... 8

2.3 ADVANCE GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS .............................................................. 11 2.4 EQUIPMENT USED IN RWANDA ............................................................................................. 11

2.4.1 GIS Technology ................................................................................................................ 11 2.4.2 GPS Technology ............................................................................................................... 13

3. GPS-GIS SECTOR SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS..................................................................... 15 3.1 OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................................. 15 3.2 LAND MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................. 16 3.3 SOIL & WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES....................................................................... 16 3.4 RESTORATION OF WETLANDS .............................................................................................. 18 3.5 AGRICULTURE ....................................................................................................................... 20 3.6 FORESTRY .............................................................................................................................. 23 3.7 SEAS, EIAS & ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITS ........................................................................... 25 3.8 WATER RESOURCES .............................................................................................................. 25 3.9 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT .............................................................................................. 27

ANNEX 1: REFERENCES AND USEFUL RESOURCES ................................................................ 28

FIGURES FIGURE 1 : GPS SATELLITES ................................................................................................................. 7 FIGURE 2 : GOOGLE EARTH .................................................................................................................. 9 FIGURE 3 : GOOGLE EARTH RWANDA COVERAGE ..................................................................... 10 FIGURE 4 : GOOGLE EARTH HIGH RESOLUTION .......................................................................... 10 FIGURE 5 : GIS MAPPING - 3D VIEW - RWANDA ............................................................................ 11 FIGURE 6 : ESRI® ARCGIS® ................................................................................................................ 12 FIGURE 7 : TRIMBLE JUNO-ST GPS ................................................................................................... 13 FIGURE 8 : GPS & GIS ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS .......................................................... 15 FIGURE 9 : LAND MANAGEMENT ..................................................................................................... 16 FIGURE 10 : GIS MODELLING OF SOIL EROSION RATES ............................................................. 17 FIGURE 11 : SOIL & WATER CONSERVATION MEASURES ......................................................... 18 FIGURE 12 : WETLAND RESTORATION ............................................................................................ 19 FIGURE 13 : NON-PROTECTED WETLAND RESTORATION ......................................................... 20 FIGURE 14 : COFFEE PRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 21 FIGURE 15 : HORTICULTURAL MAP OF RWANDA ........................................................................ 22 FIGURE 16 : FOREST COVERAGE OF RWANDA IN 2005 ............................................................... 23 FIGURE 17 : FOREST COVERAGE OF RWANDA 1998 .................................................................... 24 FIGURE 18 : GIS & GPS USED IN THE DESIGN OF FLOODPLAIN MANAGEMENT ................. 26 FIGURE 19 : SECTIONAL VIEW - SANITARY LANDFILL .............................................................. 27

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Tool and Guideline # 2

Practical Tools on Land Management - GPS, Mapping and GIS

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview Sustainable land management best practices on integrated approaches to natural resources management covers all the major rural land use systems including agriculture, rangeland, and forestry. Environmental sustainability and sustainable livelihoods can be achieved only through a holistic approach in which different resource users and decision makers come together to agree on common objectives that also maintain the ecological integrity of the resource base. Sustainable land management is guided by four strategic principles:

• Mainstreaming sustainable land management into the production landscape by addressing environmental and sustainable livelihood issues within a holistic development framework;

• Creating synergies across focal areas to address sustainable land management in the context of biodiversity conservation, integrated land and water management, watershed management and sustainable forest;

• Promoting gender mainstreaming in sustainable land management; and • Building institutional capacity in land management.

The notion of “landscape approach” addresses the connectivity among systems at different scales: from the individual farms, to the local ecosystems, to the communities affected by farming. The term ‘land degradation’ refers to natural and human-induced processes that negatively affect the capacity of land to function effectively within an ecosystem, typically including declining quality of soil, water, and/or vegetation. Agricultural expansion, unsustainable cultivation methods, overgrazing, and deforestation are the primary causes of land degradation in rural areas. In Rwanda, farmers integrate both crop and livestock operations. Recognizing that the two are highly complementary biologically and economically, promotion of sustainable management of rangelands along with sustainable agriculture are beneficial. Agricultural activities in the face of the high demographic pressure on limited land resources has resulted into land fragmentation, reduction of farm sizes and continued intensive cultivation of land with no fallow subjecting land to alarming soil erosion. The land policy and land law discourages land fragmentation and minimum allowed farm size is 1 ha. It promotes long-term land security that would promote investment in long-term infrastructure viable commercial ventures in agricultural sector. It also provides opportunities for gradual farm consolidation and increasing farm size and encouraging those who are capable to go into farming business. If the land policy and land law continues to be implemented slowly, its foregoing benefits can not be realized. The concept of sustainable forest management recognizes the connections among the health of forests, communities, the economy, and the environment. Sustainable forest management

