2004

T H E E S A B W E L D I N G A N D C U T T I N G J O U R N A L V O L . 5 9 N O . 1 2 0 0 4T H E E S A B W E L D I N G A N D C U T T I N G J O U R N A L V O L . 5 9 N O . 1 2 0 0 4

ESAB 1904-2004A CENTURY OF INNOVATION IN

WELDING & CUTTING

ESAB 1904-2004A CENTURY OF INNOVATION IN

WELDING & CUTTING

Contents Vol. 59 No. 1 2004

Articles in Svetsaren may be reproduced without permission but with an acknowledgement to ESAB.

PublisherBertil Pekkari

EditorBen Altemühl

Editorial committeeBjörn Torstensson, Johnny Sundin, Johan Elvander, Lars-Erik Stridh,

Dave Meyer, Tony Anderson, Peter Budai, Arnaud Paque, Klaus Blome

Editor’s addressSVETSAREN, ESAB AB, Marketing Communication

c/o P.O. Box 8086, 3503 RB Utrecht, The Netherlands

Internet addresshttp://www.esab.comE-mail: [email protected]

Lay-out: Duco Messie. Printed in The Netherlands by True Colours

THE ESAB WELDING AND CUTTING JOURNAL VOL. 59 NO. 1 2004

Arc welding with covered stick electrodes - theinvention on which Oscar Kjellberg based hiscompany ESAB.

Foreword by John templeman, CEO of ESAB andBertil Pekkari, President of the IIW.

Oscar Kjellberg's Autobiography.The inventor of the coated electrode describes hislife and work.

Oscar Kjellberg - Inventor and Visionary.Who was Oscar Kjellberg? What was it what droveand motivated him?

Finding new Frontiers – A Century of Global ExpansionESAB, which started on a small scale in 1904, isnow a global company. Read all about ESAB'sexpansion during a century in welding.

An Unusual AssignmentThis story takes us back to 1914 when RagnarÅsander travelled by sleigh into Russia to repair asawmill using Oscar Kjellberg's brand new weldingmethod.

Volvo Wheel Loaders and ESABOscar Kjellberg's ideas have influenced the Volvoplant in Arvika from the moment it started usingelectric arc welding.

A History of Welding.This article highlights the history of arc weldingwhich began towards the end of the 19th century.

From Bare Rod to Big-time – Uncovering the Story of the Coated ElectrodeThe success of the coated electrode during the 20th century.

Welding Ships, a Matter of Classification.The Unified Rules of the Classification Societies are avaluable tool in ship construction.

Developments in Welding Technology Illustrated in Postage Stamps.Dr. Sejima reviews the history of welding as reflected ina selection of images from his unique stamp collection.

The Past Present and Future of Stainless Steels.This review briefly summarises the history of stainlesssteel development and discusses some future trends.

Welding and Joining in the Future.Since the invention of the coated electrode 100 yearsago, several other welding processes have been invent-ed. What can we expect next to come?

The History of Aluminum WeldingIn order to appreciate the history of aluminium welding, ithelps to be familiar with the history of the material itself.

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Svetsaren no. 1 • 2004 • 3

Introduction

On 12th September 2004, we celebrate one hundredyears of ESAB. The world is now a vastly differentplace than the one Oscar Kjellberg, ESAB’s founder,knew at the start of the last century. Then heavy steelmanufacturing was centred on Europe and NorthAmerica, whereas today’s production geography istruly global, with new economies in Asia and theemerging markets setting the pace in ship constructionand other volume steel fabrication. Over the ensuingperiod, many new materials and processes haveemerged creating many new opportunities for expansionand development.

The success of our industry, and the way we are best able to serve it, has always been dependent onthe active interchange of ideas, applications andexperiences between our customers, suppliers, weldinginstitutes and our own engineers. For almost seventyyears Svetsaren has been a cornerstone for theencouragement of that interchange.

My special thanks go to Bertil Pekkari, retiring publisherof Svetsaren, who together with editor Ben Altemühland other members of the editorial team, have compiled this special centenary edition and have continued in a long tradition as custodians of thisextraordinarily incisive and informative journal.

Jon Templeman

Foreword

A hundred years ago Oscar Kjellberg invented thecoated stick electrode in his search for a practicalmethod for repairing leaks in ships’ steam boilers.Little would he have realised that his technologywould go on to revolutionize metal construction inevery branch of industry and serve as the springboardto the development of modern arc welding processes.Unlike many inventors, Oscar Kjellberg had both thevision and drive to pursue his idea commercially andso laid the foundations for what has become today’sglobal leader in welding and cutting.

ESAB has always remained in the vanguard of technological development and Svetsaren (the Welder)has played an important part. Walter Edström,Kjellberg’s successor after his death in 1931, startedthe journal in 1936 having then recognized the needfor ESAB technicians and customers to be informedof developments in technology and applications. Overthe ensuing years Svetsaren has chronicled ESAB’swider process of change from simple repair companyto world leading supplier of consumables, equipmentand expertise.

This special issue guides you through the history of weld-ing and examines ESAB’s role as a major player. We startwith a brief autobiography by Oscar Kjellberg himself followed by a recollection of a welding assignment intonorthern Russia in 1914. We map the story of ESAB’sglobal expansion and also focus on developments in thewelding of stainless steel and aluminium, from both anhistorical and future perspective.

This issue is my last as publisher, having recentlyretired from ESAB. I hand over the baton to JohanElvander, ESAB’s international head of R&D, in theknowledge that Svetsaren continues in good hands.My special thanks go to all our contributors whoseabounding enthusiasm and research has made thisspecial issue possible. I wish you an enjoyable read.

Bertil Pekkari

Jon Templeman, Chief ExecutiveOfficer, ESABHoldings Limited

Bertil PekkariFormer TechnicalDirector, ESAB ABand Publisher of SvetsarenPresident of theInternational Institute of Welding

4 • Svetsaren no. 1 • 2004


I was born in the parish of Arvika on 21 September 1870,the son of Johannes Kjellberg, a railway constructionworker employed by a British company, and his wifeKarolina. My father was murdered in Heatings in theUSA. I was then the oldest of five siblings.

I left school in 1886, after which I paid for my own education. I became an apprentice at the KristinehamnMechanical Workshop and worked in different departments until the spring of 1890, when I went to sea to obtain practical qualifications from working withmachinery – and to earn money for my further education.

Over the next few years, I worked on several steamships,which included about two years on the s/s Guernsey afTönsberg, at the time, the largest ship in the Nordiccountries. In 1894 and 1895, I worked at the KockumMechanical Workshop in Malmö.

In the spring of 1896, I qualified as a second engineerat the Malmö School of Navigation. I worked as anengine-room officer on different Swedish, Russian andNorwegian ships in different waters, until the spring of1898, when I qualified as chief engineer at the MalmöSchool of Navigation. I then, immediately took a job aschief engineer at the Hallands Ångbåts Aktiebolag.

During various periods of leave of absence, I worked asa trainee at Fretzner in Laura Hytte and at the OttenserEisenwerk, the largest and most modern steam boilerworkshops on the Continent at that time.

In 1902, I qualified as "Schiffsingenieur" (ship engineer),at the technical college (Technikum) in Bremen.Thisqualification entitles the holder to work as the topengineer on the largest German passenger ships.In 1903, I passed a special extra electroengineeringexam at the Göteborg School of Navigation. During the years since I began my technical career, I have been dissatisfied with the unsatisfactory patching andrepair methods used on ships, their steam boilers andmachine components in general. Back in 1900, I startedto investigate how any of these items of equipment had been repaired using welding. Carrying largemachine components to, and into, a furnace was out ofthe question, and it was therefore necessary to considerusing electricity as the heating medium which could, ineffect, be ‘carried’ to the workpiece in a copper wire.

First of all, however, it was necessary to study what hadbeen done in this area. I discovered that people in severalcountries had studied this subject seriously and, as earlyas 1864, a patent relating to the use of electricity hadbeen issued.At the end of the 1880’s, literature of the

SVETSARENSVETSTIDNING UTGIVEN AV

ELEKTRISKA SVETSNING-AKTIEBOLAGET, GÖTEBORG

MARCH 1918

Travel back to March 1918 and read how the inventorof the coated electrode describes his life and work.

Oscar Kjellberg’sAutobiography


time enthusiastically mentions electrical welding.However, the methods were not successful for a numberof reasons which researchers at the time overlooked.Electrical welding was a total failure. So the ground hadin no way been prepared but, as problems are there tobe overcome, I decided to investigate why the engineersof the 1880’s had not fully analysed the subject. In-depthstudies of what they had done proved that this was thecase. I succeeded in seeing my predecessors’ mistakesand learning from them. I persevered with my experi-ments and they produced favourable results, therebyendorsing my belief that a solution could be found.

At the beginning of 1904, my experiments hadadvanced to such a stage that the first real work couldbegin. It involved welding the cylinders and sleeves of the anchor gear on the H.M. Svensksund gunboat,which had frozen and broken. It is still working without any problems.

Late in the summer of 1904, Elektriska SvetsningsAktiebolaget was set up to take advantage of the success that had been achieved in the field of electricalwelding. I have been the managing director since thiscompany was founded.

In 1904, 1905 and 1907, the first patents were appliedfor and granted. Of these, the 1907 patent laid the foundations for a totally new epoch of electrical welding, as this invention made it possible to excludethe oxygen in the air from the workpiece that wasexposed to the heat of welding.The presence of oxygenhad a particularly harmful effect, and significantly variedthe chemical and mechanical properties of the weld joint.

Welding on the underside of the object was also madepossible.To achieve this, the effect of gravity on themolten iron had to be eliminated.This was accomplishedby mastering the adhesion and cohesion forces to produce what could be described as a combined capillary force or movement which acted on themolten metal material and was to be transferred fromthe working electrode to the workpiece.As this force is larger than gravity, melting iron from the working electrode moves upwards through the air to the work-piece.Additional patents have since been obtained forimprovements to this method.

There is no question that, because of the total distrustthat had been shown in electrical welding when mymethod was developed, the past few years have not

exactly been a bed of roses.They have instead beencharacterised by doubt and suspicion.To begin with,the task was both enormous and difficult to give electrical welding a world-reputation - but first, andforemost, in Sweden.

The results were so successful that this weldingmethod is still the leading welding method and hasbeen patented and introduced in every one of the leading industrial countries.

At the present time, at least 3,000 horsepower are definitely being used to perform this work in Swedenand, at global level, tens of thousands of horsepowerare being used for the same purpose.

As usual, "no prophet is without honour save in his owncountry", so, here too, the work has been difficult.Theleading technical press has lacked any understandingand leading technicians, in addition to false suspicion,have gone so far as to encourage and support disloyalexploitation and the stealing of technical assets fromme and my company.

The same thing has also taken place outside Sweden,even if this is less surprising. In spite of this, the foreigntrade press, leading technical writers and, first and fore-most, leading technicians have been more appreciativeof the work that has been done than those in Sweden.For example, the French magazine L’Usine, the mouth-piece of the French mechanical engineering industry,wrote the following on 7 January 1917.

"To solve the problems posed by electrical weldingusing a metal electrode as a soldering rod, it was necessary to find a way of forcing the arc in a certaindirection and then bringing the welding metal to theprecise point one required, in order to create a uniformweld joint, and to do this while using an arc that wassufficiently weak to avoid damaging the workpiece.”

"This problem has been solved by the engineer O. Kjellberg of Göteborg, Sweden, in a manner that is soelegant and straightforward that one might ‘a priori’have been tempted to deny him the value of this invention. However, the fact that this solution has finallybeen found after 25 years of fruitless attempts and thatit has succeeded in creating an industrially applicableelectrical welding method, which can easily be compared with blow-lamp welding, serves as sufficientproof that this is a real invention.What is more, this

6 SVETSAREN MARCH 1918


invention is of even greater value as it is not dependenton the use of combinations of fragile mechanical andelectrical devices of different kinds but quite simplyinvolves the use of everyday, well-known equipment, theuse of which immediately produces beneficial results."Some people might think that this work has broughtme a rich harvest and a good life, but this is not thecase. So far, however, I have derived my income from it and the people who have loyally supported and promoted my work are not disappointed.

I am therefore satisfied, embracing the fundamental theory that the people who are persistent and pleasantwill triumph, while those that are lazy and unpleasantand live unfairly off other people’s work will eventuallybe the losers.Future generations will decide whether my efforts havebeen of importance and, if they have, whether theeffects have been for the greater good.

Partille, 28 March 1918

MARCH 1918 SVETSAREN 7


Oscar Kjellberg was born into a time of unprecedentedtechnological progress. The latter half of the 19th

century saw a sustained innovation in every technicaland scientific discipline from medicine to manufactur-ing, laying the foundations of the world as we nowknow it. Across Europe and North America, industrialrevolutions transformed national economies fromlargely agricultural into manufacturing based, aided bythe development of mechanized transport. A newbreed of engineer-entrepreneur, exemplified by RobertStephenson, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, ThomasEdison, Karl Benz, Samuel Colt and the WrightBrothers, drove this along.

Sweden similarly fostered industrial pioneers whoexhibited the ability to innovate and then go on to esta-blish companies which have survived and prospered.Gustaf de Laval (the inventor of the first useable steamturbine), Gustaf Dalén (inventor of lighthouse equipmentand MD of AGA) and C.E. Johansson (the first gauge

blocks) belong to this pioneering club. As does OscarKjellberg, born in 1870 in the little village of Mötterud.

He was the eldest of five children born to Johannes andKarolina Kjellberg. Johannes, a railway constructionworker, emigrated to Canada in the early 1880’s, hoping to find work to support the family.Unfortunately, shortly after his arrival, he died duringrailway construction work, under circumstances thathave remained unclear. Oscar Kjellberg was then 12years old and it must have been a very difficult time forthe family. Nevertheless he was able to continue hiseducation and at 16 he enrolled as an apprentice atKristinehamns Mekaniska Verkstad.

It is said that he was a quiet and very hardworkingpupil, who was not content with the lessons hereceived in the daytime, but who borrowed specialistliterature on mechanical engineering, which he studiedlong into the evenings.

Oscar Kjellberg –Inventor and Visionary

By: Bo Sörensson, formerly ESAB AB, Gothenburg.

ESAB’s early years are inextricably linked with its founder,Oscar Kjellberg. The inventions, the formation of ElektriskaSvetsningsaktiebolaget (ESAB), establishing the ESAB brandoverseas were the life’s work of this extraordinary individual.Since 1904, various authors have written histories of ESAB.But Kjellberg, the man, has always been overshadowed byhis achievements. So, who was he? And what drove andmotivated him?


There is an anecdote from his time in Kristinehamn.One evening, Kjellberg was sitting on a bench in theport and entered into a conversation with an older gentleman. This was Axel Broström, who had alreadystarted to build the shipping empire that would laterbecome the Broström group. Axel Broström is said tohave remarked that somebody should invent a processso that the plates forming the hull of a boat could bewelded together instead of riveting them. Kjellberg, a17 year old at the time, is reputed to have responded:“Surely, that ought not to be impossible!”

Perhaps he remembered the young man because in1888 when Oscar Kjellberg applied to work for Axel Broström, he was immediately employed as anengine-room apprentice. He worked for four years ondifferent ships belonging to the Broström fleet and alsoattended night school. At 22, he came ashore tobecome an engineer fitter at Kockums MekaniskaVerkstad in Malmö, whilst continuing with his studies.Four years later, he completed his engineer exams andwas able to take up the post of engine room officer. Heserved for the next two years on various ships, whilstcontinuing with the theoretical side of his education,and he passed the chief engineers’ exam in 1898.

Now, he was presented with the opportunity to workand continue his studies in Germany. At the age of 32, he passed the German ship’s engineer exam. The

following year he was able to add electrical engineeringto his list of qualifications.

By 1903, Oscar Kjellberg had an impressive theoreticaleducation, very good qualifications and 15 years ofpractical experience, mainly gained from work onboardsteamships. He now had the opportunity to work as atechnical officer on one of the biggest ships of thattime, an easy choice for most.

Not for Oscar Kjellberg, however. All that studying,while he worked for his upkeep, all the experiencewhich he had accumulated, appears to have beenpreparation for fulfilling the vision sparked by thatevening in Kristinehamn and that brief conversation inthe harbour. “Surely, that ought not to be impossible!”

The inventorInstead of installing himself as the chief technical officer on one of the world’s biggest steamships, OscarKjellberg rented a small workshop near to the Masthuggskajen quay in Gothenburg, where hebegan his welding experiments. He was aware of previous attempts at electrical welding, and hadencountered craftsmen who could solder and weldusing contemporary methods.

Importantly he was fully aware of the two major failings of existing welding processes. Firstly, the welded

The small workshop at Henriksberg in Gothenburg where Oscar Kjellberg conducted his first experiments


”Electrical welding came about at a time of total abjectpoverty. It was not a beaten path that was being trod.However, difficulties are often there to be overcomeand I decided to investigate whether the engineers ofthe 1880’s had left the subject unresolved. Afterdetailed studies of what they had done and achieved,it thus became apparent that this was indeed the case.I managed to see my predecessors’ mistakes and Ilearnt from them.”

When we know this, it is unsurprising that welding as amethod or a process interested Kjellberg. His firstpatent, dated 14 July 1905, is consequently a processdescription. He was able to obtain the patent based onthe existing well-documented process, whereby anelectric arc between an iron electrode and the basematerial makes the metal heat up until it is liquid.

However, he added two important modifications. First,only a very short piece was to be welded, strictlyspeaking only enough so that there appears a clearmelt. Then, the electrode is taken away, and the still hotweld is fashioned (puddled) with a hammer.

In a working description, which Oscar Kjellberg wrotearound the same time as he received his first patent,there are very detailed instructions on how to hold the electrode in the left hand in order to be able to hold the hammer in the right hand. These instructions,titled “Working method for electrical welding, includingmaterial and how it is handled", dated 1 October 1904, are preserved in the original. The 8-pages ofinstructions are handwritten; there is not one spelling

An example of Oscar Kjellberg’s flawless handwriting.

joint was not of the same quality as the parent metal,instead it was normally more brittle and porous.Secondly not all welding positions could be tackledsuccessfully; overhead welding, for instance, was virtu-ally impossible. For welding to become the universalmethod of repair which he aspired to he needed tosolve these critical problems.

