. I.

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Aquatic life and factors influencing it belong to the realms of

limnology. The biological phenomena of any water body can be better

understood through an approach pertinent to limnology. Limnology has come

a long way since the time of Forel (1892) in understanding the dynamics of

the standing water bodies. His works on lake investigations formed the basis

for modern limnology. A successive and systematic development in this

direction has taken a shape by the contributions of many workers.

The consideration of physico-chemical parameters, operative in any

kind of waterbody has been found to be a desirable approach to the subject of

limnology. Historical resume of literature indicates efforts to consolidate

information pertaining to interaction between various parameters of water

bodies from the beginning of l9' century in different parts of the

world. Outstanding contributions made in the field of limnology in the

beginning of the 20t century were West and West (1912), Scott (1931),

Chandler (1944), Round (1953), Davis (1963), Kemmere and Narhold (1969)

and several others.

A significant contribution to limnology was also made by Schindler

(1971a). He studied selected lakes of northwest Ontario and worked out the

annual and summer heat, oxygen regimes and transparency of water.

Russo (1978) described the physico-chemical features of three of a permanent

pond in southern England. Siegfried et al. (1982) presented information on the

Big Bear Lake (USA) and explained the interactions between various

physico-chemical parameters and their impact on phytoplankton production.

Gorham et al. (1983) while studying the waterbodies of North Central

America discussed the role of conductivity and ionic composition in

()

determining the status of the lake. A man made lake in Italy was briefly

discussed by Salmoiraghi (1984). Robertson (1984) gave a detailed account of

physico-chemical parameters of eight North American Great Lakes. Ryan and

Wakeham (1984) presented a detailed account of the physico-chemical

parameters of experimental ponds of New Foundland. Ali and Amin (1985)

elucidated the physico chemical limnology of Missriot dam in

Pakistan. Fukuhara et al. (1985) discussed the interaction of physico-chemical

parameters of a lake in Japan. Osborne et al. (1987) studied the effect of

seasonal water changes on chemical limnology of Lake Murray, in New

Guinea. Deckker and Williams (1988) reported the physico-chemical

limnology of eleven, mostly saline permanent lakes in western Victoria,

Austria. The physical and chemical environment of lake Manzala in Egypt

was elaborately studied by Khalil (1990).

Kamarianos et al. (1993) explained the indication of euthophication

process of the Kerkini reservoir in North Greece. Kurashov etal. (1996) made

an extensive study on the effects of environmental factors in Lake Ladoga,

Russia. Water quality of rural Australian waters was elaborately studied by

Thurman et al. (1998). Theirfelder (1999) explained the role of hydrology in

the characterisation of water quality in Canada.

Indian limnologists such as Iyenger (1939), Ganapati (1940, 1957) and

Ganapati and Sreenivasan (1968) made concerted efforts to establish the

importance of fresh water studies in India. Later, Munawar (1970), Seenayya

(1971) and Rao (1975) studied the ecology of fresh water ponds in and around

Hyderabad. Ali and Khan (1976) investigated the limnology of three perennial

ponds of Aligarh. Hosmani and Bharati (1980b) worked on the limnology of

ponds and lakes of Dharwad. Goel et al. (1985, 1986) worked on the

limnological studies of a few fresh water bodies of southwestern Maharashtra.

7

Ranianibai and Ravichandrari (1987) worked on the limnology of an urban

pond in Madras. Limnological studies of two ponds in Jammu were carried

out by Kant and Raina (1990). Kumar (1995) investigated different

limnological aspects of a fresh water tropical wetland of Santhal Pargana at

Bihar. Choudhary et al. (1996) made an attempt to assess the limnological

conditions of two perennial ponds at Bhagalpur. Abbasi et al. (1996) worked

on the limnology of Kuttadi lake in North Kerala. Srivastava et al. (2000)

studied the ecology and fisheries of Tawa reservoir in Madhya Pradesh.