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implies viewing the forest as an integrated whole rather than as the source of any one economic product or service (for example, timber or climate regulator). Sustainable forest management respects and integrates the full range of forest environmental, social, and economic values. The introduction and strengthening of sustainable forest management schemes, includes meaningful participation and benefit sharing by forest users, clear and respected tenure and use rights, sustainable market chain, development and implementation of forest management plans, and reforestation. Rwandan national policies and strategies provide a framework for increased efforts, including the development and strengthening of institutions and programs for forest management, protection, and sustainable development. Issues surrounding land-use and planning need to be addressed. In Rwanda, the subject of land ownership and use is surrounded by imprecision, an imprecision reflected in the available cartography and data. Land can be located and registered in both graphical and attribute terms starting from a situation with almost no data is available. Land ownership in both public and private sectors forms the basis for development. Most disputes in general stem from legal claims to parcels of land. Constitutional provisions and new policies on land can help governments implement effective land reform programs. Application of Global Positioning System (GPS) technology and mapping tools to land related projects is now a widespread phenomenon. The advantages have proven substantial in improving access to information. The use of high, but robust, technology such as GPS technology and mapping tools provides more simplification, increased efficiency, less cost, and sufficient accuracy. For such policies to be effective, it is important to embrace advancement in technology. Technologies such as GPS and mapping models are valuable decision-making tool for land managers. These technologies are advantageous because they are easy to use. 1.2 Purpose The objective of this tool and guideline is to propose practical land management tools including Global Positioning System, mapping tools, and Geographic Information Systems. Although not intended to provide an exhaustive account of approaches and situations, this tool is intended to address capacity-building needs of officers by providing information on these various technologies. This tool can be used as field guides or as checklists of elements for discussion during training and during implementation for an array of investments initiatives. This document was produced to address REMA’s proposed policy action to strengthen the resource capacity of environmental and related institutions at national and district level for environmental assessment, policy analysis, monitoring, and enforcement. 1.3 Gender and Social Issues Land degradation, which affects Rwanda’s agricultural land, has important gender and social dimensions. Women—as farmers and pastoralists, with primary responsibility for household food production—are the principal users and managers of land. However, within productive landscapes, women are often allotted the most marginal lands with the least secure tenure rights. When land becomes so degraded that it no longer supports crops or pasture, women are forced to seek out alternative areas for food production. This expansion not only exacerbates agricultural land conversion and degradation of land resources but it also adds to the pressure on women farmers, who may face higher risks to their health and physical safety as they are compelled to venture farther and farther away from their homes to find productive land to meet their families’ needs.

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Women also tend to be disproportionately burdened by the indirect effects of land degradation. For instance, when water resources are damaged by high levels of silt in river waters (a typical side effect of increased soil erosion from degraded land), women and girls are often more severely affected, as they are largely responsible for fetching water to meet household needs. Land degradation leads to the loss of genetic and species diversity, including plants and animals that are important sources of medicinal, commercial, and industrial products. As pastoralists and agriculturists, women are disproportionately affected by land degradation. Women farmers are responsible for Rwanda’s food production; they are the primary income producers, earning their livelihoods mainly from agriculture and other land-based activities. Land degradation adds to the pressure on women to support their families under increasingly difficult physical, social, and economic conditions. Physically, women as bearers of children are more vulnerable to lack of food or water. In social, economic, and political contexts, women’s relatively weak status and busy schedules with household and field work often lead to marginalisation of their concerns. Women often face formidable barriers as they seek to claim an equitable role in decision-making concerning land resources. Despite women’s roles in household food production, they have limited ownership and control of land resources. Secure tenure rights enable land holders to make long-term decisions on the use of land resources and invest in management practices that promote sustained land productivity. Conversely, lack of secure tenure can lead to degradation of land resources by users who have no incentive or capacity to manage the land for long-term productivity. All too often, women’s inequitable access to secure property rights forces them onto marginal, fragile, highly degradable lands. In order for women to use land sustainably, protect its ecological health, and thereby contribute to long-term environmental and food security, they need equal access to land ownership and control over land-based resources. Women must also gain from extension and other means of transmitting technical knowledge about options for sustainable land management, such as soil management techniques, land restoration methods, mixed cropping systems, and water recycling. Involving women in the design and implementation of programmes and projects aimed at promoting sustainable land management is crucially important, since in many cases women are the principal day-to-day decision-makers who determine land management practices. Women are also most directly impacted by public decisions, laws, and planning related to land management.

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2. PRACTICABLE TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS USED IN LAND-MANAGEMENT 2.1 Global Positioning System The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) developed by the United States Department of Defence and managed by the United States Air Force 50th Space Wing. It is the only fully functional GNSS in the world that can be used freely by anyone, anywhere, and is often used by civilians for navigation purposes. GPS has become a widely used aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-making, land surveying, commerce, scientific uses, tracking and surveillance. The GPS units make it possible for people with ground receivers to pinpoint their geographic location. The location accuracy is anywhere from 100 to 10 meters for most equipment. GPS equipment is widely used in science and has now become sufficiently low-cost. A GPS receiver receives the signal, and its computer calculates its position. When signals for at least four satellites are received at once, the position can be calculated in three dimensions: latitude, longitude, and elevation. The satellites are positioned in space so that no matter what time it is or where you are on the face of the earth, you should be able to receive signals from at least four satellites. This means that the system is usable anywhere in the world, 24 hrs a day.

Figure 1 : GPS Satellites This is how GPS works:

• It uses a constellation of between 24 and 32 medium Earth orbit satellites that transmit precise radio wave signals, which allow GPS receivers to determine their current location, the time, and their velocity. The satellites are spaced so that from any point on Earth, four satellites will be above the horizon.

• Each satellite contains a computer, an atomic clock, and a radio. With an understanding of its own orbit and the clock, it continually broadcasts its changing position and time. Once a day, each satellite checks its own sense of time and position with a ground station and makes any minor correction.

• On the ground, any GPS receiver contains a computer that "triangulates" its own position by getting bearings from three of the four satellites. The result is provided in

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the form of a geographic position - longitude and latitude - to, for most receivers, within 100 meters.

• If the receiver is also equipped with a display screen that shows a map, the position can be shown on the map.

• If a fourth satellite can be received, the receiver/computer can figure out the altitude as well as the geographic position.