One of his strengths was his own practical experienceof the problems with which a chief engineer on asteamship had to grapple. Marine boilers were rivetedand, without exception, they began to leak after a time.This was a serious problem, as pressure could not bemaintained, which resulted in reduced power from theengine. Therefore, leaks had to be sealed as quickly as possible. Normal practice was to force a wedge-shaped nail, followed by flax and hemp, into the leaking joint. This was a very difficult task under theworst conditions imaginable. The boiler had to becooled down so that workers could endure working onit. Also leaks would sometimes occur on the undersideof the boiler, making access difficult.

As a ship’s engineer Oscar Kjellberg had experience ofrepairing these types of leak and was motivated todevelop a better and more permanent method of repair.The principle of electrical welding was well known, and explained in over 300 patents. However existingmethodology was not capable of providing a workablesolution for boiler repair. In this respect Kjellberg’sstrength was his perception that the solution never-theless lay within the scope of electrical welding, if themethod and the equipment were improved.

Working in his experimental workshop, he set himselfthe task of developing a complete solution comprisingboth the method and the equipment that was needed.Oscar Kjellberg himself put the matter into words in aposthumous text.


mistake, not one correction – typical of his methodicalapproach and attention to detail.

At this point it should be mentioned that, by 1904,Oscar Kjellberg had already developed the theoreticalbasis for what became his major contribution to elec-trical welding – the coated or covered electrode. In theminutes of a board meeting that took place that year, itis stated that he had deposited a confidential report ina bank safe. We now know that in this secret reportthere is an account of the first experiments with coatedelectrodes.

It was quite natural that in a large maritime city such asGothenburg, it became known that Kjellberg was in the process of revolutionising welding. Although inmany circles there was well founded cynicism regarding the effectiveness of welding as a method ofrepair, Oscar Kjellberg was soon given the opportunityto demonstrate his improved methods.

In the early part of 1904, he repaired some parts of aSwedish warship that were frozen and broken. Theresult was so good that both shipping companies andindustrial concerns took an interest. This probably

helped to finance continued development of weldingthrough formation of a company.

Its mandate was “to machine and weld metals, and tomanage a business that promotes these activities”. A professor from Chalmers University of Technologyand a chief engineer from Lindholmens MekaniskaVerkstad in Gothenburg were included on the compa-ny's board of directors. Oscar Kjellberg was appointedas the company's managing director.

The statutory meeting was held on 12 September1904. The name of the new company was ElektriskaSvetsnings Aktiebolaget. However, the abbreviationESAB was used in everyday speech right from thebeginning.

As was apparent from the name of the company andalso from its articles of association, it was the weldingmethod that was the business concept; the equipmentrequired was of secondary importance. During the early part of the company's existence, execution of different welding assignments was its most importantproduct and source of income. Solving practical repairproblems was thus the basis of the early ESAB.

In parallel with being MD for the company and activelyparticipating in all areas of its work, Kjellberg continuedto develop the welding process. His second patentcame in 1906 and describes an “electric switchingdevice”. Its function was to limit the output for a direct-current generator.

However, the big breakthrough came with the inventionthat was granted a patent on 29 June 1907. The patent is called “Procedure for electric weldingincluding the electrode intended for this purpose.” Itsrevolutionary property was that Kjellberg had coatedthe welding electrode with non-conductive material,which gave many advantages. Firstly, the coating generated a protective gas (CO2) when it melted. Thisgas prevented the formation of iron oxides in the hotmelt and it became possible to weld longer pieces, up to a whole electrode length, without needing tointerrupt the welding. Welding could therefore be morecontinuous. Moreover the patent described how tobuild up a weld with several beads.

Secondly, we remember that Oscar Kjellberg sought a solution to the problems associated with difficultwelding positions, particularly overhead welding.

When he formulated a ‘recipe’ for the coating that melted at exactly the same rate as the welding metalrod, he found that a crater was formed at the tip of theweld electrode. This crater directed the flow of moltenmetal and after many experiments with different coating compositions he was able to find one thatenabled overhead welding.

Advertisement offering welding services in Newcastle and Glasgow,to Swedish shipping companies. Note the first ESAB logo.

The genius of the patent is that it neglected to describethe composition of the coating, and the patent becamea principal patent on the coated electrode. We have tobe grateful for the fact that Oscar Kjellberg had had thepractical experience of repairing leaky boilers, and thatthe leaks appeared on the underside. Otherwise, hemay have been content with just his first patent.

Mastering difficult welding positions was the challengethat led to this third patent, which is the basis for allmodern welding with coated electrodes.

The company managerOscar Kjellberg has been described primarily as a gifted researcher and inventor. From 1907 until his deaththere was, however, another side of his character thatassumed an ever-increasing role. It is possible that fellow directors understood how the Kjellberg inven-tions could be exploited, but it is beyond doubt thatOscar Kjellberg himself made a very active contributionto this work.

Early activities were concentrated in Gothenburg,where ESAB offered repair facilities from a barge in theport. During this time, he participated in all types ofwork. However the training of welders was a task thathe willingly took upon himself to lead. Without skilfulwelders, welding wouldn't be able to win ground fromother repair methods.

Kjellberg had ambitions that ESAB should establishworkshops in large ports all over the world. However he

soon realised that the company lacked the financialresources for such a massive expansion. Therefore,both Swedish and foreign companies were offeredlicences to use the Kjellberg method. To start with, thegoing was tough; ESAB had to accept a number ofunprofitable agreements, where in some cases a company gained the exclusive right to use the Kjellbergpatent within an entire country. However by 1911, thecompany had sufficient capital to set up its first wholly-owned foreign subsidiary.

Great Britain was the foremost industrial and maritimenation of this time. ESAB already had some licenceholders in England, and it took a year before the Anglo-Swedish Electric Welding Co., - as the subsidiary was called - could be formed. Based inLondon, it offered similar practical welding services toits parent company. In fact the British subsidiary wasalso the last to discontinue such activities. Two yearslater a second foreign subsidiary was established inBelgium. At the same time, a very extensive contractwas signed with Mitsubishi Zosen Kaisha in Japan.

It might have been thought that the Kjellberg methodwould win fast acceptance in engineering circles. Thiswas not the case, and Oscar Kjellberg had to devote alot of his time to arguing the case in favour of MMAwelding, both in Sweden and abroad. He was a skilfulpresenter and always well prepared. At the core of his argument was the cost benefit for customers ofwelding compared with other repair methods. He wasable to draw on examples where repairs with welding


ESAB’s workshop in Marieholm, around 1920 (View from the harbour). Here early production of electrodes and power sources took place.


had been performed at a cost that was only about 2%of the cost to repair in another way or to replace withsomething new.

Proving the quality and durability of welded repairs wasalso important. He followed up all jobs undertaken bythe company for several years after their completionand could show a very low complaints ratio by thestandards of the time at about 0.5 to 1.0%.

Oscar Kjellberg thus became a tireless promoter and developer of the electric arc welding process, con-tinuously improving the capabilities of the equipment,consumables and techniques and aiming to convincepeople by demonstrating actual results. He dealt withsetbacks by increasing his already large workload. Heparticipated in the practical work both in Gothenburgand at the subsidiaries and agents. He was withoutdoubt the greatest expert on welding of his time.

Companies and colleagues turned to him if they neededadvice on how to manage especially difficult jobs. It hasalso been said that he had an incredible memory.Everything from contracts to welding method descrip-tions were remembered word for word, and he neverneeded to refer to his notes. As well as being an inventor/innovator/industrialist and one-man publicitymachine, Kjellberg was also financially astute. IfESAB’s most important task was to perform practicalwelding work, its second most important task was to remain independent of banks and other financialinstitutions. He wanted his company to be self-financing

to the greatest possible extent. This would prove itselfto be a very good principle during and after the FirstWorld War 1914 – 1918.

During the war, things went well for the company, andwhen the difficult years arrived after the war, ESABcould survive on the money it had saved. During, anddirectly after the war, wider acceptance of the processsaw companies starting to use welding not only forrepair work, but also for new construction work. Thisopened up completely new opportunities for ESAB.

However, initially the classification societies did notaccept welding as a replacement for riveting whenbuilding new ships.

During and after the First World War, however, therewas considerable need to replace and repair both navaland mercantile tonnage. Here the economic argumentwas strong as welding instead of riveting could reducethe sheet metal weight by up to 10%.

Lloyds Register in London was the first classificationcompany to investigate the possibilities of all- and part welded ships. Trials were carried out at ESAB'spremises in London and the results were highly positive.Consequently, in 1920, Lloyds approved all-welding asa production method for all types of ship.Shipowners remained skeptical so Oscar Kjellbergcommissioned a small floating workshop to be built.ESAB IV was launched on 29 December 1920. Itbecame the world's first all-welded ship to be classifiedby Lloyds, and it contributed to dispelling the prejudiceof shipowners and shipyards against welded ships.ESAB IV still exists today and forms part ofGothenburg's Maritime Museum.

The next challenge for ESAB was a double challenge;to establish a subsidiary in Germany and to commencemanufacture of welding power sources. In 1921, theGerman company was formed and after a slow start itbecame the largest subsidiary within the group. Thefactory in Finsterwalde was equipped to manufacturerotary converters, which ESAB started to sell inSweden in 1923.

It was typical of Oscar Kjellberg that he chose to startmanufacturing power sources rather than turning to an already established electrical equipment compa-ny. It was the demand for very special functional char-acteristics that determined the decision to start manu-facturing rotary converters within ESAB, as the com-promises that an external supplier might have demand-ed were unthinkable.

Gradually, production at Finsterwalde came to com-prise a number of different welding machines and elec-tric motors, and much more besides. At its peak in

1939, 5000 employees were kept busy, 1500 of themwith welding equipment.

The minutes from board meetings and other recordsfrom Elektriska Svetsnings-Aktiebolaget's first 25 yearsreveal that Oscar Kjellberg didn't leave anything thatconcerned his company outside his personal control.The records sometimes state approximately, “thatdirector Kjellberg informed the board that he had....” Inother words, the issue was already resolved. It could be a matter of agreements concerning the right tomake use of the company's patent, or large or smallpurchases or setting up abroad.

Like many successful industrialists Kjellberg probablyperceived himself and the company to be indivisible. Itis testified that he didn't have many interests other thanthe company and its development. He was its MD, andits technical director at the same time. He managed theforeign contacts, he was engaged in practical weldertraining, and he was an indefatigable lecturer on every-thing to do with welding.

Within his field he was the fount of all knowledge. Bythe time of his death at the early age of 61, OscarKjellberg had received several awards in recognition ofhis efforts, including, in 1927, the Royal SwedishAcademy of Engineering Sciences (IVA) gold medal.

Dedication to his work ultimately undermined hishealth, but he ignored medical advice to reduce hisworkload. He was working right up until the very endand died on 5 July 1931, sitting at his desk. He wasmourned by his wife and four children, of whom theyoungest, Björn, would follow in his father’s footsteps. By 1931, he had fulfilled the vision that had driven himall those years. Electric arc welding was a generallyrecognised method, not just for repair work, but also for new production and construction. ESAB was a well-established, respected company with a range offoreign subsidiaries and interests.

Even so, by 1931 ESAB was facing new challenges.The original business concept, to carry out welding oncontract, was no longer sustainable and the world wasin recession. It was a time of change requiring newideas and a new set of business goals.

Had Oscar Kjellberg lived longer he would doubtlesshave responded with the same optimism, enthusiasmand tenacity that recommended him to Axel Broströmthat evening in Kristinehamn over forty years before:“Surely, that ought not to be impossible!” In the event itwas left to his successors to demonstrate that to be thecase.

The information in this article has been collected by BoSörensson from several sources, including the follow-ing works:

• Gösta Ferneborg: Oscar Kjellberg• Bertil Lundberg: Maskinhistorik• Memorial publication:

Elektriska Svetsnings-Aktiebolaget 1904 - 1929• Sixten Wiberg: En vandring genom åren, ESAB 50 år• As well as through articles and other historicalmaterial that have been collected by Eva Persson,responsible for the historical archives at ESAB inGothenburg.



The ESAB IV in the harbour of Gothenburg. Date unknown.

About the author:

Bo Sörenssonwas employed as product manager for handwelding power sources in 1972. He was involvedin ESAB’s US venture in 1975. After a short period with another company, Bo returned in1986 to lead ESAB’s large-scale programme for the training of sales staff. Since 1993, he hasbeen focusing on information technology and, between 1997 and 2002, he was responsible forESAB’s IT operations in Europe. He has now retired from ESAB and works as a consultantin the field of Information Technology.


1904–1931 – The early yearsThe minutes of the first board meeting of ElektriskaSvetsningsaktiebolaget, held on 12 September 1904include a reference to “Mr Kjellberg’s method forwelding metals.” This pre-dated Oscar Kjellberg’s firstpatent, so the method was referred to as “the secretwelding method”. Even then, however it was decidedto sell licences to different companies to entitle themto use the Kjellberg method as a means of generatingrevenue for the fledgling company.

On 20 November 1904, the minutes refer to negotiationswith a Swedish engineering company relating to thesale of a license for SEK 10,000 to use the method inits entirety. By the end of 1904, a “consortium inCristiania” (the present day Oslo) had inquired aboutlearning welding according to the Kjellberg method andpurchasing all the necessary equipment. The sameminutes state that the Nobel brothers in Russia hadexpressed a similar interest.

These early license fees provided funding to enableOscar Kjellberg to continue his experiments. To beginwith, only individual companies were able to purchasea license, but fairly soon licenses for an entire countrywere issued. The Scandinavian countries were men-tioned at an early stage, starting with Norway (1905).By 1908, board minutes report that negotiations werebeing conducted via an agent with a prospectivelicensee in Japan and an agreement had been signedwith an agent in the USA. In 1908, this US agent wasasked “in your name and on behalf of us to acquirethe Electric Welding Co. in New York for approximatelySEK 500”. It is possible that Electric Welding was

ESAB’s first foreign subsidiary, but what subsequentlyhappened to this company is not known. In fact it would be many years before ESAB achieved realsuccess in the USA.

During the 1900’s, Great Britain was the leading industrial nation in Europe. ESAB’s management waskeen to have a presence there and in mid-1909, planswere afoot to set up the ‘British Electric Welding Co.’However, to save time, an agency company, theKjellberg Syndicate, was established. It appears thatthis company did not prosper and in 1912, ESAB founded the Anglo-Swedish Electric Welding CompanyLtd in London. In March 1914, a subsidiary based inAntwerp, Belgium, was set up.

The incentive to create these early subsidiaries inEngland and Belgium probably stems from ESAB’sbusiness plan, based on establishing workshops to offer welding services. During the early years the majority of customers came from the shippingindustry and it was reputedly Oscar Kjellberg’s dreamthat there should be an ESAB depot in the form of a welding workshop in every major port. London and Antwerp were then two of the largest merchant shipping ports in the world and would have been logical locations for the ambitious new company.

As the business expanded the need arose for ma-nufacture of more equipment to support the activities of ESAB’s network of subsidiaries and licensees. In 1920, negotiations with ASEA relating to the production of dynamos, converters and transformersdesigned for welding broke down and ESAB’s board

Finding new Frontiers – A Century of Global Expansion

This article has been based on historical research performed by Bo Sörensson, formerly ESAB Gothenburg, withvaluable contributions from Klaus Blome, ESAB Germany and Jerry Utrachi, ESAB USA.

Elektriska Svetsningsaktiebolaget (ESAB), established in 1904, is now a globalcompany with sales and/or production operations in 35 countries. At an earlystage the first board of directors, realised that Oscar Kjellberg’s inventions hadpotential a long way outside Sweden’s borders. In this short summary of ESAB’soverseas adventures we record ESAB’s development into the most internationalsupplier of welding and cutting products.


of directors decided to develop its own productioncapability. On 12 November 1921, Kjellberg ElektrodenGmbH, with headquarters in Berlin, was set up. At thebeginning of 1922, premises were purchased inFinsterwalde for “the production of machinery andequipment”. To run these production operations,Kjellberg Elektromaschinen GmbH was set up. Thiswould secure ESAB’s requirements for converters, trans-formers and other welding equipment.

At Oscar Kjellberg’s death on 5 July 1931, ESAB had subsidiaries in Finland, Poland, Germany, theNetherlands, Belgium, France and England, pluslicensees in many other countries. The company wasat its peak as a provider of welding services forrepairs and new production and, though general salesof consumables and welding machines had begun,they accounted for only a small percentage of ESAB’sturnover.

The successionOscar Kjellberg was succeeded by Walter Edströmwho led ESAB for twenty-five years. He came to thecompany with sparse knowledge of welding and thewelding market. However, he had wide experience ofsales and production and commercial conditions inother countries. This more than compensated for

his lack of welding expertise though as time passed,perhaps unsurprisingly, he became an authority onwelding.

At ESAB, Walter Edström’s name will be associatedwith the methodical rationalisation of electrode production and the replacement of dipped electrodeswith extruded ones but his lasting legacy is that hetransformed ESAB into the outward looking companythat it is today.

In 1956, he was succeeded as managing director ofESAB by Göran Edström who retained this positionuntil 1970, when he was succeeded by Åke Ahlström.During this period, ESAB reinforced its position as theleading welding company in Europe, and substantialinvestments were made in production facilities forconsumables.

1931–1945 – sales companies for electrodes and machinesWalter Edström recognised that ESAB’s future lay inthe sale of consumables, welding machines and otherwelding equipment. In a sense the company needed tocatch up as by this time it had numerous competitorsin the market who were actively selling productsrather than services.

Figure 1: Established in 1914, the Belgium-Swedish ElectricWelding Company in Antwerp was one of the first foreign subsidiaries. It carried out ship repair jobs in the harbour.


