2. sistem ekskresi.ppt
TRANSCRIPT
SISTEM EKSKRESI
Urinary System
• “Filtering” of the Blood
• Electrolyte Regulation
• pH Regulation
• Regulation of Blood Volume
• Stimulation of Erythropoiesis
• Vitamin D Synthesis
Components And Functions
Two kidneys, which remove dissolved waste and excess substances from the blood and form urine. The kidneys regulate the extracellular fluid environment by making urine from plasma. By doing this the kidneys also regulate:
– Blood plasma volume– Concentration of waste products in the blood– Plasma pH
– Concentration of electrolytes (e.g. K+, Cl-, HCO3-) in the blood..
Two ureters, which transport urine from the kidneys to
The urinary bladder, which acts as a reservoir for urine
The urethra, the duct through which urine from the bladder flows to the outside of the body during urination
Systemic Anatomy Overview
How the kidney functions to maintain homeostasis in the body
FILTERFILTER
REABSORBREABSORB
SECRETESECRETE
Kidney Anatomy
External Anatomy
Renal capsule
Adipose capsule
Renal fascia
Internal AnatomyRenal pelvis, branches into major calyces and minor calyces
Renal medulla, consists of 8-18 renal pyramids (tubulus and collecting ducts of the nephrons)
Renal cortex, divided into the outer cortical region (renal columns) and the inner juxtamedullary
Internal Structure of The KidneyInternal Structure of The Kidney
Blood flow
Nephron
Nephron… the histological and functional unit of the kidney
Each nephron is an independent urine making unit
~ 1.3 million nephrons per kidney
~ 50-55mm in length
Two types of nephrons : Cortical (found in the outer 2/3
of the cortex) and Juxtamedullary nephrons (found at the cortex/medulla junction, Fewer in number, Very long loops of
Henle to make concentrated urine)
Two types of NephronsTwo types of Nephrons
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
The Component of Nephron
Nephron consists of a Tubular and a vascular component
The tubular component : the glomerular capsule and excretory tubules (proximal convoluted tubule, loop of the nephron, distal convoluted tubule)
The vascular component is made up of blood vessels : the glomerulus and the peritubular capillaries, which surround the excretory tubules
Nephron Histology I
Nephron Histology II
Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
Always located in the cortex of the kidney
The inner and outer walls form a cavity called the capsular space
The outer layer is the parietal layer, epithelial cells
The inner layer is the visceral layer, specialized epithelial cells called podocytes which surround the glomerular capillaries
The Glomerular Histology I
The Glomerular Histology II
PodocytesThe spaces between the pedicels provide a passageway for materials to enter the nephron (except proteins which are not filtered out of the blood).
Physiology of The Kidney
FILTERFILTER
REABSORBREABSORB
SECRETESECRETE
Glomerular Filtration
Tubular Reabsorption
Tubular Secretion
The kidneys filter blood
Useful subtances such as H2O, Na+, glucose and
amino acids are returned to the blood
Products such as K+, H+, certain drugs and organic
compounds may be excreted
Glomerular Filtration
Filtration Barrier
Filtration Pressure– ~ 75 mm Hg– Function of BP
GCP : Glomerular capsule pressureCOP : Colloidal osmotic pressure
Permeable to water and compounds with low molecular weights
Small molecules pass through the pores (fenestration)
of the endothelium
The basement membran (basal lamina)
The filtration slits of the visceral layer of the glomerular capsule and the podocytes
Normally, none of the blood cells can pass through this barrier, include protein molecule
The high hydrostatic pressure of the blood in the glomerulus is primarily responsible for the production of the glomerular (ultra)filtrate.– GFR is ~ 120 ml/min = ~ 180 L/day
Vasoconstriction or vasodilation of glomerular afferent arterioles affects the rate of blood flow and, therefore, affects the GFR.– blood flow = GFR– blood flow = GFR..
Changes in blood pressure don’t affect GFR except in the extreme. – As blood pressure rises, the afferent
arterioles constrict to maintain appropriate blood pressure..
Factors affecting the glomerular filtration rate
Effective filtration rate
Stress
Total surface area available for filtration
Capillary permeability
Intrinsic renal autoregulation
Release of renin
Effective filtration pressure
The GFR increases when the effective filtration pressure in glomerulus increases, and decreases when the pressure decreases
FPeff is determined by the Starling-Landis equation :
Normal : 25 mmHg
FPeff =capsular
hydrostatic pressure
glomerular blood
hydrostatic pressure
_ Oncotic pressure of the blood in the
glomerulus
+
75 20 30
Stress : Sympathetic Regulation of GFR
Stimulates vasoconstriction of afferent arterioles.– Preserves blood
volume to muscles and heart.