• If you are moving, your receiver may also be able to calculate your speed and direction of travel and give you estimated times of arrival to specified destinations.

GPS is a basic tool that can also be used in environmental applications. These basic applications include: navigation: finding your way from one point to another known point; recording of a position (static surveying) and recording a path or route (kinematical surveying). Some examples of how GPS might be used for environmental applications are:

• Finding and location of sensitive land marks i.e. high level soil erosion land, landslides, forest degradation sites, etc.

• Finding your way back to a previously known location of sensitive areas; • Keeping track of the locations of study plots that have been established to monitor

forest growth; • Mapping trails in a national parks; • Tracking the migratory paths of species.

GPS application is limitless in today’s scenario. GPS receivers are fast becoming small and cheap enough to be carried by any one. One of the most significant and unique features of the GPS is the fact that the positioning signal is available to users in any position worldwide at any time. With a fully operational GPS system, it can be generated to a large community of likely to grow as there are multiple applications, ranging from surveying, mapping, and navigation to GIS data capture. Examples of GPS applications that support sustainable development and protect the environment in the areas include remote sensing, agriculture and landscape epidemiology and environmental management, surveying & mapping, and navigation. 2.2 Mapping Tools 2.2.1 Google Maps Google Maps is a web mapping service application and technology provided by Google, free (for non-commercial use), that powers many map-based services, including the Google Maps website. It offers street maps, a route planner for traveling by foot, car, or public transport and an urban business locator for numerous countries around the world. Google Maps is a tool to locally organise information geographically. 2.2.2 Google Earth Desktop satellite tools are changing the way we work. Imagine yourself in outer space, gazing at the blue and green sphere that is our home. Now zoom in, fast, diving toward continents and oceans. Soon rivers and cities emerge, then individual houses. This is Google Earth (http://earth.google.com/), the flagship of the latest generation of desktop tools that is putting sophisticated and comprehensive models of the planet in the hands of anybody with a computer. Google Earth is a virtual globe, map and geographic information program. It maps the Earth by the superimposition of images obtained from satellite imagery, aerial photography and GIS 3D globe. It is available under three different licenses: Google Earth, a free version with limited functionality and Google Earth Pro ($400 per year), which is intended for commercial use. Google Earth displays satellite images of varying resolution of

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the Earth's surface, allowing users to visually see things like cities and houses looking perpendicularly down or at an oblique angle, with perspective. The degree of resolution available is based somewhat on the points of interest and popularity, but most land is covered in at least 15 meters of resolution. Google Earth allows users to search for addresses for some countries, enter coordinates, or simply use the mouse to browse to a location. For large parts of the surface of the Earth only 2D images are available, from almost vertical photography. Viewing this from an oblique angle, there is perspective in the sense that objects which are horizontally far away are seen smaller, but of course it is like viewing a large photograph, not quite like a 3D view. Google Earth has turned out to be much more than software; instead, it is a cheap useful tool in land management. Because Google Earth drapes satellite imagery over 3-D topographic data, the program creates the illusion of flying through a landscape. As the "pilot," a user gets a very intimate understanding for how a place is laid out. Users can also create annotations consisting of markers, labels and other information laid over Google's geo-data -- which they can then share with others. This kind of visual perspective on environmental problems transforms vague policy debates into concrete problems. Soil erosion sites don't look very impressive when you see them from straight on.

Figure 2 : Google Earth

The environmental importance of this tool is known. The power of Google Earth is that it's not a map. It's actually a real model of the real Earth. Google is pushing forward practical environmental applications with Google Earth. Google Earth is well on its way to revolutionizing the way people talk about the environment. Google Earth is a simple tool that is easy to learn. You will need to down load the software and learn by reading the Google Earth User Guide (http://earth.google.com/intl/en/userguide/v5/). This tool will permit you to navigate the earth, find places and directions, mark places, show points of interest, and tilting and viewing hilly terrain. Useful environmental applications include using layers and places, managing search results, measuring distances and areas, drawing paths and polygons, using image overlays and combining the GPS devices with Google Earth.

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Rwanda is well covered with very high resolution images, shown here in orange zones, which is available in the public domain via Google Earth.

Figure 3 : Google Earth Rwanda Coverage Very high resolution satellites offer superior detail that can be used to validate coarser images as seen in this image.

Figure 4 : Google Earth High Resolution

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2.3 Advance Geographic Information Systems Decision makers and managers require accurate maps for decision-making. Geographic Information System (GIS) is an integrated collection of computer software and data used to view and manage information about geographic places, analyze spatial relationships, and model spatial processes. GIS provides a framework for gathering and organizing spatial data and related information so that it can be displayed and analyzed. GIS gives you tools to analyze your data and see the results in the form of powerful, interactive maps that reveal how things work together, allowing you to make the most informed decisions possible. GIS is a powerful tool for interpreting, analyzing, storing, displaying and retrieval of information collected from maps, Ground survey, GPS, aerial photographs, satellite images. It is used to locate the areas, which may be derived from the logical analysis or overlay analysis of two or more themes. Use of GPS and GIS is particularly important and useful because of its capacity to provide both spatial and non-spatial attributes of themes. It handles data from diverse sources and forms links and interact connection between them. GIS can serve as a common platform and interface that permits data exchange and collaborate decisions. GIS allows the user to interact with the simulated environment and recreate the sensations that may be felt in interaction with the real world.