ESAB’s European engineering operations were neverwholly owned by ESAB, as local partners werealways involved. At Edström’s suggestion, ESABstarted to increase its shareholdings in these foreigncompanies, particularly in England, Belgium andGermany. New subsidiaries were set up to focusexclusively on the sale of products. In other markets,such as Spain, sales engineers were employed andnew sales oriented companies were created.

In 1932, L’Electro-Soudure Autogène Belge S.A. wasset up in Belgium; this was a suitable name, as it couldbe abbreviated to ESAB S.A. In England, WeldingSupplies Ltd. was founded in London in 1933; itbecame the basis of ESAB’s operations involving theproduction and sale of welding products in the UK andis today known as ESAB UK.

In Denmark, Burmeister and Wain and, in Norway,Elektrisk Sveisning held contracts giving them sole rights

to weld using the Kjellberg method and to produce electrodes in accordance with ESAB’s formula. At theend of 1932, Walter Edström initiated negotiations inCopenhagen and Oslo with the aim of recovering therights to sell electrodes and welding machines. Theobjective was to set up ESAB-owned subsidiaries inDenmark and Norway. Once concluded, a Danishsales company opened in 1933 followed, in 1938, byits Norwegian counterpart.

Rapid expansion into new markets followed. InCzechoslovakia a subsidiary of Kjellberg Elektrodenund Machinen in Finsterwalde was set up; it wasinvolved with both production and local sales. At theend of 1932, ESAB Iberica was set up in Madrid toproduce electrodes. These companies were only partlyowned by ESAB as Walter Edström and members ofthe local management team normally had the chanceto purchase shares in the new companies.

German subsidiaries had a unique status, as they werealso entitled to run sales operations outside Germany.Czechoslovakia has been mentioned, but Italy wasalso part of the German companies’ district. In 1934,Walter Edström identified the importance of the Italianmarket and in 1935 an Italian subsidiary was set up.

Thus, the first eight years under Walter Edström’sleadership were characterized by rapid establishmentof partly-owned subsidiaries across Europe and creating bridgeheads for the sale of consumables andmachines.

Though electrodes were initially imported fromSweden and machines from Germany, the companysoon realised that local production of electrodes was the best way to capture significant market shareand secure local profitability. Eventually electrodeplants were built in almost every country where ESAB

Figure 2. Walter Edströmwas ESAB's CEO from 1931until 1956. He changedESAB's business philosophyfrom a repair company to a producer of welding equip-ment and consumables, andexpanded ESAB's foreignestablishments. He was suc-ceeded by Göran Edström.

Figure 3. Railway bridge over the river Eslain Spain. Steel reinforcement for the world'sbiggest concrete arc of its time. ESAB Iberiawas involved with products and technology.Svetsaren March 1941, page 679.


had a sales subsidiary. Some of the profits could betransferred to Sweden, as the production companiespurchased licenses for the transfer of technology thatwas involved in the export of Swedish formulas andproduction technology.

During this period, ESAB’s group turnover increaseddramatically (from SEK 912,000 in 1931 to SEK4,554,000 in 1939). In certain years, the German sub-sidiaries reported such a high profit that the Germanauthorities confiscated large sums as “surplus profits”.

The war yearsFor ESAB, as for most other companies, the SecondWorld War was a very difficult period. Shortages of raw material made it impossible to maintain production and, in the occupied countries, ESAB’sdeliveries of consumables and equipment to Germantroops were looked upon with disapproval. As a result,the scale of operations in the Netherlands and Belgiumwas minimised; only established, loyal customers couldexpect deliveries, whenever anything was actuallyproduced.

The Norwegian and Danish companies were hitextremely hard. In Norway, the occupying forces executed a member of ESAB Norway’s management,whilst the plant in Copenhagen was sabotaged on two occasions in bombing attacks. For long periods, ESAB’s management in Gothenburg had no

contact with subsidiaries in Europe; sometimes theonly sign of life were short messages stating that thestaff were still alive. Nevertheless, in the midst of thewar (1943), ESAB set up a subsidiary in Finland,which produced its own electrodes.

In Germany, production was directed to focus entirelyon war-related production and a company, Fimag,was set up for the kind of products the Germanauthorities had decided ESAB was going to produce.During a short period after the outbreak of war, ESABwas able to obtain deliveries from Finsterwalde, but it was apparent that deliveries could not be relied on in the long term. As a result, production of weldingconverters was started at the plant at Marieholm inGothenburg. However these premises were not suitablefor this kind of production. ESAB ultimately foundwhat they were looking for in Laxå – both premisesthat could be converted and a municipal board thatwas more than willing to support ESAB’s businessplans. Production of the machines that had formerlybeen supplied from Finsterwalde began in 1942.

1945-1980 – consolidation and establishmentoutside EuropeWhen World War 2 ended, Europe’s infrastructure had to be rebuilt. There was huge demand for ESAB’s products and services. Initially, ESAB had toconcentrate on rebuilding, refurbishing and replacingits own facilities. After the division of Germany,

Figure 4. The Kjellberg electrode factory in Finsterwalde around 1940.After the war, it was confiscated by the government of the DDR.


Finsterwalde was located in East Germany and theauthorities there took the factories out of ESAB’s control.

Consequently a new West-German subsidiary was setup on July 22, 1949. Initially premises were rented inDüsseldorf but in 1959, the company moved to itscurrent base in Solingen, which was extended during1971. In order to better serve German customers withdemand for heavy automation, the Tehac company inBochum was merged with ESAB GmbH. Tehac addedexpertise in automated welding production and handlingequipment. In 1982, ARCOS GmbH was merged withESAB in Germany, adding a second consumables andequipment brand, and in 1991 ESAB would open a1000 m2 Application Centre for mechanized weldingin Solingen.

Welding Supplies in London expanded rapidly andsoon needed larger premises, which it found atGillingham in Kent.

Before World War 2, ESAB had no representation inFrance, but in 1950 ESAB finally set up a French subsidiary. From then onward, ESAB was representedin every European country with its own sales companiesand in many cases with its own electrode production.

Through its subsidiary in Spain and its distributor inPortugal, ESAB made many valuable contacts inSouth America after the war. In Brazil, this led toestablishment in 1953 of a subsidiary in collaborationwith the Pareto family. This company quickly becamethe leading company in its sector in this huge country.In other South-American countries, such as Argentina

and Mexico, the sale of ESAB’s products was organized through agents.

Activities in North America were initially less successful.In 1940, ESAB Welding Corporation, had been set upin the USA, but it was liquidated in 1962. In Canada,the company known as ESAB Arc Rods was foundedin 1958 in Montreal, but it too, was wound up after a fairly short period. At a later date (1969), an agreement was signed with Liquid CarbonicCorporation in Toronto involving production of ESAB’selectrodes in Canada but it was not until 1972 beforeESAB made another attempt to set up its own salescompany in the USA – more on this later.

At the beginning of the 1970’s, ESAB turned its attentionto the south and east. Joint-venture agreementsinvolving electrode production based on the transferof technology were signed and ESAB set up salescompanies and established a foothold on marketsthat were experiencing interesting developments. In1972 and 1973, ESAB thus established a presence inSouth Africa, Iraq, Angola, Algeria and Turkey. In thefollowing year, it was the turn of Singapore, togetherwith the Ekman trading company, and one sales company in Iran. ESAB arrived in Australia in 1975,establishing a sales company in Sydney. In the sameyear, an additional production unit was set up in Italy,in collaboration with the Italian company Falck.

In Eastern Europe, it was virtually impossible to establishsubsidiaries for production and sales, but ESABsigned agreements with local producers, which meantthat ESAB’s production technology, and formulae

Figure 5. Electrode factory in Brazil.


were nonetheless introduced. An agreement signed in1975 with Csepel-Werke in Hungary, resulted in theproduction of electrodes using ESAB’s productionequipment and formulae, and ultimately became thefirst step towards ESAB establishing a presence inHungary.

Not only welding, but also cuttingThroughout its history, ESAB has pursued a policy offorming partnerships with customers, to help them tosolve problems with optimum cost and performancebenefits. Welding is never an isolated process, butnormally part of a production flow where cutting and joint preparation is as important as welding.Salesmen, welding specialists and development staffoften encountered problems where the solution was acombination of welding and cutting technology.

Over time it became evident that the company needed formal involvement with cutting technology. In1938, ESAB became a partner in the Kjellberg- Eberlecompany in Frankfurt that developed and producedoxyfuel cutting equipment. During World War 2, production was temporarily moved to Laxå. By 1962,the company had outgrown its facilities, and a newfactory was found in Rodheim. By 1975, it was timefor another move, this time to Karben, near Frankfurt,where the operation remains today. The range of

cutting machines now also includes plasma, laser andwater-jet cutting equipment as well as oxy-fuel.

1980–1992 – a period of expansionESAB has experienced three major periods of expan-sion during its one-hundred-year history. However,the one that has attracted the most attention is theperiod under Bengt Eskilson’s leadership. It forms atextbook example of how a company with an activeacquisition strategy in an industry beset by problemscan become dominant in that sector.

Bengt Eskilson took over as managing director in1980. The situation prior to his appointment is well documented. ESAB – and its competitors – hadaccumulated substantial production resources inEurope. However, the economic crisis of the early1970’s and the decline of European shipbuildingyards, traditionally one of ESAB’s largest customers,made for difficult trading. ESAB’s managementthought this was an economic downturn and electedto maintain production and build up inventories.However by 1978, it had become clear that thedecline had little to do with the economy but wasinstead structural.

The welding industry had too much productioncapacity in general and electrode capacity in particular.

Figure 6. IIW congress in Oxford,1951. Walter Edström was closelyinvolved in the foundation of theIIW and became Chairman in 1960.Today, Bertil Pekkari follows in hisfootsteps as President of the IIW


then the investment company Incentive, controlled bythe Swedish Wallenberg Group.

World’s largest welding market – USAThroughout the 1970’s, ESAB was the leading supplierof welding consumables and equipment in Europe. InSouth America, the company was represented byESAB do Brasil and there were successful distributorsin many other countries. However, it had no corporatepresence in North-America other than a joint venturebetween ESAB’s German cutting machine company(Kjellberg-Eberle) and the US company HeathEngineering, based in Fort Collins, Colorado, in whichESAB had acquired a large shareholding in 1976.In the USA, sales were primarily run by distributorsand Lincoln, Hobart and Miller had well-establisheddealer networks. Welding companies wanting toestablish themselves in the USA had to obtain accessto distribution through the dealer chain.

One way of doing this was to acquire establishedcompanies, together with their distribution channels.ESAB chose a “best of both worlds” solution. In 1972,it opened a sales office in Detroit in collaboration withSandvik. Its mission was to sell parts for the heavy-duty automation equipment that had been sold to USshipyards and to introduce European semi-automatictechnology to the USA. At this point, there was ashortage of certain types of electrodes and ESAB’sUS venture was boosted by the import of electrodesfrom the company’s factories in Europe.

In 1974, the head of ESAB’s operations in the US,sales director Lars Magnusson, made contact withthe US company Chemetron, which was interested indivesting parts of its welding operations. The ideawas that it should take over Chemetron’s distributorsat the same time. Lars Magnusson completed thedeal the same year. However the Chemetron distribu-tors were sceptical about both welding machinesimported from Sweden and the product programmeinherited from Chemetron. In 1978, ESAB closed the former Chemetron plant in Charlottesville and

Moreover the production of consumables was a nonecore activity for many of ESAB’s competitors. In anattempt to maintain volumes, a price war began whichtotally eroded profitability. For ESAB the situationbecame increasingly critical, as welding was its solesource of revenue and by 1980 the company was inserious financial trouble.

In a very inspired move, instead of down sizing its operations to attempt to evade the problem, thecompany’s owners decided to focus on expansion. Anew management team in Gothenburg, led by BengtEskilson, analysed ESAB’s and its competitors’ circumstances and embarked on a round of Europeanacquisitions.

The ESAB group issued a policy statement that ESABwas prepared to “actively contribute to a restructuringof the whole industry” and to help loss-making competitors out of the business at a lower cost tothem than if they had chosen to restructure or closeon their own. This was a masterful strategy aimed atcompetitors like GKN, Philips and BOC where theirwelding operations were small in relation to their totalbusiness, and therefore only of marginal interest.

Between 1981 and 1991, ESAB acquired 26 companiesin Europe and the USA and divested five. It closed anumber of its own production facilities, together withsome it had acquired, in countries including Sweden,the UK, Denmark, Norway, Finland, France and theNetherlands. This resolved the problem of surpluscapacity. At the same time, by taking over distributionchannels and brands, it was able to increase marketshare.

Bengt Eskilson and sales director Bo Sandquist hadlearnt how to maximize the benefit of multiple brandsfrom Electrolux, and ESAB was eventually representedon most markets by at least two different brands. In the United Kingdom, for example, ESAB acquiredBOC’s Murex brand, which it retained and developed,but simultaneously amalgamated a number of otherbrands under a unified ESAB identity.

Although not every investment during the periodmade a profit, the company was generally able to gainfrom its experience; for several years, ESAB owned aGerman laser welding specialist. As ESAB technicaldirector, Bertil Pekkari, puts it, “The deal didn’t makeus rich, but it gave us enormous experience of a newand exciting welding sector. We have since been ableto utilise this knowledge in many other areas”.

Happily for ESAB its rationalization program was supported by an improving economy. Sales rose fromSEK 1.6 billion in 1980 to SEK 6.7 billion in 1990 asthe company returned to profitability. This undoubtedlydelighted ESAB’s owners, the largest of which was

Figure 7. Bengt Eskilson,CEO of ESAB in 1980 andarchitect of the acquisitionpolicy that converted ESAB into a leading welding company.


retreated to the cutting machine operation in FortCollins, Colorado.

When the company management in Gothenburganalysed the reasons for the failure, it acknowledgedthat it was impossible to succeed in the USA withoutdistributor backing. Moreover, the conservative USwelding market had been unimpressed by Europeanhigh-tech in the form of inverter power sources and so on. If the company wanted to succeed, it realizedthat it would be obliged to buy existing market shareas it would otherwise have no chance of gaining theconfidence of either customers or distributors.

It was 1984 before ESAB’s management found anopportunity to establish a new bridgehead in the USA.Airco had much the same profile as ESAB but had been struggling with declining market share andprofitability for some time. A take over was agreedand took place in 1984. ESAB’s welding operationswere then concentrated in Chicago.

Though Airco brought a great deal of market andproduct related expertise, success in the US marketeluded ESAB. This time however, Lars Westerberg,ESAB’s senior manager responsible for US operationstook the view that because Airco alone was too smalla player, ESAB’s problems could best be solved by finding other companies that would complimentthose that ESAB already had. One such company was L-Tec, previously known as Linde, which had beenpart of Union Carbide.

ESAB started “courting” L-Tec in 1987, but it took twoyears for L-Tec’s management to agree to a take over.By this time, however, ESAB had developed a moreaggressive strategy for the US market. It had decidedthat a merger between L-Tec and Airco would be insufficient to make ESAB a major force in theNorth American market. L-Tec had good machines,but there was an obvious gap when it came to its consumables programme. Fortunately other companieswere available for acquisition in the USA. Alloy Rodswas a highly reputable consumables company offeringexactly the products that L-Tec lacked. So ESABsought to acquire both L-Tec and Alloy Rods.

The simultaneous acquisition of the two companies wasa major coup. Surprised competitors had to accept thatESAB had arrived on the US market and was there tostay. Almost overnight ESAB became the secondlargest welding systems supplier in the USA; it went on to acquire AlcoTec in 1998, adding products for alu-minium welding and a further tier of process knowledge.

Importantly the new ESAB strategy for North Americaworked. ESAB remains a force in the market and isnow an established supplier both to direct customersand via distributors. Its US operation is devolved

among centres in Florence, Hannover, Traverse Cityand Ashtabula and all of the acquired brands havebeen merged under the ESAB name.

1990–1995 – expansion to the eastFollowing the collapse of the Soviet empire in 1991,the rules that had prevented ESAB from setting up itsown production in countries such as Hungary, theCzech Republic and Poland, were amended and foreign investment was welcomed. Bengt Eskilsonand Lars Westerberg presented the ESAB board witha plan to acquire major production facilities in Poland,Hungary and Czech Republic. The board was reluctant,but Eskilson explained that this was more a questionof self-preservation. The cost of producing weldingconsumables in the former Eastern Bloc countrieswas much lower than in Western Europe and unregu-lated export from Poland, Hungary and Czech Republiccould undermine the profitability of consumables inWestern Europe. The board accepted the plan, andESAB started a new round of company acquisitions. Thevalue of having supplied production equipment and for-mulas to licensees in the former Eastern Bloc alsobecame clear. When ESAB came to Csepel’s plant inMor in Hungary, it was like coming home.

With the continuing support of Lars Westerberg, who became ESAB’s managing director in 1991, themanagement team for the consumables businessarea, under Anders Backman and Torsten Körsell,managed to outflank their competitors by rapidly purchasing production capacity. ESAB simultaneouslycaptured a large part of the domestic market and thedistribution channels. Torsten Körsell ensured that the quality of the products was comparable to thatproduced in Western Europe. As a result customers in France, Spain and Germany were soon being supplied from Hungary and the Czech Republic,enabling local production to be terminated. Thisprocess was meticulously planned and ESAB couldtherefore ensure that quality and service wereunchanged.

1994 - 2004 – consolidationA new phase in ESAB’s history began in 1994, whenESAB was acquired by the British industrial group,Charter Plc. Strategic acquisitions continued, but this was also the beginning of a period of marketconsolidation, where further organic growth could beachieved within the global markets where ESAB hadbuilt a strong presence.

The “expansion to the east phase” continued, with thepurchase of Poland’s leading equipment manufacturer,OZAS, based in Opole. Soon afterwards, ESAB fullyacquired the Polish consumables manufacturer,Electrody Baildon, in which ESAB had previously held a minority interest, and similarly FERSAB, a manufacturer of agglomerated fluxes. Poland there-

fore became one of the most important European mar-kets for ESAB. At the same time, ESAB established asales company in Moscow, followed by the firstRussian electrode production unit, a joint venturebased in St Petersburg.