Chaulya et al. (2002) made a thorough study of the ecology of a pond in Jharia

Coalfield. Yadav et al. (2003) carried out a detailed study of the ecology of a

pond at Fatehpursikri, Agra.

Considerable information is available on the role of physico-chemical

parameters of Indian freshwater bodies. Mishra and Yadav (1978) made a

comparative study on the physico-chemical features of a perennial freshwater

lotic and lentic body of central India. Kannan and Job (1980) while observing

several changes of physico-chemical parameters in Sathiar reservoir reported

the status of eutrophication. Ayyappan and Gupta (1987), while studying a

perennial pond in coastal Karnataka, traced out a significant correlation

between physico-chemical parameters and plankton production. Hedge and

Bharati (1985) described the physico-chemical conditions of two shallow

water bodies near Dharwad. Yosuf and Shah (1988) made a comparative

limnological assessment of seven shallow water bodies in and around

Kashmir. Shastree et al. (1991) studied the physico-chemical dimensions

of the lentic hydrosphere of Ravindra Sarovar in Gaya. Saxena and

Mishra (1991) explained the water quality index and self-purification capacity

of sewage collecting channel in Madhya Pradesh. Ramakrishnan et al. (1991)

made a detailed study on five drinking water bodies at Tiruvannamalai in

Tamil Nadu. Verghese Mathew et al. (1992) studied the hydrobiology of a

domestically polluted tropical pond. The influence of certain elements in an

urban pond water quality in Tamil Nadu was investigated by Kannan and

Ramasamy (1993). Rao et at. (1993) viewed the seasonal dynamics of

physico-chemical factors in a tropical high altitude lake in Tamil Nadu.

Dhamija and Jam (1994) investigated some physico-chemical parameters

of fresh water body of Jabalpur. Rajeev Kumar and Khan (1995) studied the

physico-chemical characteristics of a eutrophic lentic environment. Singh

(1995) worked on the impact of human activities on the physico-chemical

conditions of two fish ponds in Bihar.

Murugan and lrudayasamy (1996) made a comparative study on the

diurnal variations in some hydrobiological conditions of a lake and tank at

Maduranthakam, Tamil Nadu. Seasonal variations in physico-chemical

parameters of Halali reservoir of Vidisha district in India was studied by

Jain et at. (1996). Kumar (1997) made a comparative account on the

hydrological studies of tropical water bodies in South Bihar. Bahura (1998)

studied the physico-chemical characteristics of a highly eutrophic temple tank

Bikaner. Bhatt et at. (1999) investigated the physico-chemical characteristics

and phytoplankton of Taudaha lake in Kathmandu. Ecological significance of

biochemical parameters in certain freshwater lakes of Mysore was studied by

Hosmani et al. (1999). Shivappa et al. (2000) noted the ecological

characteristics of water from Savalanga tank in Shimoga. Pendse et al. (2000)

studied the hydrobiology of percolation tank of village, Dasane. The drinking

water quality in Kottarakara area, Kollam District in Kerala was investigated

by Sabu et al. (2000). Srinivasa Gowd and Kotaiah (2000) explained the

seasonal variations of water quality of a tropical Kalyani reservoir near

Tirupati. Shastri and Pendse (2001) studied the hydrobiology of Dahikhuta

reservoir in Nasik District. Noor Alam (2001) reviewed the variations in the

9

physico-chemical parameters of a pond in Bihar. Radhika etal. (2004) studied

the impact of abiotic parameters on a tropical freshwater lake in Kerala.

The role of sediment analysis can be viewed clearly as an important

factor in determining the quality of fresh water. Only a very few reports are

available on fresh water soil studies in India. Ananthanarayan and

Perur (1973) characterised some acid soils of Mysore state. Ground water

pollution by open refuse dumps at Jaipur was analysed by Olaniya and Saxena

(1977). Nasar (1978) studied the chemical properties of soil of a fresh water

pond in Bhagalpur. Saha (1985) noticed the changes in the properties of

bottom soil of two freshwater ponds in relation to ecological factors. A brief

study on the soil fertility status of Dashina district in Karnataka was carried

out by Badrinath et al. (1986). Shrivastava et al. (1989) studied the sediment

nitrogen and phosphorus content of a highly polluted lake in Jaipur city.