Figure 5 : GIS Mapping - 3D view - Rwanda

Common applications of GIS include, as follows, where GPS can provide three-dimensional information for: engineering mapping, automated photo-grammetry, cadastral mapping, highway mapping, utility/facility mapping and management, surface water mapping, watershed prioritization, land use planning and management, environmental impact studies and e-governance. 2.4 Equipment Used in Rwanda 2.4.1 GIS Technology The common GIS system used in Rwanda is ESRI® ArcGIS®. A licence from ESRI® is required to use this tool (http://www.esri.com/). ESRI has been involved in the development and application of geographic information since it was founded in 1969 as a private consulting firm specializing in land use analysis projects. In the 1980s, ESRI evolved to

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devote its resources to developing and applying GIS software and has since become the largest research and development organization dedicated to GIS. ESRI and GIS have grown from solving relatively simple tasks with simple building blocks—points, lines, and polygons—to solving complex tasks with enhanced analysis tools and data models. ESRI has recently opened an office in Rwanda.

Figure 6 : ESRI® ArcGIS®

ESRI® ArcGIS® is an integrated family of software products that consists of Desktop GIS, Server GIS, Mobile GIS, and Online GIS. ArcGIS technology is a platform for building a complete geographic information system that lets you easily author data, maps, globes, and models on the desktop; publish them to a GIS server and/or share them online; and use them on the desktop, on the Web, or in the field. ESRI® also offers a variety of data from leading data providers for your GIS projects. In the future releases of ArcGIS, ESRI® will introduce the results of many ongoing development themes including:

- GIS and Science Trends—GIS can help us to understand complex systems that have a significant spatial component;

- Mobile GIS Trends—Advancing mobile GIS via wireless technology to make organizations and their mobile workforce more efficient and productive; and

- Cartography Trends in GIS—Improving GIS desktop applications through additional cartographic mapping, analysis, and editing tools and providing user-driven usability enhancements.

These applications will be relevant for Rwanda. ESRI has a long-standing commitment to serving and responding to the GIS user community, and that commitment is exemplified by the breadth of ESRI’s support services. ArcGIS

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support and educational services consist of technical maintenance programs designed to meet the needs of different types of users, as well as software releases and updates, technical support, online support services, publications, training, and consulting services. ESRI® offers a cost-effective maintenance program that includes software updates, technical support, and many other benefits. Offered as an annual subscription, this program makes it easy for you to plan for the cost of support and software updates. ESRI® offers a rich array of technical support and user community resources to help you meet your GIS challenges. ESRI® offers instructor-led courses at ESRI® learning centers and client facilities as well as over the Internet. Self-study Web courses are also available for those who prefer online training. Courses cover a variety of topics related to ESRI software, the theory underlying GIS technology, and approaches to applying GIS tools to find solutions in particular fields. ESRI® combines hands-on experience, interactivity, and instructional support to create an effective learning environment. ESRI® Press books and workbooks on geographic information science, GIS technology, and GIS applications are used in formal university and corporate training programs everywhere. 2.4.2 GPS Technology Mobile GIS technology extends GIS beyond the office and allows government to make accurate decisions in both the field and office environments. Wireless connectivity, geo-services, and Web mapping applications allow field-based professionals to complete database transactions in near real time. Data collection is fast and easy and improves critical decision making in the field. REMA has equipped some of its district officers with the Trimble’s Juno™ ST ($1550) handheld GPS. The Juno™ ST handheld is a highly productive yet affordable, non-rugged GPS receiver for field data collection and mobile GIS. The Juno ST handheld is Trimble's most compact, lightweight, fully-integrated field computer, providing 2 to 5 meter GPS positioning in real time or after post-processing.

Figure 7 : Trimble Juno-ST GPS The Juno ST handheld is ideal for government organizations and agencies that are managing large deployments and tight budgets. In applications such as forestry mapping and workforce automation, where accuracy may be less important, and high productivity is essential, the Juno ST handheld is ideal. Incorporating a high-sensitivity GPS receiver, it has been specifically designed to maximize yield of positions in hostile environments, such as under

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forest canopy and up against buildings. If you need 2 to 5 meter accuracy in the field, you can use the integrated WAAS receiver for real-time corrections. Or you can collect data in the field and post process it back in the office to ensure positions are defined to the required accuracy level for your GIS, and to control the overall quality and consistency of your data. As part of the Trimble family of GPS solutions, the Juno ST handheld is fully compatible with the entire range of Trimble Mapping & GIS software. Integrated Bluetooth® and wireless LAN technology provide options for connecting to the Internet and your corporate network to access data and maps and to send and receive email and instant messages. The other option is the Trimble Juno™ SC ($1750) handheld GPS. This is a durable, lightweight field computer that integrates an array of powerful features. Providing photo capture, cellular data transmission, and high yield GPS positioning at 2 to 5 meter accuracy, the Juno SC is an affordable solution that will increase the productivity of the workforce. The integrated cellular modem provides high-speed internet connectivity. The entire field workforce will be able to quickly and reliably access the data they need in the field—map data, reference files, emails, and even the Internet. The Juno SC handheld also enables connections to networks and other devices with its integrated Bluetooth® and wireless LAN capabilities. The integrated 3 megapixel digital camera allows you to capture high quality images ideal for GIS data collection. Workers can accurately record asset conditions, provide documentary evidence, and give staff back in the office an accurate picture of the situation in the field. In applications such as natural resource data collection, and mobile workforce management, where positional accuracy is less important, and high productivity is essential, the Juno SC handheld is ideal. Incorporating a high-sensitivity GPS receiver, it has been specifically designed to maximize yield of positions in hostile environments, such as under forest canopy and up against buildings. The long life battery of the Juno SC handheld allows GPS data collection for a full working day, without the need for recharging. The battery is also field-replaceable, for extended periods away from a power source. As part of the Trimble® family of GPS solutions, the Juno SC handheld is fully compatible with Trimble's entire range of Mapping & GIS software, giving you a choice of GIS data collection and maintenance software solutions at a range of price points. You can easily deploy the Juno SC handheld alongside your current Trimble equipment, and maintain the same workflows and policies.