In South America, CONARCO became part of theESAB family, adding significantly to ESAB’s positionin Argentina.

In 1998, Alcotec, the global leader in aluminium welding wires based in Traverse City, USA wasacquired, a very important milestone.

In parallel with these activities ESAB has continued togrow its operations throughout the Middle East,based on its regional centre in Dubai and, of course,throughout Asia, and in particular China, currently themost rapidly expanding welding market in the world.

Thus it is that ESAB continues along the route mappedby its founders a hundred years ago. Wherever thereis a requirement for welding technology, ESAB is to befound, whilst the advent of the world-wide web hasmade access to detailed information more straight-forward then ever.

Nevertheless, we should acknowledge all the ESABemployees who have travelled around the globe to

disseminate information on, and provide practicalassistance in the use of ESAB's technology, productsand services to new markets. It is thanks to all thesemen and women that ESAB is able, in 2004, to callitself a world leader in welding.

This article has been written with the assistance ofBengt Eskilson, Lars Westerberg, Anders Backman,Anders Andersson, Curt Karlsson, Klaus Blome, JerryUttrachi and Bertil Pekkari. However, the most impor-tant contribution has been made by Eva Persson, whois responsible for ESAB’s historical archive. WithoutEva, this résumé could never have been written. Iwould like to extend my sincere thanks to everyoneinvolved!


Bo Sörensson was employed as product manager forhandwelding power sources in 1972. He was involved inESAB’s US venture in 1975. After a short period withanother company, Bo returned in 1986 to lead ESAB’slarge-scale programme for the training of sales staff. Since1993, he has been focusing on information technology and,between 1997 and 2002, he was responsible for ESAB’s IToperations in Europe. He has now retired from ESAB andworks as a consultant in the field of InformationTechnology.


SVETSARENSVETSTIDNING UTGIVEN AV

ELEKTRISKA SVETSNING-AKTIEBOLAGET, GÖTEBORG

JANUARY 1914

The Elektra II

An Unusual AssignmentBy: Nils Åsander

Nils Åsander, an ESAB welding instructor who retired in1982 takes us back to 1914. His father Ragnar Åsandertravelled by sleigh into Russia to repair a saw mill usingOscar Kjellberg’s brand new welding method under veryprimitive conditions.

Stoker needed.The “Elektriska Svetsningsaktiebolaget i Stockholm”(ESABIS) was set up during the 1900’s as a licensee for Oscar Kjellberg’s patent welding method using thin-coated electrodes. Eventually the company openeda branch office in Sundsvall comprising the Elektra II,a workshop boat carrying equipment including a directcurrent welding generator.This provided the mobilityneeded to perform welding work at sawmills, factoriesand merchant vessels in the Sundsvall area.

In 1909, a stoker was needed on the boat and RagnarÅsander, then just 18 years old, was given the job. Hewas born in 1891, the year the Russian Nicolaj Slavjanov

(1854-1897) obtained a patent for metal arc weldingusing uncovered electrodes.

Welding training offeredSoon after joining the company, the office in Sundsvall had received so many inquiries about welding work that itdecided to recruit another welder.Ragnar was offered thechance to train for the job.He was suited to the task, as hewas good at handiwork and was a trained woodworker.He was also teetotal; this made welder training morestraightforward, as Oscar Kjellberg did not allow people to have a beer in conjunction with welding! He acceptedand was sent to headquarters in Stockholm.Once trainingwas completed,he returned to Sundsvall and executednumerous welding assignments in southern Norrland butnone quite like his Russian assignment in 1914.

An unusual assignmentAt the beginning of the 20th century, an Anglo- Swedishsawmill consortium had been set up with its registered

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office was in Sundsvall, under the management of alawyer named Berggren. It built a large sawmill at a place called Kovda on the south-west coast of the KolaPeninsula, just above the Arctic Circle. It was a large mill,with six saw gates. However, at the 1913/1914 year-end,one of these gates broke.

As the company had originated in Sundsvall, its manage-ment was aware of the ESABIS company and its capabilityto perform welded repairs.An enquiry was made as towhether that company could send someone to Kovda toweld the saw gate together and Ragnar was assigned tothe job.

Journey to the White SeaBy present-day standards it was an epic journey, under-taken in mid-winter. On 16 January 1914, he began hisjourney by rail to Karungi. He then took a sleigh toTorneå, followed by another train to Uleåborg.When hereached Haparanda, he discovered that he had forgottenhis passport and was obliged to spend several days at the hotel there until the post from Sundsvall arrived.

From Uleåborg, his journey continued via the border station at Kusamo across northern Finland using sleighsowned by various inns. He crossed into Russia atNissajärvi. Progress was slow – at a speed of about 10kilometres an hour - and there were 30 to 40 kilometresbetween inns where the horses were changed,sometimes with a long wait.

The journey highlighted the cultural differences of the time.While in Finland, he slept in beds, whereas inRussia he was obliged to sleep on the floor on skin rugs.Meals were ‘difficult’ in Russia, as everyone ate with theirfingers from the same bowl. He was unimpressed by thisand often he went out to the sleigh and ate a piece ofAmerican bacon he had purchased in Finland, togetherwith some crispbread.

Neither was the journey without risk.To travel by horse-drawn sleigh, every traveler needed a revolver to protecthimself from wolves. Ragnar had what was known as abarrel revolver, but happily he never needed to use it.Overall the journey to Kovda took eight days, but on

arrival it turned out that the sawmill building had burntdown the day before.The photograph shows the six saw gates, with an arrow indicating the broken gate.However, the building was quickly repaired and duringthis time, Ragnar repaired the saw gate.

The welding procedureAs with most early 20th Century technology, by currentstandards there was a major manual element to earlyelectric welding practice. Moreover the inherent dangersof working with high current electricity explain OscarKjellberg’s insistence on sobriety among his weldingtechnicians.

Ready-prepared consumables and portable power supply equipment were not dreamt of. Instead, Ragnar’sluggage included bundles of core wire and bags of coating powder. His first task involved mixing the powder to the right consistency to enable the core wireto be dipped to make the electrodes. For horizontalwelding, he dipped the wire once, whereas he dipped ittwice for vertical and overhead welding. He then peggedthe wires onto a washing line in the machine shop andleft them to dry.

The next thing needed was welding current. Fortunately,the sawmill had a 220 V direct-current generator poweredby a steam turbine to produce electricity for the mill.The welding cables had to be connected directly to this generator but it was then necessary to regulate thecurrent to the appropriate values.

To do this, Ragnar used baths of water, as shown in thediagram. Bath A was used for rough adjustments, whileprecision adjustments were made using bath B.Anammeter was connected across the plates in bath B andan assistant adjusted the distance between the platesuntil the ammeter showed a pre-determined value forthe electrode diameter in question. Rough adjustmentswere made by throwing salt into bath A, if a higher

JANUARY SVETSAREN 1914

Regulation of the welding current by means of water baths.


current was needed. For reduced current, water was letout and fresh water was added. Bath C provided the loadresistance to ensure that the load on the generator wasuniform when no welding was in progress.The contact(K) had been brought from Sundsvall, together with theelectrode holder (H).

When joint preparation and re-alignment of the gate hadbeen completed, welding work could begin. As no onewas able to provide an analysis of the steel in the gate,Ragnar chose to pre-heat the joint area. He did this usingtwo large blowlamps held by Russian workers! In viewof the high voltage, it was necessary for them to havedry hands and feet!

At that time, welding was done with the left hand inorder to be able to take hold of the welding hammerquickly. Its peen was in line with the handle to enableit to enter a V-joint and stretch the weld, which was performed in short sections.Through an interpreter, Ragnar warned onlookers not to look into the arc, but, after the first day of welding, anumber of people visited the village doctor. He did notunderstand what had happened to people who arrivedwith red eyes and were more or less blind. Eventually hesuspected that it could have something to do with the

welding and went to see Ragnar. He was then told about"welding flash" and the ‘arc-eye’ condition it causes.

When the gate repair was successfully completed, themill management discovered a number of other tasks.Ragnar was asked to weld and repair some corrosion inthe bottom of the walling boiler - he carefully removedall the boiler scale so that the clean metal could onceagain be seen. He was then given the task of weldinggears to the bottom of the boiler on two tugboats.

All’s well that ends wellThe journey home was a repeat of the journey there andRagnar arrived back in Sundsvall on 16 February, onemonth after he had left.The fate of the sawmill was to be taken over by the Bolsheviks when the RussianRevolution began in October 1917. In the same week,Ragnar had a son.The son grew up and, at the age of 15,he started learning the basics of welding from his father.I remained a welder for the rest of my working life. After50 years in the business I retired in 1982 as the head ofSwedish ESAB AB’s eastern region. I still have the lastwelding hammer used by my father.

Adapted from an original account by Nils Åsander, firstpublished May 2001.

JANUARY SVETSAREN 1914

The sawmill building.The arrow indicates the broken gate.


Volvo’s plant in Arvika (population 20,000) is one of thelargest and most modern production centers for wheelloaders in the world. Founded as Avikaverken by PerAndersson in 1885, it produced farm machinery thatwas exported all over the world. Volvo BM acquired thecompany in 1960 and subsequently began productionof earth moving equipment.

Near to the plant is the small village of Ryfalla whereOscar Kjellberg was born in 1870. Later, the familymoved to Hagenet, the farm where Oscar grew up. In1886, he left the area and in 1904 established ESAB,based on his invention of the coated electrode.

Volvo Wheel Loaders and ESAB.A long relationship and a shared history.

By Lars-Erik Stridh, ESAB, Gothenburg & Hans Broström, Volvo Wheel Loaders, Arvika Plant.

Oscar Kjellberg was born close to the site of what is now the Volvo Wheel Loaderfactory in Arvika, Sweden. His ideas were to influence and benefit the plant following its adoption of electric arc welding. Strong ties between Volvo andESAB are symbolised by the Oscar Kjellberg Museum in Arvika, founded by VolvoWheel Loader’s Plant Manager, Göran Bergdahl. Today, Arvika is sometimesknown as, the Town of King Oscar II.

Figure 2. Left: Ryfalla, where Oscar was born, in 1870. Right: Hagenet, the farm where Oscar grew up.

Figure 1: Volvo Wheel Loader, Arvika Plant, Sweden. Oscar Kjellberg was born nearby.


During the first half of the 20th century, while ESABwas becoming a major European welding company,Avikaverken, was established as a world leadingproducer of farming equipment and tools. In additionto a mechanical workshop, an assembly shop and a foundry, the company had its own sawmill for production of wooden shafts for horse drawnequipment. At its peak, it employed around 1,200workers, and all of the families in Arvika were somehowconnected with Arvikaverken.

Oscar Kjellberg never returned to Arvika, but ESABwelding technology came into use at Arvikaverken inthe 1940’s. This late introduction of arc welding wasconnected with the design of farming equipment,which was often made from steel and wood. Farmersfound them fairly easy to repair and, of course, theywere not familiar with welding. During World War 2, dueto fuel shortages, Arvikaverken started to fabricateImbert producer-gas generators for cars, buses, lorriesand tractors. These units were the company’s firstwelded products.

However, once electric arc welding technology was implemented, development of new farmingmachinery accelerated. Equipment that had been boltedand riveted, was re-designed - with the help of weldingexperts from ESAB - to enable flexible production. New welded products included mowers, harvestingmachines and tractors.

Innovation and high productivity were, and still are thehallmarks of the company. Introduction of high recoveryelectrodes for example resulted in simplified and moreefficient manual production welding.

Volvo BM was established in 1950, after BolinderMunktell, based in Eskilstuna, was acquired by Volvo.A decade later Volvo BM took over Arvikaverken. Ayear later, the assembly plant in Arvika burned down,but it was rebuilt and a new era of new productdevelopment commenced utilizing new welding

techniques. New products included tracked vehiclesand ammunition transporters for the army, and roadgraders. With these came more productive weldingprocesses such as GMAW and SAW.

Later, automated production began to follow the development of wheel loaders and a closer relationshipdeveloped with ESAB. It was extremely important forboth companies to share production and weldingknowledge, so a partnership formed with ESAB fortraining, process development and implementation ofnew welding techniques.

In the mid-1980’s, for example, introduction of coredwires, involved the qualification of welders and implementation of the FCAW process in production.Volvo BM was actually the first workshop in Sweden touse all-position rutile cored wires. At this time, it stillrelied on manual welding by work teams that builtcomplete frames and were responsible for quality.

A new era dawned with installation of the factory’sfirst welding robot in 1982. Together with ESAB,tests with metal-cored wires were conducted, andthe use of welding robots gradually increased.

In 1985, Volvo sold 50% of Volvo BM shares to Clark Equipment in the USA, and Volvo MichiganEuclid (VME) was formed. Under pressure from the Americans, solid wires were re-introduced into production, leading to development of high productivity methods of solid wire welding. One of thefirst Tandem MAG installations was installed at Arvika.American involvement lasted for 10 years after whichVolvo bought back the shares. Subsequently, VolvoConstruction Equipment (Volvo CE) was formed.Today metal cored wires are back in production withthe Tandem MAG process, used in combination withsolid wires, providing quality advantages. With theincreasing number of robot lines, programming timesbecame increasingly important to maintain the company’s competitive edge.

Figure 4. A potatoo picking machine,welded using ESAB products.

Figure 5. The BT 267 harvesting machineand a Bolinder Munktell tractor.

Figure 3. The Imbert producer-air unit,welded using ESAB equipment and consumables.


“Off line programming” was adopted and, today,Volvo’s Arvika workshop is a leader in this field - withextremely short programming times. ESAB played a keyrole in providing welding parameters and productivitydata for the consumables in the robot lines. The abilityto simulate the movements of the welding torch andwelding speeds, in order to calculate cycle times, isvital and is used to calculate line capacity, before andafter the welding station. Simulation of the whole robotstation, including fixtures and access, are other advan-tages of the OLP technique.

Today, ESAB and Volvo in Arvika, exchange informationbased on mutual trust, and co-operate in developmentprojects. Volvo Wheel Loaders has around 1000employees and produces some 5.000 wheel loaders ayear for worldwide distribution. Within Volvo, the Arvikasite is a pilot plant, responsible for wheel loader devel-opment and employing the most modern welding tech-nology - whose roots are directly traceable to OscarKjellberg’s early experiments.

In 1996, Volvo Wheel Loaders and ESAB opened theOscar Kjellberg Welding Museum as a tribute to the co-operation between the two companies and the factthat Oscar Kjellberg was born close to the Arvika fac-tory. The Visitor Center receives some 3500 visitors ayear, from all over the world. ESAB management andsome 3000 employees attended the museum’s opening.A surprise event was the appearance of the ESAB IV thathad steamed up from Gothenburg to Arvika.

The County Governor of Värmland, Ingemar Eliasson,inaugurated the museum, and Mrs. Nonnie Welin,Oscar Kjellberg’s daughter, also attended.

In 2000, Volvo Wheel Loader’s plant manager, GöranBergdahl, received the Kjellberg medal (Fig. 7) for hisexceptional contribution to the museum.

Figure 6. Opening of the Oscar Kjellberg museum. The ESAB IV had steamed up to Arvika.

Figure 7. Göran Bergdahl (left) receives the Kjellberg medalpresented by Dr. Nils Stenbacka of AGA and also vicechairman of the Swedish Welding Commission.

About the authors

Lars-Erik Stridh, EWE, graduated from Bergsskolan in1982. He worked three years as a welding engineer at arepair and maintenance company in Gothenburg andafter that 13 years as product manager for flux coredwires at Elga. Lars-Erik Stridh joined ESAB in 1999, isbased in Gothenburg but works on ESAB’s total market.Hans Broström (60) is Senior Welding Engineer andWelding Coordinator for the Volvo Group. Based atVolvo’s Arvika plant, he is a member of the SwedishWelding Commission and member of the IIWCommission 11. Hans is also an active member of theVolvo Corporate Standard Board and has an enthusiasticinterest in the Kjellberg Museum in Arvika.


Prior to the 1880’s, welding was only carried out in theblacksmith's forge. From then onward the march ofindustrialisation and two world wars, have influencedthe rapid rate of development of modern welding. Thebasic welding methods - resistance welding, gaswelding and arc welding - were all invented beforeWorld War One. However during the early 1900’s gaswelding and cutting were dominant for manufacturingand repair work and it was some years before electricwelding gained similar acceptance.

Resistance weldingThe first instance of resistance welding dates back to1856, when James Joule, the man behind the Jouleheating principle, managed to fuse and weld a bundleof copper wires by electric resistance heating.

The first resistance welding machines were used forbutt welding. Elihu Thomson, in the USA, made thefirst welding transformer in 1886 and patented theprocess the following year. His transformer producedan output of 2000A at 2V open circuit voltage.Thomson later developed machines for spot welding,seam welding, projection welding and flash butt welding.Spot welding later became the most common methodof resistance welding and is, today, extensively usedin the automotive industry and many other sheetmetal applications.

The first robots for resistance spot welding weredelivered by Unimation to General Motors in 1964.

Gas weldingGas welding with an oxyacetylene flame was developedin France at the end of 19th century. The first torch suitablefor welding was made by Edmund Fouche and CharlesPicard, around the year 1900. The flame proved to beextremely hot - above 3100°C - and the torch subse-quently became the most important tool for the weldingand cutting of steel.

Acetylene gas had been discovered much earlier whenEdmund Davy, in England, found that a flammable gaswas produced when carbide was decomposed inwater. The gas, when burned, proved to be excellent

for illumination, and this soon became the main use ofacetylene. However, many big explosions occurredwhen the gas was transported and used. It was foundthat acetone could dissolve large quantities of acetylene,especially if the pressure was increased. In 1896, LeChatelier developed a safe way of storing acetyleneusing acetone and a porous stone inside the cylinders.