Cardiovascular shock:– Decreases
glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure.
– Decreases urine output (UO).
Intrinsic : Renal Autoregulation of GFR
Ability of kidney to maintain a constant GFR under systemic changes.– Achieved through effects of locally produced chemicals on
the afferent arterioles.
When MAP drops to 70 mm Hg, afferent arteriole dilates.When MAP increases, vasoconstrict afferent arterioles.Tubuloglomerular feedback:– Increased flow of filtrate sensed by macula densa cells in
thick ascending LH.• Signals afferent arterioles to constrict..
Renin-Angiotension-Aldosterone System
Tubular ReabsorptionAbout 99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed.
Water can only be reabsorbed by osmosis.– There are no water pumps.– Because the osmotic pressure of the filtrate is
about the same as plasma, ~ 300 mOsm, ions must be transported to affect the osmotic pressures.
– Na+ diffuses into the cuboidal tubular cells at the apical surface from the filtrate.
• Glucose is frequently cotransported with Na+..
– The Na+ is then pumped by active transport into the surrounding tissue fluid.
• Na+/K+ pumps are only located at the basal and lateral surfaces.
– Cl- ions then follow the Na+ by diffusion into the cell.
– The NaCl creates an osmotic gradient and water flows by osmosis out of the filtrate and into the tissue fluid.
About 85% of salts and water are reabsorbed in the early regions of the nephron..
The composition of the filtrate is fine tuned in the remaining areas of the nephron.
In the loop of Henle, more materials are reabsorbed from the filtrate into the tissue fluid then blood.– In the thick portion of the ascending limb, Na+
diffuses from the filtrate into the cells at the apical surface.
– At the same time K+ and Cl- are actively transported into the cell at the apical surface..
– Na+ is then actively transported across the basal and lateral surfaces into the tissue fluid (blood) by Na+/K+ pumps in the membrane.
– Cl- passively follows the Na+ out of the cell and into the tissue fluid.
– K+ diffuses back into the filtrate and the tissue fluid..
The Countercurrent Multiplier System• The ascending limb is impermeable to water.
– This results in decreasing solute concentration of the filtrate (decreasing osmolality) and increasing solute concentration of the surrounding tissue fluid (increasing osmolality)..
• The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water but (probably) im-permeable to NaCl.
• Because of the actions of the ascending limb the tissue fluid surrounding this region of the nephron is hypertonic.– Therefore, water moves by osmosis from the
filtrate in the descending limb into the tissue fluid..
Urea also contributes to the high osmolality of the tissue fluid surrounding the loop of Henle.
Urea can diffuse out of the collecting duct into the tissue fluid then back into the ascending limb.
The urea is then transported into the filtrate where it diffuses out through the collecting duct wall and into the tissue fluid, then back into the ascending limb, etc..
Osmolarity of extracellular fluid (mOsm/L)
300
400
600
900
1,200
Osmolarity of extracellular fluid (mOsm/L)
300
400
600
900
1,200
In the collecting ducts, the remainder of the water is reabsorbed from the filtrate into the tissue fluid then the blood.
The medullary regions of the collecting ducts are impermeable to NaCl in the surrounding tissue fluid, therefore, water diffuses out of the collecting ducts.
The water moves through water channels produced from aquaporin proteins.
The number of water channels is influenced by ADH.
Stimulates fusion of vesicles with plasma membrane.
Incorporates water channels into plasma membrane..