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3. GPS-GIS SECTOR SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS 3.1 Overview GPS and GIS are powerful tools for environmental data analysis and planning. They can store spatial information in a digital mapping environment. A digital base map can be overlaid with data or other layers of information onto a map in order to view spatial information and relationships. These tools allow better viewing and understanding physical features and the relationships that influence in a given critical environmental condition. Factors, such as steepness of slopes, aspects, and vegetation, can be viewed and overlaid to determine various environmental parameters and impact analysis. GIS can also display and analyze aerial photos. Digital information can be overlaid on photographs to provide environmental data analysts with more familiar views of landscapes and associated data. Below are some of the applicable areas where GIS can be implemented for effective planning and management.

Figure 8 : GPS & GIS Environmental Applications GIS can provide a quick, comparative view of hazards (highly prone areas) and risks (areas of high risk which may occur) and areas to be safeguarded. On completion of data analysis, GIS helps in planning and managing the environmental hazards and risks. In order to plan and monitor the environmental problems, the assessment of hazards and risks becomes the foundation for planning decisions and for mitigation activities. GIS supports activities in environmental assessment, monitoring, and mitigation and can also be used for generating environmental models.

Water

Resources

Solid Waste Management

Land

Management

Soil & Water Conservation Measures

Restoration of

Wetlands

Agriculture

Forestry

SEAs, EIAs,

Environmental Audits and Monitoring

GPS & GIS

Environmental Applications

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3.2 Land Management GPS and GIS are powerful tools for environmental data analysis for land use planning and management. Below are some of the applicable areas where GIS can be implemented for effective land planning and management.

Figure 9 : Land Management In practice, formal land registration has been undertaken of only a small proportion of Rwanda with the focus on urban areas and those in rural areas under commercial agriculture or owned by churches. The primary purpose is to provide land users with documentation of land holding, for legal purposes and as evidence of property rights as collateral for purposes of credit or mortgage. At present, the national land centre has decentralized its offices up-to the District level and each district has a land commission. Such structures do exist only in municipalities where decentralization of land survey and registration responsibilities have commenced to be carrying out with the overall follow up by the Ministry in charge of land. 3.3 Soil & Water Conservation Measures GIS and GPS are tools that make it possible to offer fast, location-specific and tailor-made information on soils and other natural resources to support farmers and policy makers in making decisions on necessary land-based investments in soil and water conservation measures including watershed prioritization. GIS models can estimate the rate of sediment accumulation to evaluate average soil loss rates within catchment areas. Sedimentation measurements provide information on the extent of soil erosion that was estimated using the USLE GIS model as presented in this next map.

Utility/Facility Mapping

Highway Mapping

Cadastral Mapping

Land Registration

Land Use Planning

Land Management

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Figure 10 : GIS Modelling of Soil Erosion Rates The three major factors limiting production in small farms are low soil fertility, shortages of water in the root zone soil, and soil degradation. Soil fertility is often low because many soils are strongly weathered. Moreover, many farmers do not add adequate fertilizer to compensate for the nutrients that their crops take from the soil. These three factors often lead to low production levels, making it difficult for many small farmers to escape a life of subsistence. Farmers are willing to make investments in the soil to overcome these constraints, but they require incentives to do so such as

(i) Making fertilizers more affordable for all farmers (e.g. fertilizer prices inland can be four to five times those at the port);

(ii) Providing financial support for farmers to invest in soil and water conservation measures; and

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(iii) Promoting the development of agricultural training and information facilities for farmers.

Figure 11 : Soil & Water Conservation Measures The Tool and Guideline # 5 “Practical tools on soil and water conservation measures” has provided technical methods to construct radical terraces, gullies and other soil and water conservation measures. GIS and GPS tools can enhance the role of the surveyor application during design and construction of terraces. Moreover, GIS applications are always dependent on the quality of the available data, and new field surveys are needed in Rwanda to expand and improve current datasets. It is becoming more and more important to be able to estimate soil erosion and sediment loss from landscape areas. In order to do this in an efficient way, digital geographic elevation information can be used, from a variety of sources. One source is elevation data that is derived from existing paper maps, while newer methods use elevation at a position using GPS. Predicting soil erosion from a small agricultural watershed using a variety of digital elevation information from GPS can make satisfactory soil erosion predictions for small watersheds. GPS and mapping software can reasonably outline the watershed boundary and locate the main channels. GPS can be useful in estimating watershed sediment yield and locating potentially high hill slope erosion regions. Soil and water conservation practitioners are now able to design radical terraces, gullies and other soil and water conservation measures using GIS and GPS technologies. GPS and GIS tools may be added to the typical equipment use to construct radical terraces such as the Dumpy level or A-level, measuring tape, rod and soil auger. The technicians will be able to determine slopes and terraces contour base lines and locate these on specific maps using GIS technologies. 3.4 Restoration of Wetlands The government of Rwanda has recently introduced policy change to halted further destruction of wetlands. Projects are undertaking wetland restoration of some of the Rwanda wetlands. Surveying can be incorporated in the design, construction, and monitoring phases of wetland restoration projects. The data collected are incorporated in civil design, hydrologic/ hydraulic design, and geotechnical engineering to document prior, existing, and future