Many other countries made use of this French inventionto store acetylene, but still some explosions werereported during transportation. The Swede GustafDahlén of AGA changed the composition of the porouscontent and managed to get it 100 % safe.

Arc weldingIn 1810, Sir Humphrey Davy created a stable electricarc between two terminals - the basis for what is nowknown as arc welding. At ‘The First World ElectricalExhibition’ in Paris in 1881, the Russian, NikolaiBenardos, presented a method for arc welding inwhich he stroke an arc between a carbon electrodeand the workpiece (Figure 2). A filler metal rod or wirecould be fed into the arc or molten pool. He was, atthat time, a pupil at the French Cabot Laboratory and,together with his friend Stanislav Olszewski, managedto get a patent in several countries in 1885–1887. Thepatent showed an early electrode holder, see Figure 2.Carbon arc welding increased in popularity towards the

A History of Welding By Klas Weman, ESAB Welding Equipment AB, Laxå, Sweden.

This article examines the history of arc welding, which was inventedtowards the end of the 19th century. ESAB has been associated with itsdevelopment almost from the beginning, as Oscar Kjellberg formed thecompany to exploit his invention of the coated electrode.

Figure 1. Thomsons resistance welding transformer.


end of the 19th century and into the first years of the20th century.

A compatriot of Benardos, Nicolai Slavianoff, furtherdeveloped the method and, in 1890, gained a patentfor the use of a metal rod as the electrode instead ofcarbon. The electrode melted and thus worked bothas heat source and filler metal.

However, the weld was not protected from air andsubsequent quality problems were experienced. TheSwede, Oscar Kjellberg, when using the method forthe repair of steam boilers on ships, noticed that theweld metal was full of pores and small openings thatmade it impossible to get a watertight weld. Trying toimprove the method, he invented the coated electrodewhich he patented on June 29th, 1907 (Swedish patentnumber 27152). The improved quality produced abreakthrough in electric welding as it could now alsobe used for industrial applications. The ElectricWelding Company (ESAB, from its Swedish initials)had been founded on September 12th, 1904, as a shiprepair company.

Later, in the 1930’s, new methods were developed.Until then, all metal-arc welding had been carried outmanually. Attempts were made to automate the

process with a continuous wire. The most successfulinvention was submerged arc welding (SAW) where thearc is "submerged" in a blanket of granular fusible flux.

Arc welding in a shielding gas atmosphere was patentedas early as 1890, by C. L. Coffin. During the SecondWorld War, however, the aircraft industry needed amethod for welding magnesium and aluminium. In1940, in the USA, intense experimentation took placeto shield the arc by inert gases. By using a tungstenelectrode, the arc could be struck without melting the electrode, which made it possible to weld with orwithout filler material. The method is now called TIGwelding (Tungsten Inert Gas).

Some years later, the MIG welding process (MetalInert Gas) was developed using a continuously fedmetal wire as the electrode. Initially, the shieldinggases were the inert gases helium or argon.

Lyubavskii and Novoshilov successfully tried to useCO2 as it was more easily obtainable (MAG welding).Using the "dip transfer" method, they reduced someproblems caused by the intense generation of spatter.By then, the majority of the welding processes we usetoday had been invented. These were later followedby other methods such as laser beam welding andfriction stir welding, both developed by the WeldingInstitute in England (Table1).

Welding power sourcesOne of the reasons why electric welding was notintroduced before the end of the 19th century, could bethe lack of suitable power sources. At the end of the18th century, the Italians, Volta and Galvani, managedto produce electric current with galvanic elements. An important development was Michael Faraday’sfounding of the principles for the transformer and generator, in 1831.The first welding experiments were carried out withvarious types of solutions for the supply of the weldingcurrent.• Sir Humphrey Davy used a battery as power source

for the first arc experiments, in 1801.• Benardos used a 22 hp steam-engine to drive a DC

generator and 150 batteries to produce the elec-tricity for his carbon arc welding. The total weightof just the batteries was 2400 kg.

• Thomson used a transformer when he developedmachines for resistance welding.

• Oscar Kjellberg used the mains 110 V DC voltage andreduced the current to a suitable level by letting thecurrent pass through a barrel filled with salt water.

AEG in Germany produced a welding generator in1905. It was driven by a three phase asynchronousmotor and had suitable characteristics for welding. Itweighed 1000 kg and developed 250 A.DC current was normal for arc welding until the 1920’s.

Figure 2. Benardos’ method for welding with a carbon electrode.

Figure 3. An illustration from Oscar Kjellberg’s Swedishpatent of 1907 showing the use of a covered electrode.


The development of stick electrodes made it possibleto use AC current. The welding transformer soonbecame popular, as it was less expensive and hadlower energy consumption.

At the end of the 1950’s, static welding rectifiers were produced. Initially, selenium rectifiers were used,followed soon afterwards by silicone rectifiers. Later,thyristor rectifiers made it possible to control the welding current, electronically. These are now commonlyused, particularly for larger welding power sources.

The most dramatic development in power sourceswas the welding inverter. ESAB’s first prototypeinverter was built in 1970, but inverters did not comeinto industrial use, generally, before 1977. In 1984,ESAB introduced the 140 A "Caddy" inverter, havinga weight of just 8 kg.

Advanced welding processesWhen Plasma welding was introduced, it proved to bea much more concentrated and hotter energy source,making it possible to increase welding speed anddecrease heat input. Similar advantages appliedwhen laser and electron beam welding were introduced during the 1960’s. Quality and tolerances

could be improved beyond what had previously beenpossible. New materials and combinations of dissimilarmetals could be welded. The very narrow beam madeit necessary to use mechanised equipment.

Robots have been used for resistance welding since1964. Arc welding robots appeared about 10 yearslater. Electric robots could then be designed with thehigh accuracy required to satisfy the demands of MIGwelding. Originally, the robots were programmed withthe same welding data used by manual welders.

Many attempts have been made to increase the productivity of the MIG process. The Canadian, JohnChurch, used extremely fast wire feed speeds and a4-component shielding gas. With similar processes, ithas been possible to double the welding speed, stillusing normal welding equipment.

The method of using two wires in the same weld pool– tandem or twin welding – has shown to be still moreproductive. The latest high productivity method ishybrid welding - where two different processes are combined. Most promising is, perhaps, laser-MIGhybrid welding where very high speed and high penetration are achieved.

Welding process Abbreviation Inventor Year Institute Country

Resistance welding Elihu Thomson 1886–1900 Thomson Electric USA

Welding

Oxyacetylene Welding OAW Edmund Fouche 1900 France

Charles Picard

Thermit welding TW Goldschmidt 1900 Goldschmidt AG Germany

Manual metal arc welding MMA, SMAW Oscar Kjellberg 1907 Elektriska Svetsnings- Sweden

aktiebolaget (ESAB)

Electroslag welding ESW N. Benardos 1908 Russia

R.K. Hopkins 1940 USA

1950 Paton Welding Institute UkrSSR

Plasma welding PAW Schonner 1909 BASF Germany

R.M. Gage 1953 USA

Gas tungsten arc welding TIG, GTAW C.L. Coffin 1920 USA

H.M. Hobart and 1941 USA

P.K. Devers

Flux cored wire FCAW Stoody 1926 USA

Stud welding 1930 New York Navy Yard USA

Gas metal arc welding, MIG, GMAW H. M. Hobart and 1930 Airco and Battelle

(Inert gas) P.K. Devers 1948 Memorial Institute USA

Submerged arc welding SAW Robinoff 1930 National Tube Co. USA

Gas metal arc MAG, GMAW Lyubavskii and 1953 USSR

welding, CO2 Novoshilov

Laser cutting Peter Houldcroft 1966 BWRA (TWI) England

Laser welding LBW Martin Adams 1970 England

Friction stir welding FSW Wayne Thomas 1991 TWI England

et al

Table 1. The development of welding processes.


References:Bergsmannaföreningen. Wermländska Bergsmannaföreningen.Annaler 1887.

Cary, Howard B. Modern Welding Technology, 4th edition,1998, by. Published by Prentice-Hall, the book may beordered from the Training Materials Dept., Hobart Institute ofWelding Technology, 400 Trade Square East, Troy, OH 45373.http://www.welding.com/history_of_welding.shtml#1

Jefferson’s Welding Encyclopedia, 18th edition. AmericanWelding Society.

Katz, Eugenii (2003), Elihu Thomson, February 3, 2004. http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemistry/thomson.html

Kolbe, Ben. Welding. http://www.e-scoot.com/2001/kol/Welding.htm

Jalapa Gas and Chemical Corp. 7223 Decker Drive.Baytown, Texas 77520. Retrieved from: http://www.chemtane2.com/environmental/cva_env_impact.html

Sapp, Mark. (2003). A History of Welding: from Hepheastusto Apollo. Retrieved November 1, 2003 from: http://weldinghistory.org/htmlhistory/wh_index.html.

Update, Edition 6, Volume 1. Canadian Welding Association– Toronto Chapter. Retrieved from: http://www.cwa-acs.org/toronto/CWAToronto_Nov2003.pdf

Peter Houldcroft and Robert John, Welding and Cutting.Published by Woodhead-Faulkner Ltd.

DVS, 31787 Hameln, Breslauer Allee 1. http://www.sk-hameln.de/history.htm

Mechanised welding opened up new applications.Narrow gap welding saved time and consumables,and reduced the distortion in the welding of heavysections. Initially, the MIG process was used, but lateralso SAW and TIG. Around 1980, ESAB deliveredheavy SAW Narrow gap welding equipment toVolgadonsk in the former Soviet Union.

Friction stir welding was patented in 1992 by TWI. Themethod works very well for aluminium. It can be joinedwithout melting and produces a very high quality joint.The process does not use consumables and has lowenergy consumption. Another benefit is low environmental impact. The process is so simple andeffective that it must be considered to be one of the20th century’s most remarkable welding innovations.

Future trendsSome general trends in welding are very obvious: the continuing aim for increased productivity; furthermechanisation; and the ongoing search for more effectivewelding processes. Constructions with reduced weightare achieved by means of new designs and theincreased use of high strength steel and aluminiumalloys. A visit to a welding exhibition shows clearly thatthe development of electronic components, computertechnology and digital communication influences the development of the welding equipment. Newprocesses such as hybrid laser MIG and FSW havebeen introduced, but the traditional TIG, MIG and SAWmethods will, no doubt, continue to dominate.

About the author

Klas Weman, MSc, has a long experience in the develop-ment of arc equipment, power sources and welding pro-cesses at ESAB Welding Equipment AB in Laxå, Swedenand earlier also as an associate professor at the WeldingTechnology Department at the Royal Institute ofTechnology in Stockholm.Mail-address: [email protected].

Power sources then and now


Welding has a long and fascinating history: it is firstmentioned in Genesis, chapter IV, where the blacksmithTubal-Kain used welding in his forge. For centuriesafterwards this was the principal method available.However, in 1885, the Russian Benardos used a carbon electrode to generate an electric arc and fed ametallic rod into the molten puddle to make a welddeposit.

Arc welding was born, but short electrode life, poorweld quality due to oxidation and nitrogen pick-up, andrisk of hardening by the excessive carbon pick-up ofthe weld limited its usefulness.

About five years later Slavianoff, used a bare metal rodto combine the arc generator with the filler metal butfailed to solve the fundamental problem with oxygenand nitrogen entering the weld pool - so weld metalquality remained poor.

The break-through came with Kjellberg's invention ofthe coated electrode. This development also solvedthe problem of overhead welding, making it possibleto weld in confined spaces where the workpiececould not be moved or rotated – for example thesteam boiler in a ship. As with all new technologies,care and understanding were needed, so Kjellbergwrote the following: ”The work must be conducted withthe highest possible care and the worker must underno circumstances consume alcohol, wine or beerbefore or during work. A worker is incapable of performing a good job after as little as half a bottle ofbeer; the light radiation seems, together with a verymodest quantity of alcohol, to have the mostparalysing effect on him.”

As with many emerging technologies, the develop-ment of coated stick electrodes took many differentpaths, traces of which remain apparent today.

From Bare Rod to Big-time – Uncoveringthe Story of the Coated ElectrodeBy Johan Elvander, ESAB, Gothenburg, Sweden.

Dipping of electrodes


1910-1920From 1910 to 1920, dipped electrodes came into usein Europe through licensing agreements with ESAB.Although considered “thick-coated”, they had quite aporous coating and produced little slag. The weldingtechnique with these electrodes required both hands:the left hand controlling the electrode; and the righthand using a hammer to forge porosity out of the weld. Oscar Kjellberg wrote that a sound weld ischaracterised by its regular fish-scale pattern, derivedfrom the hammering!

Meanwhile in England, another method of coating thewire rod was invented - by winding asbestos threadaround the core wire. The advantage over dippedelectrodes was that the weld pool was visible to thewelder and the electrodes were more concentric.Pressing a paste between the asbestos threads further developed the “wound” electrode, and this ishow the “extruded” electrode originated.

During the same period, in the United States, R.S.Smith introduced a paper-coated electrode thatoffered gas protection to the weld pool and reducednitrogen levels. Lincoln Electric further developed thispaper coating and the extruded cellulose electrodewas born. Both this type and the wound electrodewere thin-coated with little slag and enabled thewelder to see the weld pool.

Thin-coated electrodes became popular in Englandand the United States while, in the rest of Europe mineral coating was preferred. Traces of these prefe-rences are still seen today.

To overcome the drawbacks of the thick-coated,dipped electrode with its porous coating, numerousdipping formulae were investigated. It was importantto find a mixture that provided an equivalent amountof slag in relation to the coating. This eventuallyresulted in the refining or oxidizing coating.

The following weld metal composition was obtainedby Oscar Kjellberg in 1909. Not too impressive againsttoday’s standards, but the weld metal produced jointsthat met the purpose.

1930-39In the 1930’s, extrusion started to replace dipping asa production method, although dipped electrodesremained in use for some time. Technology shifts seldom happen overnight. Coating developments ledto the “balanced” oxidizing coating being introduced.Metals are added to the coating to compensate forthe burn-off. In ESAB’s range, examples include OK48, a wound extruded electrode from England; OK 40,a thin coated type, OK 42P with oxidizing coating andOK 52P. OK 52P was extruded as the “P” indicates.Moreover it was a thick-coated electrode of the modern type, i.e. leaving a fair amount of slag, andwas categorized as a “quality electrode”. The coatingwas “neutral” as it did not alter the core wire analysisto the same degree as other coating types.

This period also saw the introduction of two stainlesselectrodes, OK R3 and OK R7, as well as two hardfacingtypes. In 1939, OK 47 was introduced, having the samecoating type as OK 52P but with lower weld metalstrength. OK 47 was produced both as a dipped andextruded electrode (OK 47P).

A number of these electrodes were, even then, approvedby Lloyds Register, Bureau Veritas and Norske Veritas.

On the metallurgical side of welding, the phenomenonof fish-eyes was studied. At ESAB, Elis Helin conducted a series of investigations to try to under-stand the effect. He concluded that hydrogen causesthe fish-eyes, but that it only plays a role in the testingof the weld metal, and only at loads above the yieldpoint. He also observed that heat-treating at 125-375ºCfor 48 hours can cure fish-eyes. The observations werecorrect though, today, not everyone may agree with theconclusions! Nevertheless he highlighted the hydrogenproblem and work in this field has been ongoing sincethen. In 1941, Elis Helin was awarded the Kjellberggold medal by the Royal Swedish Academy ofEngineering Sciences for his important contribution tothe science of welding metallurgy.

1940-49During the war years, with scarcity of raw materials,ESAB introduced OK 44P, a cellulose electrode. Thistype of electrode was extensively used in the UK andthe US, but required a different welding technique andnever really took off in the Scandinavian countries,being a “basic” region by tradition.

The forties, nevertheless, saw some interestingdevelopments and in 1946, OK Rapid was introduced.This is a deep penetration electrode for welding I-joints with an arc voltage of 60V (!) and requiringheavy duty power sources. OK 90P was launched in1943. This Cr-Mo high strength type was used bySAAB to weld the landing gear on a number of aircraft.Electrode weldability is always a major consideration

%C %Si %Mn %P %S

0.06 0.06 0.1 0.05 0.03

Oxygen and nitrogen were identified early as beingdetrimental to weld metal properties. Tests made inthe early 1930’s revealed the following levels in weldmetals produced by bare wire, thin coated and thick-coated electrodes, respectively:

Bare wire Thin coated Thick coated

Oxygen 1600 ppm 1000 ppm 700 ppm

Nitrogen 1300 ppm 1000 ppm 300-400 ppm


for development engineers and the words of ElisHelin, in 1942, still hold true:

“The best welding properties will only give ordinaryweld metal, while superior weld metal will sacrificewelding properties”.

Having said this, ESAB introduced OK 50P, the first acidtype, trying to combine the mechanical properties of thebasic OK 48P with the good weldability of the 47P.

In 1945, an important development was made by P. C. van der Willigen, working for Philips in theNetherlands. He added large amounts of iron powderto rutile and acid electrodes to increase productivity.The high recovery electrode was born.

Welding automation as we know it today, was notavailable in the forties, though efforts were made tomechanise stick electrode welding. At ESAB, inDenmark, K. K. Hansen developed a mechanical system for electrodes, which offered continuouswelding. As the first electrode melted to its stub end,it ignited the second electrode “waiting” behind thefirst, some distance down the joint to be welded. Atthis moment, the welder moved the holder of the firstelectrode, reloaded and placed it behind the secondelectrode, now welding. The reloaded electrodewould then ignite; the welder changes again and so on! The electrodes were 600mm long and up to16mm diameter. Today, gravity welding is still in use,with a less complicated set-up, but still using largediameters and 600 or 700 mm long electrodes.

Innovation from ESAB’s German factory in Finsterwaldetook the form of an electrode with two separate corewires in the same coating. The electrode had a highwelding speed but, for obvious reasons, was toocomplicated to produce. Today, we find the sameconcept in twin-MAG.