Nirmalkumar and Rana (1994) explained the seasonal distribution of nutrients

in sediments of different ponds in Gujarat. Pushpendra and Madhyastha

(1994) observed the seasonal variation of certain chemical parameters of soil-

water phases of a small pond along western India. A study on the movement

of metal ions in soil and water samples of ponds in North India was carried by

Shrivastava and Nemade in 1995. Rao and Sitaramayya (1997) worked on the

nutrient management of rice with regard to changes in the total and available

soil nitrogen. Jery and Britto (1998) conducted a survey on the soil and water

analysis of a Bird Sanctuary at Koonthankulam in Tamil Nadu. The impact of

land disposal of industrial effluents on properties of soils of Noor Mohammed

Lake bed was carried out by Prashanthi and Jeevan Rao (1999). The

investigation of Trivedi and Gupta (1999) revealed the sediment

characteristics of freshwater bodies of Mangalore. Shrivastava and Abhay

(2000) have reviewed the changes in nitrogen and phosphorus status under

general and waste irrigation. Studies on the seasonal variation in physico-

10

chemical parameters of soil of nagar panchayat in Chitrakoot was clearly

given by Garg (2002).

The importance of primary productivity studies in aquatic

environments is well realised in view of its value in estimating the productive

capacity. Primary productivity of a particular water body gives an estimate of

the amount of energy available to support the bioactivity of a system. The

various ecosystems on the earth are subjected to a number of studies regarding

nutrient level and primary productivity. The important contributions were

those of Goldman and Wetzel (1963) on the regulation of net primary

production in Clear Lake Country, California, the comparative account of

phytoplankton and production rates in two linked lakes of North Wales by

Happey-Wood (1975), and that of Gloss et al. (1980) who studied the

nutrient dynamics of a large reservoir in the North temperate lake of Canada.

Miller et al. (1984) studied the primary productivity of Andean and

Amazonian tropical lakes and opined that productivity is related to depths,

nutrient accumulations and solar radiation. Taylor (1984) investigated the flux

of phosphate and zooplankton distribution of lake Ontario. Istranovics et al.

(1986), while studying the Mesotrophic Lake in Hungary, concluded that

phosphorus and nitrogen enrichment increase the biomass of phytoplankton.

Silva and Davies (1986) investigated the primary productivity in three

different types of inland waters in Srilanka. Khan and Agugo (1990) studied

the structure, community and abundance of plankton in relation to primary

productivity in a small water supply in West Africa. Hejzair et al. (1993)

explained the importance of epilimnion phosphorus loading and wind induced

flow for phytoplankton growth in Rimov Reservoir water. Brooks and

Edgington (1994) studied the bio-geo chemical control of phosphorus cycling

and primary production in Lake Michigan. Petry et al. (2002) explained that

III

the hydrological controls exert a strong influence on both nutrient

concentrations and fluxes in the lowlands of Scotland.

Johnson (1991) worked on the total nitrogen and phosphate content of

two freshwater lakes of Hyderabad. Bhaskaran et al. (1991) studied the

phytoplankton productivity in a few tropical ponds. Rao and Mahmood (1995)

explained the nutrient status and biological characteristics of Hubsiguda pond.

Bais et al. (1997) studied the seasonal changes in phytoplankton productivity

due to artificial enrichment of nutrients. A comparative study of the

primary productivity of three reservoirs of Visakhapatnam was made by

Rao et al. (1999). Das (1998, 2000) gave a brief report on the nutrient status

and limno chemistry of some reservoirs in Andhra Pradesh. Harikrishnan and

Abdul Azis (2000) made a brief study on the primary production of a

freshwater temple tank in Kerala. Prakasam and Joseph (2000) studied the

water quality of Sasthamcotta Lake in relation to primary productivity and

pollution by anthropogenic sources in Kerala. Das (2002) made a comparative

study on the primary production in some selected reservoirs of Andhra

Pradesh.