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conditions. Surveying tells the story of the wetland restoration process by documenting many construction activities ongoing at any given time. Survey teams and consultants can deploy a multitude of surveying technologies such as remote sensing technology. High-resolution imagery can be developed and used to produce project base maps. Hydrological survey data has proved instrumental in developing a wetland design. Project base maps are very important components of wetland restoration projects. Surveying also plays a role in geotechnical instrumentation. Geotechnical evaluate the subsurface conditions through field and laboratory data. Field, design, and survey data can be incorporated into the long-term data management program. Interfacing this data with ESRI's ArcGIS software is possible. Mapping-grade GPS equipment can also be used to delineate borrow and excavation limits or boring locations.

Figure 12 : Wetland Restoration GIS and GPS tools can be useful during the implementation of activities to restore or change wetland characteristics proposed in Section 2.3 of the Tool and Guideline # 3 “Practical tools on restoration and conservation of protected wetlands”. These are examples how GIS and GPS instruments could be useful during the execution of these activities:

Control water levels, locate and control buffer zones

Design, construction, and

monitoring phases of wetland

restoration

Production of

base maps Civil,

hydrologic & hydraulic

design

Location of

contaminants

Location of

native species

Wetland analysis

including fresh water interface

studies

Surveying and remote sensing

Design, construction, and

monitoring phases of wetland

restoration

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- Restore or change hydrology: construction of channels to bring water to additional areas, control water levels, construction of open culverts, culverts with gates, weirs and check dams, reinstate proper substrate to water level elevations, conduct very precise grading because deviations of only inches can alter the habitat for plants.

- Approaches to improving water quality:

If contaminants are found in the water at the restoration site, locate using GIS and GPS potential source of pollution; monitor pollution reduction;

- Restoring or changing soils/substrates:

Surveying and grading using GIS and GPS to raise the elevation of compacted or eroded sites, construction of common erosion prevention techniques include cover vegetation and/or radical terraces.

- Establishing a healthy wetland plant

community: Location of native species for the target habitat type, after establishing hydrology and soil conditions, monitor plant lifecycle needs, control erosion, add nutrients, and establish cover quickly with a fast-growing “cover species” while slower-growing plants become established.

- Establishing a healthy wetland animal

community: locate and monitor the habitat diversity, locate and control buffer zones, locate connections to other habitats (i.e. channels connecting to larger water bodies, forested corridors connecting to wildlife refuges).

3.5 Agriculture Balancing the inputs and outputs on a farmland is fundamental to its success and profitability. The ability of GIS to analyze and visualize agricultural environments and workflows has proved to be very beneficial to those involved in the agricultural industry. From mobile GIS in the field to the scientific analysis of production data on site, GIS is playing an increasing role in agriculture production helping farmers increase production, reduce costs, and manage their land more efficiently. While natural inputs in farming cannot be controlled, they can be better understood and managed with GIS applications such as crop yield estimates, soil amendment analyses, and erosion identification and remediation. Figure 13 : Non-protected Wetland Restoration

Small Dams

Canals

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Desktop and mobile GIS can be used to study the relationships between soils, topography, land use, and geology. It can integrate soil and landscape data from various sources. Understanding how soils form in the field and vary across landscapes is a critical skill for today's agronomists. GPS and GIS technology enables planners and agronomists to collect, manage, analyze, report, and share agricultural data to aid in establishing and planning sustainable agriculture practices. GPS and GIS have the capabilities to implement farming methods and practices, finding the most profitable and healthy places to plant new crops, and/or allotting farmland for preservation to secure food production. GPS and GIS provide the means to spatially view variables that affect crop yields, erosion and drought risk, predict drought conditions, monitor water resources, evaluate economic and environmental impact, and comply with planning and reporting regulations. These are some practical application of GIS and GPS in agriculture:

- Balancing conservation goals and agricultural needs: Striking a balance between conservation goals and agricultural needs is no easy task, particularly in Rwanda. Subsistence farming remains a way of life. In some areas, farmers are encroaching on the forest, national parks, or protected wetlands. With the use of GIS and GPS technologies, it is possible better manage protected areas as these tools will provide ways to delimit protected areas. Proper spatial arrangements may allow farmers to continue their cultivation while preserving trees within their croplands.

- GIS for planning and management of irrigation systems: Irrigation water reservoirs

store seasonal rainfall for agriculture production, animal husbandry, and domestic purposes. GIS may help select and plan rehabilitation of irrigation systems. GIS can also be used to monitor the sustainability of the irrigation systems but also to measure changes in agricultural patterns and the process’s impact on the living conditions of the farmer.

- GIS for coffee marketing and certification: Coffee is one of the most important

commodities traded internationally. Its commerce impacts the lives of coffee workers. Rwanda depends on this trade as one main source of foreign income. The GIS applications can identify the role that readily accessible and geo-referenced information can play in supporting the development of specialty coffee markets to secure premium market value. The term specialty coffee refers to several categories of coffee, such as single-source, gourmet, premium, organic, shade-grown, bird-friendly, and fair trade, which command better prices than the traditional coffee brands. An increased trade in specialty coffee benefits both coffee producers and the environment. Specialty coffee production is often done in a sustainable way that helps maintain healthy forests and ecosystems.