During this period, there were no impact toughnessrequirements set in the specifications for ordinaryconstruction steels - and not for weld metals either.There had been reports of sudden cracks when welding outside at subzero temperatures and thecauses, susceptible microstructures and 3-axis tension, were well known. Still, it would take someyears for toughness requirements to be mandatory.

1950-59This decade saw the introduction of OK Femax I andlater, OK Femax II electrodes, with 200% and 150% recovery, respectively. The growing shipbuildingindustry became a major user of these products, espe-cially in the Nordic countries though there was somereluctance elsewhere. This had nothing to do with weldjoint integrity, but much to do with wage demands ofwelders having to work at high welding speeds!

The now well established OK 48P, for use with DC+,was joined by OK 48PV, for AC welding. OK 48PV waspacked in cardboard with a plastic wrapping forimproved moisture protection. An article about OK 48PV, indicated that moisture protection of basicelectrodes is important - and that the plastic wrappingis not intended for rain protection of the welders bicycle saddles!

In 1957, OK Unitrode (OK 48P produced by ESAB,England), is used for the welding of heat exchangersfor the nuclear power station at Calder Hall. ESAB by now had a range of about 13 stainless steel electrodes, rutile and basic.

In 1956, the stainless electrode OK R303 was intro-duced. It had a mild steel core wire with all the alloyingthrough the coating, a “synthetic” electrode. The pricefor the R303 was 5 Euro cent per piece compared to 4 Euro cent per piece for the ordinary type. Higher current carrying capacity of the R303 gave increasedwelding speed and reduced weld cost by 30-50%.

In 1952, ESAB introduced OK Spiral, a continuous covered electrode. The format was a solid core wirewith a flexible coating paste and a cross winding ofsteel threads onto the coating. The electrode wasspooled onto 25kg reels and the cross-wound steelthreads served as contact points for the current pick-up.The diameter range was 5-7mm and the coating pastebasic. Care had to be taken in the production of OKSpiral to ensure that the paste did not cover the woundsteel threads and, thereby, isolate the contact points.

Analysis of the different electrodes and coatings intro-duced during this decade, shows that thin coatedtypes have virtually disappeared; acid types, which

Calder Hall Nuclear Power Station in the UK. ESAB OKUnitrode electrodes used for welding the heat exchangers.


peaked in the forties, are now in steady decline, whilebasic types are growing in use.

With regard to standardisation and quality control, in1953, the IIW, (International Institute of Welding),issued the Radiographic Atlas, in which weldingdefects such as porosity, slag inclusions and lack offusion are classified and graded.

1960-69In 1961, ESAB changed electrode designations to thecurrent 4-digit system. For example, OK 48P becameOK 48.00 and OK Femax II became OK 39.50.

This does not mean that the composition of OK 48.00has remained the same and has never been improved.In 1941, the formula for OK 48P had six coating ingredients. The production cycle had many steps, frommixing in small wet mixes, keeping the temperatureto around 17ºC, to floor drying and baking. The totaltime was about three days, most being spent in “floor drying” to avoid cracks. For this basic elec-trode, a baking temperature of 80-90ºC was used butinstructions noted that if the floor drying was too long,a baking temperature of 250ºC might be needed for a few hours. The electrode gave visually porosity freewelds, but this was the time before stringent radio-graphic requirements changed the view on porositylevels.

By comparison the latest OK 48.00 holds more than20 components, and is baked at temperatures whichare multiples of the 48P, while production time is afraction. Today’s welders are pleased with the weldingcharacteristics, as are inspectors and approval bodiesthat set very stringent requirements on weld metalsoundness and mechanical properties.

Development of high recovery electrodes continuedand ESAB introduced OK 33.60 and OK 33.80 in theearly sixties. In this period, most high recovery typeswere acid or rutile. An important innovation, in 1957, byvan der Willigen, was the zircon-basic high recovery

OK Spiral, continuouscoated electrode.

About the author

Johan Elvander, M.Sc. (Materials Eng.) joined ESAB in1982 after graduating from The Royal Institute ofTechnologyin Stockholm. He is now R&D DirectorBusiness Area Consumables. He is also the new publisherof Svetsaren.

electrode. Its lower hydrogen levels and improvedmechanical properties expanded use of high recoverytypes. The high recovery concept was also applied to stainless steel electrodes and, in 1968, ESAB introduced OK 61.41 and OK 63.41 which used novelrutile coatings.

Statistics from 1966 indicate that 80-90% of the weldingin many European countries was done manually withstick electrodes, although solid wires and cored wireswere growing in popularity. In the United States, coredwires had already achieved much wider usage.

1970 and onwards.The pioneering period for stick electrodes was the firstfew decades after Oscar Kjellbergs invention and patentin 1907. General concepts and coating compositionprinciples were investigated and documented, thoughnot all mechanical and metallurgical phenomena were fully understood. Although today’s knowledge,instruments and methods are far more sophisticated,many areas of weld metal properties and the interactionbetween weld metals and the welded joints stillrequire advanced research. One example is the weldingof high strength steels and matching the properties ofweld metals.

Today, the percentage of deposited weld metal fromstick electrodes is down to about 15% of the total,while solid wires and cored wires dominate.

This does not mean that development work with elec-trodes has ceased. Electrodes remain a convenientmethod of producing experimental weld metals, asthe chemical compositions can be varied endlessly,providing the basis for alloying concepts for otherprocesses.

More important may be the level of quality andsophistication which continuing product developmentwork leads to. Examples are low hydrogen levels, low moisture absorption, and toughness that can be achieved, not forgetting vast improvements inweldability or “welder appeal”.

Oscar Kjellberg would probably be very pleased withtoday’s electrodes and maybe would have commented:”That is what I expected from such a great invention!”


From riveted to fully-welded shipsDuring the 19th century, steel began to replace woodas a shipbuilding material. In 1850, about 90% of theworld fleet was made of wood. Introduction of steeltook some time and, initially, confidence in the newmaterial was low. More substantial use of steel camewith composite-design (steel/wood) which made itpossible to build larger ships with greater cargospace. Early steel-ships were constructed usingforged plates joined by rivets, which remained themain construction method for a long period.

Around the beginning of the 20th century, weldingbegan to be considered as a possible alternative toriveting - but was fifty to sixty years before rivetingwas completely superseded. A statement, made in1960, said: ”Riveting is generally regarded as a retro-grade step by shipbuilders. It is only used at the ownersrequest.”

There were many reasons for this long period of tran-sition: ship-owners were, traditionally, conservative;riveting worked satisfactorily; weldable steel had to

be developed; and the process of producing jointssuitable for welding was unidefined.

Examination of the use of welding in the constructionprocess confirms this. Early welded ships seem, inmany respects, to have been based on riveted designs,simply replacing rivets with welds. This often led tocracking in the structure and the need for repairs dis-couraged use of welding in the construction process.

Gradually, it was shown that properly carried out welding was superior to riveting - the key issuebeing, ”properly carried out”. One problem was determining whether the weld was fit for purpose.This had to be resolved before general adoption ofelectric welding in ship construction, as it is criticallyimportant for areas in the ship structure such as thestrength-deck, stringer and sheer-strake.

There was nevertheless scope for using welding inareas such as construction of portable water-tanks,skylights and ventilators, and attaching eyelets, ring-bolts, etc.

Methane tanker "Jules Verne". Atelierset Chantiers de la Seine- Martime,France. An example of MMA appliedin shipbuilding. Svetsaren 4/1964

Welding of Ships, a Matter of Classification.By: Olle Thomsson.

”The Society’s Rules for the application of welding to ship construction formulatedand revised from time to time in light of experience gained, have proved to be ofno little value to Naval Architects and Shipbuilders. These Rules are sufficientlyrigid to ensure the necessary margin of safety, yet elastic enough to permit of theprogress which must be made in welding technology”Lloyds Register Staff Association, Transactions 1934-35


Designers and shipyards saw the many advantages ofwelding and the benefits in terms of both steel weightand productivity. Shipbuilders put pressure on theClassification Societies to accept welding as an alter-native to riveting and early tests for classificationapproval took place around the beginning of the 20th

century. Welding began to be used, successfully, inship-repairs which encouraged development and useof the technique.

The first full-welded ship in the UK, the ”Fullager”, wascompleted in 1920 and sailed for 17 years, sinking in1937 after a collision. The ”ESAB 4”, also completed in1920, was the first full-welded Swedish ship.

For some time a common solution was the “part-welded” ship, where a combination of welded and riveted strakes was used. Figure 1 shows the midshipsection from such a ship built at a Swedish shipyard.

World War 2 marked the period of significant advancetowards general construction of fully welded ships.However, there were still setbacks and someClassification Societies retained requirements for riveted strakes until after 1950.

The first formal rules for classification came in 1920when Lloyds Register issued tentative rules for welding.Ships built to these Rules had an addition to theclass-notation; ”Experimental”. In 1932, revised rulesincluded requirements for strength tests and theseform the basis for today’s rules.

The Rule conceptA fundamental for a Classification Society when writinga rule is to ensure that reliability can be achieved inthe construction process. Account has to be taken ofboth good and bad service experience and progressin technology. It is necessary to achieve a balanceand not to be too restrictive as this could hinder technical development. This may appear obvious butduring the transition from riveted to fully-welded shipconstruction it was vital.

The ultimate aim of the Rules has always been toensure reliable welded connections. Simple enough intheory but, in practice, there are many parametersthat have to be satisfied. The Rules reflect this by setting requirements not only for the welding-metalitself, but also on design of the joint, weldingsequence, environmental conditions and capability ofthe welder. The Rules therefore encompass manyquality control factors:

• Qualification procedures for welding material• Qualification procedure for welders• Qualification procedure for welding material

manufacturer• Welding design

• Welding-procedure qualification• Inspection and non-destructive testing of welds

Rules are written in such a way as to give responsibilityto the Surveyor supervising the welding-operationand are necessary to cover the environmental andcommercial conditions at shipyards all over the world.Some yards are very advanced in the use of weldingequipment, investing considerable capital to achievehigh production efficiency. Other yards still rely on lowcost labour. The Rules have to be general enough to accommodate both concepts and still provide asatisfactory result.

From the time that riveting declined and weldingbecame the main method of construction, majoradvances have taken place, in both development ofwelding techniques and in ship design. For example,the introduction of high tensile steel, low temperaturesteel (LNG), use of aluminium alloys, stainless steeland duplex steel.

Shipyards have also contributed to improved weldingtechniques. The rounded gunwale was a Swedish inven-tion to improve the transition from the side-shell to thedeck. Kockums carried out many tests for the welding ofprimary structure brackets to reduce the amount ofwelding without losing strength. Classification Societieswitnessed and analysed the results before approval.Such developments are on-going.

The Classification Societies constantly monitor theRules to ensure that new developments can be accom-modated - without compromising safety. They do this indifferent ways, especially with regard to setting of criteria. This does cause problems for manufacturers of

Figure 1. Midship section of part welded design. Deck andlongitudinal bulkhead are welded. Side and bottom shell isriveted. Stiffening welded. (Source:Yrkeslaera for Skibsbyggere, Oslo 1943)


welding materials and Unified Rules derived by IACS(International Association of Classification Societies)could probably solve such problems.

The strength of the welded connectionwThe principal rule for quality control in the weldingprocess is that the welded joint should be at least asstrong as the materials that are to be joined. Theadvantage of this concept is that the scantling-designcan be produced under the assumption that the weldedconnection will have at least equal strength.

The joint must, however, be correctly designed.Shipyards submit welding-drawings for Classificationapproval, clearly indicating details of welded connec-tions of major structural members, including type andsize of welds. The Rules for these parameters coverwelding sequence, workmanship and non-destructivetesting.

The challenge for Classification was, and still is, tocreate a set of tests to verify the strength and reliabilityof the welded joint. The Rules are therefore very particular with regard to the tests which are not just amatter of tensile strength. Toughness, strength in theheat affected zone, hardness, and bending behaviourhave to be considered.

Figure 2 shows an example of a test specimen produced to qualify the welding-strength of a butt-weld.For each test-piece, criteria for acceptance is welldefined. With the criteria met, the weld material (rod, wire, etc) is approved and can be used for ship-construction. Figure 3 shows an example of ESABproduct marking to show approval. When a surveyor -anywhere in the world - has to approve a welding procedure, the first thing he looks for is evidence thatthe proposed welding rod/material is approved andsuitable for the welding procedure under consideration.

The tests are fundamental to the approval of the weldmaterial. The procedure for testing may sometimesseem somewhat laborious and time-consuming but it

does not hinder development of welding technology.Progress in production methods also continues.During the 1990’s, the use of lasers was introducedinto shipbuilding: welding speed could be increasedand the heat input reduced compared with arc welding.Lower heat input results in reduced panel distortion, theelimination of which is otherwise costly and sometimesvery difficult. There is a requirement for very limitedpanel distortion on passenger-vessel hulls, for aestheticreasons.

In March 1997, Lloyds Register issued ‘Guidelines forapproval of CO2 –laser welding’, permitting the use oflaser welding for ordinary butt and T-joints in ship construction. The guidelines provide the main Ruleparameters, such as personnel welding procedures,base material characteristics, welding consumables,testing and quality control. Since then, further developmenthas seen laser hybrid welding applied to ship con-struction. General approval of the technique has notyet been given but some yards have been givenapproval for specific applications.

New techniques for welding will certainly continue tobe developed. However the Rule concept will remainand the role for the classification societies in regulatingthe balance between functional reliability and furtherdevelopment of welding technology, will not change.

Figure 3. Product declaration on an ESAB welding materialproduct showing approval details from Classification Societies

About the author

Olle Thomsson graduated from ChalmersUniversity of Technology, in 1964 andacquired a Teknologie Licentiat, in 1967.He joined the Lloyds Register HeadOffice, in 1970, after some years in thedrawing office at Götaverken Arendal. In1977, he became head of Lloyds Planapproval office in Copenhagen. In 1985,he returned to Sweden as CountryManager for LR Sweden. He has been amember of the Swedish Academy ofEngineering Sciences, as from 1999.

Figure 2. Example of test specimenpositioning for destructive test of a butt weld. (Source; Lloyds Register of shipping, Marine Division)


Introduction.The world of stamp collecting, where a piece of paperwith a size of less than three centimeters square mayrepresent a value of 100 million Yen extends way backinto history. It is a hobby of great appeal and refinedtaste and is said to be ‘the hobby of kings’.

Since postage stamps came into use in England, in1840, a many thousands off different images, havebeen issued all over the world - but those related towelding are very scarce amounting to no more than250 different types.

Although few in number, they have been issued in 84countries, indicating that welding continues to be, anindispensable technology in industry.

Creation“The heaven came downwards to us in four walls,which at their lower sides are welded to the four sidesof the earth beyond the ocean, each to each”, is asentence from an Egyptian priest’s view on Creationquoted in the book, ‘Mankind and the Universe’, byJ.L. Davis. This supposition, made 2,600 years ago, is now known to be incorrect; however the term

‘welding’ is used for the critical connection betweenheaven and earth. It seems to be the first time in history that man uses the concept of welding, and it isinteresting that it is used in connection with the creation of heaven and earth. That is why the postagestamp of the Creations by Michelangelo is includedhere (Figure1).

Centenary of welding.The joining of metals by forging, or forge welding, has3,000 years of history, while brazing was carried out inancient Rome. But, the origin of all modern weldingtechnologies (Figure 2) was the invention of carbonarc welding by N.N. Benardos (1881, Russia). Soonafterwards, resistance welding was invented by ElihuThomson (1885, USA) followed by metal arc weldingby N.G. Slavianov (1890, Russia). It was the prelude totoday’s highly-developed age of welding.

Benardos may well be regarded as the father of themodern welding industry; a commemorative stampwas issued in 1981 to celebrate the 100th anniversaryof his invention (Figure 3). The stamp shows the portrait of Benardos together with an electrode holder and a symbol for carbon arc welding. However,

Developments in Welding TechnologyIllustrated on Postage StampsBy: Dr. Itsuhiko Sejima, In Tech Information s.c. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan.

Dr. Sejima reviews the history of welding as reflectedin a selection of images from his unique stamp collection.

Figure 1. Creations by Michelangelo


the electrode holder he actually used, has beendescribed in many articles - and it certainly did nothave a ring with pins! It is not known where this drawingoriginated.

The world’s first welding stamp.The use of stamps goes back to1840, but it would be100 years before the first welding stamp was issued.Stamps illustrating forging and blacksmiths hadappeared before, but a stamp with an arc welder,issued in the Union of South Africa, seems to be thefirst one symbolising modern welding (Figure 4). Itwas part of a series of commemorative stamps issuedto hail the War Effort, during 1941-1943, illustratinginfantry, a nurse and ambulance, an airman andSpitfires, a sailor, women’s services, artillery, a welder,Tank Corps and Signal Corps. The fact that a weldingscene was included, emphasises its importance. Thestamp was issued in Afrikaans and English.

Arc welding and its applicationsSince arc welding has become a common process,welding motifs are frequently used on stamps. Various manual arc welding applications are shown in Figures 5 to 16.

Figure 15. Poland (1956)

Figure 3. Russia (1981)

Figure 7. Russia (1981)

Figure 8. Norway (1985) Figure 9. Romania (1973)

Figure 10. Cuba (1980)

Figure 12. Syria (1979)

Figure 14. Romania (1982)

Figure 16. Vietnam (1983)

Figure 11. Norway (1993)

Figure 13. Botswana (1990)

Figure 6. Guinea (1973)

Figure 4. South Africa (1941-43) Figure 5. Japan (1949)

Figure 2. Growth of the processof welding since its beginning(C. Jackson, Welding Journal,Vol. 42, 1963, P.216)


About the author

Dr. Itsuhico Sejima gained an MSc degree in welding atOsaka University, in 1950. Much of his career was spentwith Hitachi, where he held several management positions in engineering and welding. In 1979, he gaineda doctorate at Nagoya University. He became ExecutiveDirector at JEMA in 1982 and, in 1990, becameExecutive Director at In Tech Informations s.c. Ltd.