Tulular Load
• …amount of a substance passing the filtration membrane per minute
• Tubular Maximum…the maximum rate at which a substance can be reabsorbed
• Spillage
Tubular Secretion
COMPARISON OF FILTRATION, COMPARISON OF FILTRATION, REABSORPTION, EXCRETIONREABSORPTION, EXCRETION
SUBSTANCESUBSTANCEAMOUNT FILTERED AMOUNT FILTERED
BY GLOMERULI BY GLOMERULI (DAILY)(DAILY)
AMOUNT EXCRETED AMOUNT EXCRETED IN URINE IN URINE
(DAILY)(DAILY)
PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE REABSORBED REABSORBED BY NEPHRON BY NEPHRON
TUBULES TUBULES
GlucoseWaterCalciumSaltPhosphateUreaSulfate
170.0 g150.0 L
17.0 g700.0 g
5.1 g50.0 g
3.4 g
100.099.098.898.080.040.033.0
0.0 g1.5 L0.2 g15.0 g1.2 g30.0 g2.7 g
Ureters
• Uroliths
Accessory excretory structures
Urinary Bladder
• Trigone
• Cystitis
Accessory excretory structures
Urine Production
Urine is created in– renal cortex– and renal
medulla
Drains out end of renal papilla,
into renal pelvis,
into ureter,
and then into the bladder
Renal Flow Rates
Prime Regulators
• ADH / Antidiuretic Hormone– Posterior pituitary– Diabetes insipidus – insufficient ADH /
dilute urine
• Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone– Adrenal Cortex– Associated with BP Regulation
Production of Vit DProduction of Vit D33
Electrolyte and Acid/Base Electrolyte and Acid/Base BalanceBalance
Kidneys regulate NaKidneys regulate Na++, K, K++, H, H++, Cl, Cl--, HC0, HC033--, ,
and POand PO443-3-..
Control of plasma NaControl of plasma Na++ is important in is important in regulation of blood volume and pressure.regulation of blood volume and pressure.
Control of plasma of KControl of plasma of K++ important in important in proper function of cardiac and skeletal proper function of cardiac and skeletal muscles.muscles.– Match ingestion with urinary excretion..Match ingestion with urinary excretion..
In DCT and CCD, the remaining NaIn DCT and CCD, the remaining Na++ and K and K++ is is reabsorbed under the influence of reabsorbed under the influence of aldosteronealdosterone..– AldosteroneAldosterone is the principal mineralocorticoid is the principal mineralocorticoid
(secreted by ?)(secreted by ?)– AldosteroneAldosterone stimulate the reabsorption of Na stimulate the reabsorption of Na++ in in
exchange for Kexchange for K++ -- therefore, -- therefore, K+ is excretedK+ is excreted..
In the absence of aldosteroneIn the absence of aldosterone, ~ 2% of Na, ~ 2% of Na++ is is excreted and 100% of Kexcreted and 100% of K++ is reabsorbed. is reabsorbed.
When aldosterone is secreted in max. amountsWhen aldosterone is secreted in max. amounts, , 100% of Na+ is reabsorbed and > 50% of K100% of Na+ is reabsorbed and > 50% of K++ is is excreted.excreted.– KK++ can only be secreted in the urine in the presence can only be secreted in the urine in the presence
of aldosterone..of aldosterone..
Aldosterone secretion is regulated by Aldosterone secretion is regulated by negative feedback of blood [K+] & [Na+].negative feedback of blood [K+] & [Na+].
RiseRise in [K+] in [K+] directlydirectly stimulates aldosterone stimulates aldosterone secretion.secretion.– The more aldosterone secreted, the more K+ The more aldosterone secreted, the more K+
secreted into the filtrate and therefore secreted into the filtrate and therefore excreted from the body.excreted from the body.
DropDrop in [Na+] in [Na+] indirectlyindirectly stimulates the stimulates the secretion of aldosterone.secretion of aldosterone.– ↓ ↓ [Na+] stimulates renin secretion from [Na+] stimulates renin secretion from
granular cells of the juxtaglomerular granular cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus..apparatus..
– ReninRenin (an enzyme) converts (an enzyme) converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I.angiotensinogen into angiotensin I.
– Angiotensin IAngiotensin I is then converted into is then converted into angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).enzyme (ACE).
– Angiotensin IIAngiotensin II stimulates aldosterone stimulates aldosterone secretion (and a rise in blood pressure).secretion (and a rise in blood pressure). Powerful vasoconstrictor.Powerful vasoconstrictor. Stimulates thirst..Stimulates thirst..
Renin-Angiotension-Aldosterone System
Atrial natriuretic peptide, secreted by Atrial natriuretic peptide, secreted by the atria of the heart, stimulates the the atria of the heart, stimulates the kidneys to excrete more Na+.kidneys to excrete more Na+.
Water then follows the Na+ by osmosis.Water then follows the Na+ by osmosis. This lowers the blood volume (& blood This lowers the blood volume (& blood
pressure)..pressure)..