Plankton, both as producers and consumers play an important role in

the energy transfer in an ecosystem. Numerous studies have been conducted

so far in different parts of the world regarding the role of phytoplankton and

zooplankton in energy production and their interaction with various other

physico-chemical properties. The zooplankton population such as Copepoda,

Rotifera and Cladocereans are considered to be the most important

constituents as they play an important role in energy transformation and

trophic levels. Though exhaustive literature exists on plankton studies, notable

contributions to our knowledge on plankton are those of Hofmann (1975 and

1977) who studied the influence of' spring circulation on zooplankton

12

dynamics in Plubsee. North Germany. Fuller el al. (1977) have worked on the

composition and seasonal distribution of limnetic rotifers in Douglas Lake.

Nazneen (1980) explained the influence of hydrological factors on seasonal

abundance of phytoplankton in Kinjhar Lake, Pakistan.

Gannon (1981) described the important constituents of zooplankton

community in North American Great Lakes. Korstad (1983), studied the

subject and gave an idea about the rates of nutrient regeneration

by zooplankton in Southern Lake, Huron. The study carried out by

Seigfried et al. (1982) revealed the limnology of a eutrophic reservoir of

South California. Rognerud and Kjellberg (1984), described the relationship

between phytoplankton and zooplankton biomass in large lakes, in south

eastern- Norway. Watson and Mc Cauley (1988) compared the contrasting

patterns of net and nanoplankton production and biomass among lakes in Italy.

Hart (1990) has made an investigation on the distribution of zooplankton in

relation to turbidity and related environmental gradient in a reservoir of South

Africa. Robarts et al. (1992) investigated the phyto and zooplankton

population dynamics in a recently formed reservoir in Africa. The study

carried out by Kurashov et al. (1996) explained the association of invertebrate

communities and microphytes in lake Ladoga. Mayer et al. (1997) have made

a comparative study of the seasonal succession and trophic relation among

phytoplankton, zooplankton, ciliates and bacteria in a hypertrophic shallow

lake in Vienna, Austria. The study carried out by Mertinez-Cordova

et al. (1997) revealed the composition, abundance and nutritional contribution

of zooplankton in fertilized and unfertilized shrimp culture ponds with

different feeding rates. Prepas et al. (2001) explained the landscape variables

influencing nutrients and phytoplankton communities in Boreal Plain Lakes of

Northern Alberta. Rossetti et al. (2001) have made investigations on the

activities of microorganisms and energy fluxes in lake Varese. The study

13

carried out by Walter (2003) revealed the role of periphyton in phosphorus

retention in shallow freshwater aquatic systems of America.

Several freshwater lakes, reservoirs and ponds were investigated in

India to give baseline information on phyto and zooplankton ecology. Rao and

Mohan (1977), Saksena and Kulkarni (1985) and Saksena (1987) explained

rotifers as indicators of pollution. Khatavkar et al. (1990) investigated the

phytoplankton flora of some freshwater bodies of southwestern Maharashtra.

Fasihuddin and Kumari (1990) gave a brief idea regarding the seasonal

variations in physico-chemical properties and plankton periodicity in a

freshwater pond, Bhagalpur. Correlation between copepods and limno

chemistry of Mansarover reservoir in Bhopal was carried out by Adholia and

Vyas (1992). Rana and Kumar (1993) made a composite rating of trophic

status of certain ponds of Gujarat. Sinha and Sinha (1993) and Ahmad

and Singh (1993) studied the correlation between physico-chemical

factors and zooplankton during diurnal variations in two different fresh water

tanks of Bihar.