AcknowledgementI would like to give a special acknowledgement to Mr. Bertil Pekkari for his co-operation and friendshipover many years in welding circles, and for giving methe opportunity to contribute this article to ESAB’scentenary celebrations.

[1] F. Eder. The AWS Welding Journal, June 1932,page 11.

Welding robotsWelding robots initially became popular for spot weldingin the automotive industry, but are now applied inevery field of industry. Industrial robots feature onmany postage stamps. A collection of stamps relatedto robotic welding is shown in Figures 17 to 19. TheGerman stamp (DDR, Fig. 17), was one of a pair tocommemorate the 30th anniversary of the foundationof the Messe der Meister von Morgen (MMM). The welding robot is presented as the epitomy ofengineering development.

Sweden issued a series of six stamps featuring productsinvented in that country. Figure 18, shows an ABB IRBwelding robot, which is seen as a typically Swedishdevelopment. The Malaysian stamp (Fig. 19), was oneof a series of three to commemorate the 25th anniversaryof the Asian Productivity Organisation and ProductivityYear. It illustrates robotic welding on an automotiveassembly line.

High energy density processes

Welding in spaceWith the collapse of the Soviet Union, the relationshipbetween the USA and Russia improved to the pointwhere both nations co-operate in space programmes.In 1984, the USSR issued a stamp showing welding inspace (Fig. 20). It was issued to commemorate the25th anniversary of the Paton Institute of ElectricWelding. The portrait of its founder, Prof. E.O. Paton,is shown in the top left hand corner. The illustrationshows a welder in a space suit with a gun that lookslike a portable electron beam welding gun.

Figure 21 is an imaginary picture of welding in freeflight in space by USSR cosmonauts, issued by Cubain 1985, when relations with the USSR were still close.

Laser beam welding.Several stamps have been issued that illustrate laserapplications such as cutting, joint tracking and surfacetreatment but, unfortunately, none with laser weldinghas appeared. Dr. Charles Towne (Fig. 22) and Dr. Arthur Shalow (Fig. 23) are the inventors of lasertechnology for which they received a Nobel Prize.

Figure 17. Germany (DDR) (1987) Figure 18. Sweden (1984) Figure 19. Malaysia (1986) Figure 20. Russia (1984) Figure 21. Cuba (1985)

Figure 22. Ghana (1999)

Figure 23. Malagasy (1990) Figure 24. Taiwan (1988)


Introduction Iron is one of the most common and one of the mostimportant metals in the earth’s crust. It forms the basisof the most widely used group of metallic materials,irons and steels. The success of these metals is dueto the fact that they can be manufactured relativelycheaply in large volumes and provide an extensiverange of mechanical properties - from moderatestrength levels with excellent ductility and toughnessto very high strengths with adequate ductility.

Unfortunately, mild and low alloy steels are susceptibleto corrosion and require protective coatings to reducethe rate of degradation. In many situations, galvanicprotection or painting of a steel surface is impractical.In the United States, in 2000, it was estimated thatcorrosion costs industry and government agencies$276 billion/year [1]. The benefits of corrosion resistantchromium alloyed stainless steels can, therefore, beeasily recognised.

The vast majority of the world’s steel is carbon andalloy steel, with the more expensive stainless steelsrepresenting a small, but important niche. Of all steelproduced, approximately 2% by weight are stainlesssteels. However, as illustrated in Figure 1, there has been a steady annual growth of about 5-8% forstainless steels [2]. With the ever-growing awarenessof environmental issues, the need for easily recyclablematerials and life cycle cost considerations, there isno reason to expect anything other than a continuingincrease in the use of stainless steels.

“Stainlessness” ”Stainless” is a term coined, early in the developmentof these steels, for cutlery products. It was adopted

as a generic name and, now, covers a wide range ofsteel types and grades for corrosion or oxidationresistant applications. The minimum chromium contentof standard stainless steels is 10.5% [3]. Other alloyingelements, particularly nickel, molybdenum and nitrogen,are added to modify their structure and enhanceproperties such as formability, strength and cryogenictoughness.

Stainless steels owe their corrosion resistance to thepresence of a ”passive”, chromium-rich, oxide filmthat forms naturally on the surface. Although extremelythin, 1-5 nanometres (i.e. 1-5 x 10-9 m), and invisible,this protective film adheres firmly, and is chemicallystable under conditions which provide sufficient oxygento the surface. Furthermore, the protective oxide filmis self-healing provided there is sufficient oxygen

Stainless Steels - Past, Present and FutureBy: Leif Karlsson, ESAB AB, Gothenburg.

The large and steadily growing family of stainless steels can offer unique combina-tions of corrosion resistance and properties such as high strength, low temperaturetoughness, creep strength and formability. Although small in tonnage compared tomild steels, they represent an economically important and steadily growing groupof steels finding their way into an increasing number of applications. This reviewbriefly summarises the history of stainless steel development and discusses selected weldability aspects. Examples from ESAB’s long history of stainless steelwelding are given and some future trends discussed.

Figure 1. World production of stainless steels.(http://www.jernkontoret.se)

25

20

15

10

5

01970 1980 1990 2000

Mton


available. Therefore, even when the steel is scratched,dented or cut, oxygen from the air immediately combines with the chromium to reform the protectivelayer [4-5]. As an example, over a period of years, astainless steel knife can literally be worn away by dailyuse and by being re-sharpened – but remains stainless.

However, stainless steels cannot be considered to be”indestructible”. The passive state can be brokendown under certain conditions and corrosion canresult. This is why it is important to carefully select theappropriate grade for a particular application. Effectsof welding and handling on corrosion resistance alsohave to be considered.

HistoryThe history of stainless steels dates back almost aslong as the history of the covered electrode - inventedby the founder of ESAB during the first decade of thelast century.

Stainless steel was discovered independently, around1913, by researchers in Britain and Germany. The firsttrue stainless steel was melted on the 13th August1913, in Sheffield, on the initiative of Harry Brearley.This first stainless steel was martensitic with 0.24%carbon and 12.8% chromium. Within a year ofBrearley’s discovery, Strauss & Maurer in Germanydeveloped the first austenitic grades while experimentingwith nickel additions. Almost simultaneously, Dansitzenin the United States, who studied alloys similar to thosethat Brearley was investigating, but with lower carboncontents, discovered the ferritic stainless steels. From these inventions, just before World War 1, themartensitic, ferritic and austenitic stainless steel groups[4-5], were developed.

The first duplex stainless steels were produced inSweden, around 1930, for applications in the paperindustry. However, commercial production of precipitationhardening stainless grades did not take place until afterWorld War 2. New grades with a better weight-to-strength ratio were then required for jet aircraft, whichled to the development of the precipitation hardeninggrades such as 17:4 PH [6-7].

The basic metallurgy of the iron/chromium andiron/chromium/nickel systems was understood byabout 1940 and by the 1950’s stainless steels becamestandardised in specifications that have changed littlesince that time. As these standard grades becameaccepted, the emphasis changed to finding cheapermass-production methods, and popularising the useof stainless steel. The next leap in stainless steeldevelopment was made possible by the developmentof the argon-oxygen decarburisation (AOD) process,in the late 1960’s. This technique made it possible toproduce much cleaner steels with a very low carbonlevel and well controlled nitrogen content. The

introduction of continuous casting in stainless steel production, in the 1970’s, has contributed to lowerproduction costs and higher quality.

From the 1970’s onwards, the addition of nitrogen andlowering of carbon content made it possible to devel-op the duplex stainless steels into readily weldablematerials. The last two decades have seen the intro-duction of the “super” stainless steels. Superferriticgrades with very low interstitial levels and highchromium and molybdenum contents have superiorcorrosion resistance compared to standard ferriticgrades. However, although these steels have foundcertain applications, their success has been limited.

The highly alloyed superaustenitic and superduplexstainless steels, with excellent corrosion resistance andbetter fabricability and weldability than the ferritic steels,have found a more widespread use and are todayimportant engineering alloys. Supermartensitic steel isthe most recent contribution to the stainless family [8].These steels are extremely low in carbon (typically<0.010%) and offer a combination of high strength,adequate corrosion resistance and weldability at a com-petitive price. Although the use, as is not uncommonwith the introduction of new stainless steel grades,have been hampered by some unforeseen corrosionproblems, this is still a very interesting material that canbe expected to find increasing use in the future.

WeldingDevelopment of new steels inevitably brings new problemsin manufacturing and joining. This is particularly true forwelding where the desired material properties, carefullyproduced by the steelmaker, can be radically changedby a process that locally melts and recasts part of theconstruction. There is definitely a continuing demandfor increased productivity in welding, while maintainingthe parent material properties.

The history of stainless steel welding on an industrialscale was, until well into the 1950’s, more or less thatof manual metal arc (MMA) welding. Stainless steelstick electrodes were an early inclusion in ESAB’sconsumable range and, in the first issue of Svetsaren,in 1936 [9], an application using ESAB OK R3 (18%Cr10.5%Ni 1.5%Mo) was reported.

Many of today’s martensitic, ferritic, austenitic andferritic-austenitic stainless consumable types werewell established more than five decades ago. A commonproblem with steels and weld metals in those dayswas the high carbon content which introduced therisk of intergranular corrosion due to precipitation ofchromium carbides at grain boundaries [10] (Fig. 2). With the introduction of lower carbon grades, this israrely a problem, nowadays. The risk of forming inter-metallic phases in weld metals was also well researchedat an early stage [11, 12]. However, with the introduction


of more highly alloyed grades, this is still something that has to be considered when designing welding consumables and selecting welding parameters.

Manual metal arc welding was the dominating weldingprocess into the 1980’s and is still significant for weldingof stainless steels [13]. Solid wires for semi-automaticwelding were introduced into ESAB’s consumablerange in the 1950’s, and submerged arc fluxes andwires and strips were readily available in the early1960’s (Fig. 3). Cored wires have, in the last decades,become an important group of consumables offeringadvantages in productivity and easier alloy modifi-cation than solid wires.

MechanisationAlthough many new fusion and solid state weldingtechniques have been introduced and are applied inspecific applications, none has yet been able to replaceconventional fusion welding on a large scale. However,mechanisation and robots have changed the approachto welding with increased productivity and quality. An example is welding of Francis turbines for hydro-

power projects. A 67 tonnes turbine runner produced, in1957 [15], in 13%Cr steel, was assembled using ESABOK R6 (17.5%Cr, 11.5%Ni, 2.5%Mo) consumables.Joint faces were buttered using a preheat of 250ºC,directly followed by a post-weld heat treatment at680ºC. The runner was then assembled (Fig. 4) aftermachining of joint faces and the final welding was at room temperature by 4-5 welders working, simulta-neously, on opposite sides to minimise the risk ofdeformation. A final stress relieving post-weld heattreatment at 680ºC ensured optimum corrosion resistance.

A more recent project illustrating the trend towardsmechanisation is the welding of Francis turbine run-ners for the world’s largest hydroelectric project, theThree Gorges dam in China [16]. Altogether 26Francis turbines, 10m in diameter and with a weight of450 tonnes will be installed. The runners are made ofsolid 410 NiMo type martensitic stainless steel (13%Cr, 4% Ni, 0.5% Mo) castings.

Submerged arc welding (SAW) with two wires (twin-arc)was considered the best method for joining the vanesto the crown and band of the runner. The selection was based both on productivity and weld metal qualitycriteria and included the development of OK Flux 10.63to be used in combination with the matching composi-tion filler wire OK Autrod 16.79. The thickness of thevane varies along the 4 m long joint, but it is mainlybetween 70 and 220 mm. With a typical welding cur-rent of 700-800A, and a welding speed of 70 cm/min,some 200-300 weld beads had to be deposited withheat inputs of about 2 kJ/mm for each joint.

Consistent performance and reliability were thereforejust as important as deposition rates during welding.The welding head had to follow precisely the approxi-mately 4m long joints with complicated three-dimen-sional geometry. High-accuracy numerically controlledwelding manipulators were, therefore, necessary toobtain all the benefits from a fully mechanised weldingprocess and to achieve the required productivity (Fig. 5).

Future welding processesAlthough techniques such as laser and electron beamwelding have been available and applied for sometime, they have never been able to challenge the moreconventional fusion welding processes on a largescale. Economic factors, as well as requirements onjoint fit-up, etc, have limited their use. The introductionof friction stir welding quickly had an impact on weldingof aluminium alloys. Successful attempts to weldstainless steels have been reported [17], but tool lifeand welding speed are still major obstacles to a morewidespread use.

At present, laser-hybrid welding [18] seems to be themost likely, recently introduced, technique to be usedon a large scale. The hybrid technique combines most

Figure 2. Intergranular corrosion in the heataffected zone of a 18%Cr, 8%Ni steel with0.10%C as tested in 1944 [10].

Figure 3. Two examples of submerged arc welds in 8 and 25mm 18%Cr, 8%Ni austenitic stainless steels from a study inthe early 1960’s [14].


of the best features of laser welding, such as goodpenetration, with the gap bridging ability of metal inertgas (MIG) welding. When combined, high qualitywelds can be produced with high productivity, whileretaining the option of adding a consumable wire,thereby making it possible to compensate for lack ofmaterial and, when needed, to modify the weld metalcomposition. Figure 6 shows an example of welding11mm duplex stainless steel with a combination ofone laser-hybrid run and a second MIG run. Excellentmechanical properties were achieved, while maintain-ing proper phase balance in the weld metal and heataffected zone.

Welding consumable developmentAlthough consumable manufacturers must follow thelead of steelmakers in formulating new alloys, therehave been significant improvements in consumablesdesign, both in terms of weldability and control ofresidual elements. Weldability has always been, andwill continue to be, an important aspect in stainlesssteel development. The range of potential applicationsfor a new steel grade is definitely smaller if welding isa problem, or if suitable welding consumables are notavailable.

ESAB has a history of closely following steel develop-ment. Duplex stainless steel consumables have beenpart of the ESAB range for many decades and considerable effort was put into developing improvedconsumables as duplex steel development accelerated

in the 1970’s and 1980’s [19]. A recent example of theambition to stay at the frontier of stainless consumabledevelopment is the introduction of matching compositionsupermartensitic (Fig. 7) metal-cored wires (OK Tubrod15.53 & 15.55) [20, 21].

A trend in austenitic and duplex stainless steel production(the “super-trend”), for more than two decades, hasbeen the introduction of grades with higher alloy contents to meet the demand for higher corrosionresistance in special applications.

Commonly, Cr- and Mo-contents are increased toimprove corrosion resistance although, recently, N andto some extent W, have become important alloyingelements. From the consumables point of view, thisputs the spotlight on two “old problems”: porosity/lossof nitrogen and precipitation of intermetallic phases. Achallenge for the future is finding reliable consumable/welding process combinations for alloys, highly

Figure 4. Assembly of a 67 tonnes Francis turbine runner in 1957.Manual metal arc welding with ESAB OK R6 consumables wasused for buttering of joint faces and for final assembly welding (15).

Figure 5. Mechanised SAW welding ofFrancis turbine runners for the ChineseThree Gorges hydro-power project [16].

Figure 6. Laser hybrid welding of 11 mm22%Cr duplex stainless steel. A first laser-hybrid run was combined with a secondMIG run to optimise weld properties andbead profile. Addition of a standard22%Cr 9%Ni 3%Mo (OK Autrod 16.86, Ø 1.0 mm) filler wire was used to ensuresufficient weld metal austenite formation.


alloyed with nitrogen, that produce porosity free weldswith matching corrosion resistance and mechanicalproperties.

The adverse effect on corrosion resistance of segregationduring the solidification of stainless steel weld metals,is well known, over-alloying being a well-establishedpractise to counteract this phenomenon. However, asalloying content increases, precipitation of deleteriousphases becomes unavoidable, and more structurallystable nickel-based consumables are employed.Currently, the corrosion resistance of the most highlyalloyed austenitic grades is difficult to match - evenwith nickel-based consumables.

An interesting alloy development is the use of modernmodelling tools to find new ways around what mightseem to be fundamental problems. For example, thermodynamic calculations and experiments haveshowed that a higher total alloying content can be tolerated in nickel-based weld metal if a combinationof W and Mo is used, rather than either of the two elements alone [22]. The explanation is illustrated in Figure 8 showing, that whereas Mo is enriched ininterdendritic regions, a corresponding W-depletionoccurs, resulting in a more even distribution of alloyingelements, better resistance to localised corrosion andless risk of precipitation.

The stainless futureThe future certainly looks bright, shiny and non-stained for stainless steels. With greater attention toachieving low long-term maintenance costs, increasingenvironmental awareness and greater concern with lifecycle costs, the market for stainless steel continues to

improve. However, the cost, relative to alternativematerials, will definitively continue to be an importantfactor in finding new markets in rapidly developingregions.

It is difficult to identify the major product in stainlesssteel development since the group is so diversified andapplications range from cutlery to critical componentsin the process industry. It is to be expected thattoday’s standard grades will remain much the same,but will be produced at lower costs. The introductionand increased use of leaner less expensive grades,such as lean duplex and 11-13Cr ferritic-martensiticgrades, will contribute to a pressure on price reductionand also to finding new applications where currently,mild steel is used. There is also continuous develop-ment of new specialised highly alloyed grades intendedfor very corrosive environments and high temperatures.Nitrogen is increasing in popularity, being probably theleast expensive of all alloying elements, and is likely to be introduced, to a larger extent, in standard grades,in an attempt to improve properties and decreasealloying costs.

In conclusion, the use of stainless steels is expectedto continue to grow at a significant rate. Existinggrades will be the industry’s workhorses, and upgradedversions and new alloys will also be seen. New andexisting welding processes are continuously developingand, in particular, laser-hybrid welding can be expectedto gain ground in the near future.

Nevertheless, it is likely that, for the foreseeablefuture, stainless steels will in large part continue to bewelded using established arc processes.

Figure 8. Concentration profiles for W and Mo across dendritesin a Ni-based weld metal. Mo is enriched in interdendriticregions whereas W is depleted resulting in a more even distribu-tion of alloying elements and thereby better corrosion resistance.(Dendrite spacing is approximately 10 µm).