Figure 14 : Coffee Production

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When compared with the traditional coffee market, the specialty coffee market requires better information as well as increased transparency in transactions. GIS and GPS information can be useful on several aspects of coffee production and marketing including exact location of coffee farms, cooperatives and mills, socioeconomic conditions, environmental and climatic data, production and milling processes, materials and inputs used in coffee production, and general marketing information.

MINAGRI RHODA has produced effective agricultural maps. The next figure is an example of the 2008 horticultural map of Rwanda.

Figure 15 : Horticultural Map of Rwanda Knowledge of the soils, their properties and their spatial distribution, is indispensable for the agricultural development of Rwanda. Detail soil maps of Rwanda have been published by the Laboratory of Soil Science at Ghent University. A conventional national soil survey in Rwanda was completed in 1994. About 2,000 described and analysed soil profiles characterised the map units of 43 soil maps at scale 1:50,000 covering the Rwandan territory. The database was further extended with topographic data and climatic records at different temporal resolutions while the generation of simplified soil maps at scale 1:250,000 illustrated the diversity in land resources at national level. In order to make this huge amount of information more effectively, the Laboratory of Soil Science at Ghent University, in collaboration with the Rwanda Ministry for Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry developed an easy to use automation data system. The soil map of Rwanda can be consulted through the following web application: Soil Map of Rwanda.

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3.6 Forestry The occupation and utilization of space is implicit to any ecological forest investigation. Striking a balance between conservation goals and agricultural needs is no easy task, particularly in Rwanda. Subsistence farming remains a way of life. In encroaching forest reserves, GPS waypoints can be taken and downloaded into a computer to produce a database such as the size of forest reserves, neighbouring farms, and number of trees per farm, and types of crops. The database can be used to produce thematic maps that depicted the forest reserve layout and individual farm holdings. Participatory management can ensure the safety and maintenance of replanted trees and the subsequent regeneration of the reserve and proposed better practices in agroforestry methods. The next two figures provide the national forest coverage maps for 2005 and 1998.

Figure 16 : Forest Coverage of Rwanda in 2005

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Figure 17 : Forest Coverage of Rwanda 1998 The integration of GPS and GIS technology has expanded to a great number of ecological and conservation applications. In tropical rain forest ecology, however, the technology has remained relatively neglected, despite its great potential. This is principally due to (1) the difficulty of quality satellite reception beneath a dense forest canopy, and (2) a degree of spatial error unacceptable to fine-scale vegetation mapping. Raising the GPS antenna to heights of 25–30 m can resolved these problems.

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3.7 SEAs, EIAs & Environmental Audits GPS and GIS are powerful tools for environmental data analysis and planning during Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEAs), Environmental Impact Assessment (EIAs) and Environmental Audits. GIS can store spatial information and data in a digital mapping environment. A digital base maps can be overlaid with data or other layers of information onto a map in order to view spatial information and relationships. GIS allows better viewing and understanding physical features and the relationships that influence in a given critical environmental condition. Factors, such as steepness of slopes, aspects, and vegetation, can be viewed and overlaid to determine various environmental parameters and impact analysis. GIS can also display and analyze aerial photos. Digital information can be overlaid on photographs to provide environmental data analysts with more familiar views of landscapes and associated data. GIS can provide a quick, comparative view of hazards (highly prone areas) and risks (areas of high risk which may occur) and areas to be safeguarded. On completion of data analysis, GIS helps in planning and managing the environmental hazards and risks. In order to plan and monitor the environmental issues, the assessment of hazards and risks becomes the foundation for planning decisions and for mitigation activities. GIS supports activities in environmental assessment, monitoring, and mitigation and can also be used for generating environmental models. 3.8 Water Resources Remote Sensing and GIS technologies are well-established tools and are routinely used in applied hydrology. Abilities of remote sensing technology in hydrology are used to measure spatial, spectral, and temporal information and provide data on the state of the earth's surface. It provides observation of changes in hydrological states, which vary over both time and space that can be used to monitor hydrological conditions and changes. Remote sensing techniques indirectly measure hydrological variables, so the electromagnetic variables measured by remote sensing have to be related to hydrological variables empirically or with transfer functions. Remote sensing applications in hydrology that are being used today are mainly in:

• Precipitation estimation; • Runoff computations; • Evapotranspiration over land surface; • Evaluation of soil moisture content; • Water quality modelling; • Groundwater identification and estimation; and • Hydrological modelling.

GIS can play fundamental role in the application of spatially distributed data to hydrological models. In conventional applications, results either from remote sensing or from GIS analyses serve as input into hydrological models. Land use and rainfall are the most commonly used input variables for hydrological models. The integration of GIS, database management systems and hydrological models speed up the use of remote sensed data in hydrological applications Water quality involves careful management of both groundwater (recharge areas) and surface water (watersheds, aquifers). Because one sustains the other, cross-contamination is a key concern. GPS and GIS can be used to calculate loads to a surface water body or to monitor water quality changes within a water body such as a river or wetland. A load is the product of flow and concentration, and it refers to how much mass of a chemical enters a system in a specified amount of time. Loads to a water body can result from point sources such as