Rajkumar et al. (1994) made a thorough study of plankton with their

environmental relationship in urban aquatic ecosystems in Chennai

city. Mukesh et al. (1995) reported the phytoplankton diversity of Sadatpur

reservoir in Maharashtra. Verma and Mohanty (1995) clearly analysed the

phytoplankton and its correlation with certain physico-chemical parameters of

Danmukundpur pond. Qualitative and quantitative analyses of zooplankton

population in two different ponds of north India were carried out by Saboor

and Altaff (1995) and Bais and Agarwal (1995). Raju and Durani (1996)

explained the nanoplanktonic production in temple ponds of Bhubaneswar.

Alani and Khan (1996) worked on plankton population in four freshwater

ponds in Aligarh. Reynolds (1998) made an investigation on the factors

El

influencing the species composition of phytoplankton in some selected

reservoirs of Andhra Pradesh. In Kerala, Sabu and Abdul Azis (1999) and

Harikrishnan et al. (1999) investigated the zooplankton community in Peppara

reservoir and phytoplankton distribution in Kuttanad wetland respectively.

A study on plankton population of Ashtarpudi Lake in Kerala was carried out

by Geetha Bhadran (2001). 1-lydrobiological study of phytoplankters was

conducted by Kumawat and Jawale (2003) and More and Nandan (2003) in

two different fish ponds and dams of Maharashtra. Information on the

seasonal variation in zooplankton population in two lentic bodies at Assam

state was given by Sinha and Islam (2003). PuIle and Khan (2003) made a

brief account of the phytoplankton of Isapur dam water.

The overall physico-chemical nature of an aquatic body indicates its

total ecological status. Plankton studies also indicate the inter-relationship

between primary production and eutrophication. Eutrophication from the

limnological point of view constitutes the gradual enrichment of water with

nutrients essential for the growth of green plants. Eutrophication is a natural

process, but can be accelerated by man's activities. Schelske (1974) had

reviewed the nutrients responsible for causing eutrophication in Lake

Michigan. Seki and Iwami (1984) have revealed the process of eutrophication

in a body of natural water in lake Kasumigaura. Karabin et al. (1997)

explained the eutrophication processes in shallow, macrophyte, and dam water

Lake in Poland. Govanardi et al. (1999) studied the toxic cyanobacterial

blooms in Lake Varese in Italy. The study carried out by Gray and

Becker (2002) revealed the contaminant flows in urban residential water

system in Australia.

Eutrophication in some artificial lakes of Madras was analysed earlier

by Srcenivasan (1969). Gopala Rao and Durve (1989) carried out experiments

15

on cultural eutrophication of the Lake Rangasagar in Rajasthan.

Algal communities as indicators of pollution were given by Venkat (1991).

Choudhary et al. (1996) explained the impact of eutrophication on the

biochemical properties of Eichhornia crassipes growing in two perennial

ponds at Rhagalpur. Swarnalatha and Narsing Rao (1997) studied the ecology

of two lentic water bodies with reference to cyanobacteria. Hosmani

et al. (1999) clearly indicated the ecological significance of biochemical

parameters in certain fresh water Lakes of Mysore. Eutrophication

investigations mentioned in the above studies help us to understand that the

water bodies are susceptible to deterioration due to anthropogenic activities.

As domestic wastewater is rich in nutrients, it has been used in

agriculture and fish culture for centuries. But the use of sewage in aquaculture

causes serious pollution and health hazards as they contain large quantities of

heavy metals. These metals get accumulated in organisms at various stages in

the food chain. The impact of heavy metals in natural biotic communities has

a direct or indirect role to play on human life. Therefore it is necessary to

know the concentration and distribution of heavy metals in water bodies. In

addition to chemical analysis of environmental metal levels, biological

monitoring of fish communities itself is also important.