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industrial discharges or nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff. Once the loads to a water body are known, water quality models can be used to determine concentration changes within the water body. Procedures that utilize a GIS have been developed for both types of load calculations and for water quality models. GIS helps identify and map critical areas of land use and reveal trends that affect water quality. GIS improves calculations for watershed characteristics, flow statistics, debris flow probability, and facilitates the watershed delineation by various models. It provides a consistent method for watershed analysis using and standardized datasets such as land cover, soil properties, gauging station locations, and climate variables. GIS application gives you the

flexibility to combine watershed datasets from one map source with stream and river networks. Use of spatial and hydrologic analysis such as calculating flow across an elevation surface can provide the basis for creating stream networks and watersheds, calculating flow path length, and assigning stream orders. You can seamlessly integrate geological and temporal data from multiple sources, including field data collection using mobile GPS technology. Effective floodplain management is a combination of corrective and preventative measures for reducing flood damage. These measures require integrating data from a variety of sources including zoning, subdivision, or building requirements, and special-purpose floodplain ordinances. Specialized tools in spatial and hydrologic analysis can provide information from hydrologic and landscape information. You can use these tools to generate a flood forecasting model to identify affected parcels to prioritize for remediation or damage assessment. The groundwater tools can be used to perform simple 2D advection–dispersion modeling of groundwater flow and constituents in groundwater. Specialized tools may generate groundwater flow field from hydro geological data, others may follows the path of advection (movement) through the flow field from a point source, and calculate the dispersion of a chemical or constituent as it is moved along the flow path. Other tools include flow accumulation, flow direction, and flow length.

Figure 18 : GIS & GPS Used in the Design of Floodplain Management

Flooding

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3.9 Solid Waste Management Solid waste is the term used to describe non-liquid waste materials arising from domestic, trade, commercial, agricultural, industrial activities and from public services. Waste management is a global environmental issue which is a significant problem. There is a considerable amount of disposal of waste without proper segregation which can lead to environmental degradation. It is better to segregate the waste at the initial stages when it is generated, rather than going for a later option which is inconvenient and expensive. Solid waste management can be divided in mainly two phases. One is the waste management in the area where it is generated and second is the management of waste at dumping grounds. This includes the issues related to the waste generation, their storage, collection and removal from the collection points. There are many drawbacks in waste management systems such as allocation of waste at improper location, multiple and manual handling of the waste and pollution land and water streams.

Figure 19 : Sectional View - Sanitary Landfill Proper waste management can solve some problems like proper allocation and relocation of waste, check for unsuitability and proximity convenience due to waste to the users, and proper recyclable systems. GIS/GPS technology can be used as a decision support tool for planning waste management. There are several areas where the municipal bodies are striving hard to provide best of their services for the municipality. Solid waste management can be handled efficiently in several ways like identification of exact location of waste, either with GPS or surveys and demarcating on the base map. GIS/GPS technology can also be used to record of the waste disposal sites and identification of location of the waste dumping grounds and/or landfill site. There has to be appropriate planning for proper waste management as suggested in the Tool and Guideline # 11.1 “Practical Tools on Solid Waste Management of Imidugudu, Small Towns and Cities: Landfill and Composting Facilities”. This tool provides technical methods to construct and locate landfills and composting sites. GIS/GPS technology can help to properly locate and select adequate sites.

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Annex 1: References and Useful Resources

• REMA (2009): Rwanda State of Environment and Outlook Report, Rwanda Environment Management Authority, P.O. Box 7436 Kigali, Rwanda http://www.rema.gov.rw/soe/

• CIDA, Environmental Handbook for Community Development Initiatives (2002), Second Edition of the Handbook on Environmental Assessment of Non-Governmental Organizations and Institutions Programs and Projects (1997) http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/ACDI-CIDA.nsf/eng/JUD-47134825-NVT

• Soil Map of Rwanda, Laboratory of Soil Science, Ghent University, Gent, http://www.labsoilscience.ugent.be/soilmaprwandaintro.html. More information on the design of multi-scale land evaluation systems applied to the soil maps of Rwanda (scale 1:250,000 and 1:50,000) can be found in this site.

• USAID, Environmental Guidelines for Small-Scale Activities in Africa: Environmentally Sound Design for Planning and Implementing Development Activities, U.S. Agency for International Development, Office of Sustainable Development, Draft Version, January 2005, www.encapafrica.org.

• ArcGIS and ESRI web site: (http://www.esri.com/) • Bartlett, Don. A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GPS – UTM, Last revision - January 10,

2007 (http://www.dbartlett.com/) • Brunt J. W., Michener, W.K., Stafford S G, Environmental Information Management

And Analysis: Ecosystem To Global Scales (Environmental Information Management and Analysis : Ecosystem to Globe), CRC Press; 1 edition (August 8, 1994), 5/6 pages

• Goodchild, Michael F., Parks, Bradey O., and Steyaert, Louis., Environmental Modeling with GIS (Spatial Information Systems), Oxford University Press, USA; illustrated edition (October 7, 1993), 520 pages

• Google Earth web site: (http://earth.google.com/) o ERIS, GIS Best Practices: o GIS for Agriculture, June 2009 o GIS in Africa, March 2009 o GIS for the Conservation of Woodlands and Wetlands, December 2007 o GIS for Wildlife Conservation, December 2007

• Kenny, Michael. The Global Positioning System and ArcGIS, RRC Press, 2010 ISBN: 978-1-4200-8700-4

• WHO/UNICEF Health Map Programme, CDS/CSR/ISR, Practical Guidelines for using the Garmin GPS in the field, 2010, (http://www.emro.who.int/ceha/pdf/GPS.pdf)

• Burrough, Peter A, McDonnell, Rachael, 1998. Principles of Geographic Information Systems. Oxford University Press, Great Britain.

• Bernhardsen, 1999. Geographic Information Systems. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.

• Gibson Paul J, 2000. Introductory Remote Sensing: Principles and Concepts. Routledge, London.

• Schultz and Engman, 2000. Remote Sensing in Hydrology and Water Management. Springer, Heidelberg.