Considerable information is available on heavy metal pollution in water

bodies throughout the world. Cassidy and Lake (1973) studied the acute

toxicity of Cadmium in fishes and also found out the toxicity changes due to

season and temperature. The effect of various heavy metals on eutrophic lakes

was analysed by Mathis and Kevern (1975) and Marshall et al.(1983).

Everard and Denny (1985a) worked in a fresh water system and studied the

effect of Lead on submerged plants. In 1990, Radwan et al. in Poland and

Deniseger et al. in America simultaneously analysed the occurrence of heavy

16

metals in lakes. An elaborate work was done by Miller et al. (1992) on the

concentrations of Copper and Zinc not only in water but also in sediments and

biota at metal-contaminated sites in Canada. Accumulation of heavy metals in

sediments of lakes was the aspect looked into by Adams et al. (1992), Smith et

cz/.(1996), Steinnes and Prost (1997) and Allen-Gil et al. (1997). The relative

mobility of metals and their behaviour on sediments on a retention pond in

France was the focus of study by Lee et al. (1997). Bio absorption of heavy

metals by fresh water fish in various fresh waters is referred to in the works of

Moiseenko and Kudryavtseva (2001), and Bervoets et al. (2001) and

Clearwater et al. (2002). A comparative study of heavy metal concentration in

water, sediment and fish was made by Bervoets and Blust (2003) in Belgium.

A brief account of the presence of heavy metals in sewage sludge soil in

Brittari was given by Ashworth and Alloway (2004).

Data on studies of heavy metal pollution in the Indian context is plenty.

Mukherjee and Konar (1984) determined the extent of heavy metal toxicity

found in fish and plankton. Bio-filter of heavy metals by water hyacinth was

the study attempted by John (1984) and Jamil et al. (1987). The presence of

heavy metals in water and sediments of a lake was elaborately studied by

Saikai et al. (1986). The studies carried out by Singh et al. (1990),

Ramesh et al. (1990), Chattopadhyay and Roy (1990) and Joseph (1992)

revealed the accumulation of heavy metals in sediments and fishes in rivers. A

contribution to the study of toxicity of heavy metals in aquaculture organisms

was made by Govindarajan et al. (1993). Information pertaining to the

presence of heavy metals in ground water by Srikanth and Madumohan

Rao (1993) and in an urban pond by Kannan and Ramasamy (1993) is worth

mentioning. Barman and Lai (1994) brought to light the fluctuations of heavy

metals in soils, vegetables and weeds of an industrially polluted area, while

Jain and Salmon (1995) concentrated their study on heavy metals in lake

17

sediments. Pandey et al. (1995) made an in depth study of heavy metals in a

sewage fed pond on soil, water, aquatic weeds and fishes. A similar study on

sewage fed pond was also done by Bala subramanian et al. (1997). Joshi and

Roy (1996) analysed heavy metal pollution in soil, water and also the remedial

measures for protection of the environment. Gupta et al. (1998), Sanjay

Kumar (1999) and Kaushik et al. (1999) have all made quantitative estimation

of heavy metals in water in different parts of India. Sivakumar et al. (2000),

Madhusudan etal. (2000) and Mohan Raj (2001) have contributed a lot to the

study of heavy metals in various lentic water bodies of Tamil Nadu. Sridevi et

al. (2003) studied the bio-absorption of heavy metals by water hyacinth while

in the same year bio-absorption of heavy metals in mussels formed the study

of Bhavani and Dawood Sharief (2003). Nagaraju et al. (2003) assessed the

impact of heavy metals on a sewage lake in Mysore. Bhatkar et al. (2004)

measured the biochemical- alterations in a freshwater fish due to the

accumulation of heavy metals.

In spite of the above discussed studies pertaining to different aspects of

limnology such as physico-chemical parameters, productivity, plankton

diversity, sediment characteristics and heavy metal analysis in different parts

of the world and India in particular, study of this nature still stands as lacunae

in fresh water ponds of Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu. Hence the present

study, which is an attempt to give specific information on limnology of the

selected perennial water bodies of the district, is of vital importance.

19