Concentration

Interdendritic Dendrite Interdendriticregion core region

Figure 7. Typical microstructure of an all-weld metal deposit-ed with the supermartensitic metal-cored wire OK Tubrod15.55 (<0.01%C, 12%Cr, 6.5%Ni, 2.5%Mo).


It is fortunate that corrosion resistance can beobtained in an iron-based system simply by the addition of chromium, since, by appropriateadjustment of other alloying elements such as nickel and carbon, a wide range of microstructurescan be developed. Hence, stainless steels can offera remarkable range of mechanical properties andcorrosion resistance and are produced in manygrades. For example there are more than 150grades of wrought stainless steel in the latest edition of EN 10088-1 (3).

The five major families of stainless steel are: • Ferritic stainless steel has properties similar to

mild steel but with better corrosion resistance dueto the addition of typically 11-17% chromium.

• Martensitic grades can be hardened by quenchingand tempering like plain carbon steels. Theyhave moderate corrosion resistance and contain,typically, 11-13% chromium with a higher carboncontent than ferritic grades.

• Precipitation hardening stainless steels can bestrengthened by heat treatment. Either martensiticor austenitic precipitation hardening structurescan be produced.

• Duplex (Austenitic-Ferritic) stainless steels havea mixed structure of austenite and ferrite, hencethe term "duplex". Modern grades are alloyed witha combination of nickel and nitrogen to produce apartially austenitic lattice structure and improvecorrosion resistance. These steels offer anattractive combination of strength and corrosionresistance.

• Austenitic stainless steels have a nickel content ofat least 7%, which makes the steel austenitic and provides ductility, a large scale of service temperature, non-magnetic properties and goodweldability. This is the most widely used group ofstainless steels used in numerous applications.

“Super”-austenitic or “super”-duplex grades haveenhanced pitting and crevice corrosion resistancecompared with the ordinary austenitic or duplextypes. This is due to further additions of chromium,molybdenum and nitrogen.

References1. http://www.corrosioncost.com2. http://www.jernkontoret.se3. EN 10 088-1, Stainless steels – Part 1: List of stainless

steels4. Stainless steels, Editors P. Lacombe et al, Les Éditions

de Physique Les Ulis, 19935. Introduction to stainless steels, J. Beddoes and

J. Gordon Parr, ASM International, 19996. Duplex stainless steels, R.N. Gunn, Abington Publishing,

Cambridge, England, 19977. Practical guidelines for the fabrication of duplex stainless

steels, IMOA, London, England, 20018. Proc. Supermartensitic Stainless Steels 2002, Brussels,

Belgium, 3-4 Oct. 20029. Svetsaren, No. 1, 1936, p. 1510. Svetsaren, No. 1-2, 1944, p. 1511. Svetsaren, No. 3, 1953, p. 33 12. Svetsaren, No. 2, 1959, p. 1713. T.G. Gooch, Proc. Int. Conf, Stainless steels’84, p 249.14. Svetsaren, No. 1, 1966, p. 215. Svetsaren, No. 4, 1957, p. 6316. Svetsaren, No. 2, 2002, p. 317. R. J. Steel et al, Proc. Stainless Steel World 2003

Conf & Expo, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 11-13 Nov. 2003, p. 353.

18. Svetsaren, No. 2, 2003, p. 2219. Svetsaren, No. 2, 198620. Svetsaren, No. 3, 1999, p. 321. Svetsaren, No. 2-3, 2001, p. 4222. M. Thuvander et al, Proc. Stainless Steel World 2003

Conf & Expo, Maastricht, The Netherlands, 11-13 Nov. 2003, p. 258.

Figure 1 is from: http://www.jernkontoret.se/pcm/informationsmaterial/foredrag_och_artiklar/pdf/steel2003_fig.pdf)

Families of stainless steels

About the author

Dr. Leif Karlsson joined ESAB's R&D departmentin 1986, after receiving a Ph.D. in materials science from Chalmers University of Technology.He currently holds a position as ManagerResearch Projects at ESAB AB in Sweden,focussing on projects dealing with corrosionresistant alloys and high strength steels.


Consumption pattern for metals and weld metalWelding, today, is closely allied to the consumption ofmetals. Steel dominates and will continue to do so forthe foreseeable future. Global consumption has grownat 1.4% per annum during the last decade (Fig. 1) [1].With the extremely high consumption growth in Chinaduring the last five years (26% for 2003), the globalconsumption of crude steel is expected to exceed onebillion tons.

China is by far the largest consumer of steel with 27 %of the world’s production. With more than one billioncitizens and an increasing ownership of products suchas motor cars, the growth of steel consumption willcontinue, as shown in Figure 2.

Steel consumption in China is also influenced by agrowing shipyard industry. The Chinese government iscommitted to becoming the world leader in shipbuilding,surpassing the current leader, South Korea. Work hasbegun in China on what is the world’s largest shipbuildingyard. The new yard is being constructed along 8km ofcoast on Shanghai’s Changxiang Island. It is scheduledto be fully operational by 2015, and will help China StateShipbuilding Corp to become the world’s top shipbuilder. It will have an annual capacity of 8 Mdwt forbuilding super tankers, gas carriers and cruise ships.

Stainless steel consumption in the world has a steadygrowth of 5.5 %/year (Fig. 3). It dropped below 20Mtons, three years ago, but exceeded this level in2003, reaching 21.5 Mtons. China contributed to thiswith its 54.2 % growth in 2003. This requires the use ofhigh quality welding processes, eg, TIG- and Plasmawelding. Laser welding is also anticipated.

The change in Al-consumption (Fig. 4) is much lowerthan expected at 2.8 %/year, on average, for the peri-od 1990-2003. This figure will dramatically changewhen aluminium is more commonly used in cars andin other parts of the transport industry. The number ofcars with an aluminium body is increasing. Audi,Jaguar, Honda, Toyota, Ferrari, Mercedes-Benz andGM are among those offering such cars to reduceenvironmental impact and improve passenger safety.All structures can be designed to absorb the sameenergy as steel at only 55% of the weight. Designconcepts in aluminium are continuously changing inorder reduce the manufacturing cost of aluminiumbodies. A former MD for Audi claimed that the

The Future of Welding and JoiningBy: Bertil Pekkari ESAB AB, Sweden

Since the introduction of the coated electrode 100 years ago, several other welding processes have been invented, eg. SAW (Submerged Arc Welding), TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding, MIG/MAG (Metal Inert Gas/Metal Active Gas)welding, plasma cutting and FCAW (Flux Cored Arc) welding. What can we expect next to come? Will mechanical joining processes or structural adhesives be a threat to the traditional processes?

Figure 2. Change in Steel Consumption in %; 2003 comparedto 2002

Figure 1. World Steel Consumption 1976 – 2005

900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0

Rest of the world

PR China

Central & East Europe

Developing Asia

Latin America

Japan

USA

West Europe

1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004

Mtons/Year


aluminium car body was about 500 EURO moreexpensive than steel.

The manufacturing technology for aluminium bodiesneeds to be further improved, eg, mechanical joiningwith clinching and self-piercing riveting processes.Laser/MIG hybrid welding is another joining processthat results in lower heat distortion and a stiffer carbody. It will be a considerable time before aluminiumexceeds the use of steel. In 2003, some 26.4 Mtons ofaluminium was produced, about half being used inindustrial products and in capital goods - comparedwith steel manufacturing with 855.0 Mtons.

To counter the higher use of aluminium, the steelindustry has introduced advanced high strengthsteels (AHSS) in the body and other parts of the car. Itwas developed in a project, known as Ulsab, financedby 33 steel companies. Porsche Engineering produced the conceptual design, ending up with aweight saving of 200 kg.

All changes in the consumption pattern of metalsinfluence, of course, the type and quantity of weldingconsumables deposited. In addition the conversionfrom stick electrodes to solid and cored wires continues,as indicated in Figure 5. MMA welding is reducing byabout 5-8 % per year in Europe, while consumption islevelling out in USA at 11 % of deposited weld metal and,in Japan, at 15 %. The MMA-portion is 17 % in Europe.

It had been expected that the consumption of coredwires in Europe wouldapproach the levels of the USAand Japan by changeover from both stick electrodesand solid wires, but it is now obvious that this will notmaterialize. One reason for this may be that the pricedifference between solid and cored wires is bigger inEurope than in Japan or the USA.

Welding in different industry sectorsFigure 6 shows that the automotive sector representsclose to one third of the welding market in WesternEurope. This apparently high figure is heavily influencedby resistance, laser and robotic equipment, where closeto 60% of these products are taken by the automotivesector. The mass production of cars demands veryrobust and cost effective joining processes for steel andaluminium sheets. The construction of power generationequipment and installations has a need for weldingprocesses and materials that meet the highest qualitystandards. Such applications are found in power gen-eration from hydro, wind, gas, nuclear, biomass and oil.

In shipbuilding, arc welding is most common and hasbeen continuously improved to meet productivity andquality objectives. Mechanised welding is one meansof achieving this together with improvements in theworking environment for the welders and operators. In

80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

Figure 4. Primary Aluminium consumption 1990-2003

Figure 3. Stainless steel – fastest growing metal industry Index: 1980 = 100

Figure 5. Weld metal deposited 1976-2002

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

20

15

10

15

10

–5

–101990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002

Growth rate world totalConsumption world total

Growth rate western worldConsumption western world

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Figure 6. Distribution of the Western European weldingmarket per industry sector

Aerospace 3.0%

Automotive 17.5%

Automotive Suppliers 11.2%

Construction 20.0%

Process Industry 8.6%

Shipbuilding & Offshore 8.2%

General Industry 31.4%

• Stainless steel

• Aluminium

• Copper

• OECD industrialproduction

• Carbon Steel


2004, more than 90% of all ships are produced in Asia.China has very ambitious plans to increase its manu-facturing capacity. This will certainly result in Asia completely dominating shipbuilding. Orders continueto grow, corresponding to 3 years load, based onglobal manufacturing capacity. The need for electrici-ty and energy is increasing continuously in the world(Figure 7).

The search for new sources of power generationdevelops rapidly. Wind power was, initially, consideredto be more expensive than other energy sources, butno longer, as shown in Figures 8 and 9. External costsare, however, not considered in the calculated invest-ment and production costs. EC concludes: “The costof producing electricity from coal or oil would doubleand, from gas, would increase by 30 % if the externalcosts such as damage to the environment and tohealth were taken into account”. No matter whatsources are used, welding faces many challenges.

It is obvious from the growing consumption of metals,increasing need of transport and energy, that more joining and welding will be needed. In addition, everynation and company will try to defend manufacturingcompetitiveness, at all costs. What will happen in joining and welding in the coming years? Severalprocesses are expected to emerge.

Tandem MIG/MAG weldingThis process offers much higher productivity (50-300%)and deeper penetration. Users must have simple guidelines for the many parameter settings, especiallywhen welding currents are pulsed and phase shifted. InSweden, the influence of different gun configurations(Fig.10) has been evaluated.

With increased electrode inter-distance, an enhancedprocess is achieved. There are less arc disturbances,reduced or eliminated spatter and it becomes easierto find a stable process.

A large gas nozzle is required for the high gas shield (40-50) l/min. This process is applicable both for sheet andplate welding in steel and in aluminium. The automotiveindustry is evaluating the tandem process for lap jointswith travel speeds of 5-7 m/min while, in construction,fewer weld passes are required with this process.Currently, there are about one thousand installationsrunning in the world - less than ten operate in Sweden.

Arc and laser brazing Welding of Zn-coated steel without spatter, pores andblowholes, is difficult. Better welding results havebeen achieved with metal cored wires, flux coredwires (FCW) and arc brazing. For thicker Zn-coatings(20 µmm) FCW is recommended, but there is stillsome small spatter.

2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070

500000

400000

300000

200000

100000

0

Total energy consumption

Electricity consumption

Figure 7. Global consumption of energy

Figure 8 and Figure 9. Investment and production costs ofvarious energy sources.

Figure 10. Tandem MIG/MAG welding gun configurations.

20

20 16 10 10

520 20 20 20


Arc brazing offers much better results (Fig. 11).Almost no spatter or internal porosity occurs; a fewsmall internal pores can be observed on the X-ray.The gap bridging ability is also good. Gap sizes, up to1 mm, can be handled with pulsed arc. Shielding gasmixture has also an impact on the result.

Equal joint strengths are achieved for welded andbrazed specimens. Finding the correct pulsing settings is crucial - and a challenge. Several car manufacturers already use arc brazing, while otherslaser braze with CO2 or Nd:YAG lasers.

One of the principal applications for laser brazing isjoining the roof to the body shell. Some automotivemanufacturers use this technique for externally visiblejoints, and in locations where crevice corrosion is aproblem (Fig.12) Laser brazing offers a large processingwindow for the operation, which is a reason for theautomotive industry’s interest in this process.

Synergic Wire Technique in Submerged Arc Welding (SCM™)Environmental sustainability objectives are resulting inan increased number of installed wind power stations,which feature a high level of weld metal: on average700 kg for onshore wind towers; and 1500 kg for offshore. The SAW process is used, when possible, toget a high deposition rate. The welds must be made indownhand position with a root pass from inside and thecapping passes from outside, for which two electrodes,DC and AC, are used. Figure 13 shows typical jointpreparations for material thickness between 8-50mm.

Welding data is listed in Table 1.

It is now possible to introduce SAW with a synergic coldwire technique (SCW™), as shown in Figure 14 [2].

In this process, SCW™ cold wire is fed in synergy withthe arc wire into the weld pool, offering significantincrease in productivity (Table 2).

Figure 11. Comparison between MIG/MAG-brazed andMAG-welded lap-joints. Almost no damage of the Zn-coatingoutside the joint can be noticed.

Figure 12. Showing a brazed joint in a new Audi car

Welding, 7 µm Welding, 20 µm Brazing, 20 µm

Front side

Back side

70º

70º

410

70º

55º

410

Foundation flange

45-55º45-55º

Shell

Inside

70º

4 2m

3m

55m

Figure 13. Typical joint preparations

45 123

17 18 19

20 2122 23

Table 1. SAW parameters.

Run No. Wire Weld current Speed

Ø mm A V cm/min.

1 4 600 24 50

2 4 600 25 50

3 4 600 26 50

5-12 4 600 27 50

13-19 4 600 30 50

20 4 750 26 50

21-23 4 600 30 50

Figure 14. SAW with synergic coldwire technique (SCW™)


Example of increase in productivity with SCW™ coldwire additions for typical welding parameters at a current of 700 A. The SCW™ process offers higherdeposition rate, decreased heat input and improvedproperties of the weld metal.

Friction Stir Welding (FSW)In contrast to “clean” wind power, nuclear power produces dangerous waste which must be disposedof, safely. In Sweden, the Swedish Nuclear Power andWaste Management Company (SKB), is evaluating theElectron Beam Welding and Friction Stir Weldingprocesses for encapsulation of waste in durable Cucanisters. These would be stored in a deep repositoryin the Swedish bedrock. The Cu canister consists of afive centimetre thick casing. Inside, there is a cast ironinsert to provide mechanical strength. The canister isclose to five metres long and has a diameter of aboutone metre. A canister filled with spent fuel weighsabout 27 tonnes.

Full-scale Electron Beam Welding tests have beenperformed. In 1998-1999, a test rig was built at TWIfor the Friction Stir Welding of mock-up canisters. A fixture holds the canister and rotates it during welding.The lid, with a thickness of 50mm, is pressed down byfour hydraulic cylinders. The welding speed reaches150 mm per minute. The FSW process functions welland SKB has ordered an installation for further fullscale evaluation of the application.

New variants of FSWR&D activities across the world are evaluating FSW.At TWI, where the FSW process was invented, newvariants (Figure 15) are being studied:• Re-Stir™ – Reversal Stir Welding with angular

reciprocating [3], where reversal is imposed withinone revolution, and rotary reversal, where reversalis imposed after one or more revolutions. Thisprocess is considered to be appropriate for butt,lap and spot welding applications. The main reasonfor this is that the process generates essentiallysymmetrical welds and, hence, has the potential toovercome some of the problems associated withthe asymmetry inherent in conventional FSW

• Skew-Stir™ [5] , which differs from the conventionalFSW method in that the axis of the tool is given aslight inclination (skew) to that of the machine spin-dle. The Skew-Stir™ process offers wider weld forlap and T-joints

• Com-Stir™ [4], which involves the application of arotary motion in combination with an orbital motion.The process offers wider welds and more suitablefor joining of dissimilar materials

In addition, welding of different magnesium alloys hasbeen successful but, the tolerances of processingparameters to ensure that sound welds are produced,have been found to be more restrictive than thoseFigure 15. New FSW variants.

Arc wire Cold wire Productivity SCW™ increase

(Ø mm) (Ø mm) (kg/hour) in productivity

4.0 - 8.9 -

4.0 2.5 12.4 +39%

4.0 3.0 13.9 +56%

4.0 4.0 17.8 +100%

Table 2. SCW parameters

Re-Stir™ Technology

Skew-Stir™ Technology

Com-Stir™ Technology


seen in friction stir welding aluminium alloys. Also,promising welding results for steel have beenachieved with heat resistant tools, but at a muchslower travel speed than with arc welding.

Laser weldingLaser welding could be an alternative when sustainabilityis a consideration as a CO2 -laser and a YAG-laser have an electrical efficiency of 10-15%, and 1-2%,respectively. Figure 16 shows that the total amount ofenergy required per meter of weld is low compared toarc welding. A similar graph (Fig. 17) for joining ofAluminium with t=4mm with full penetration showsthat FSW is a very cold process, which explains thelow distortion FSW causes.

As with FSW, considerable R&D is invested into laserwelding, especially into the laser hybrid MIG process.Impressive installations are running at:• Meyer Shipyard in Germany, producing ship panels

with stiffeners 20 times 20 metre in size. About 50%of welding seams are made with the Laser HybridMIG process. About 850 km has been welded so far.

• Audi and GM for car bodies in aluminium.

The main reasons for choosing the hybrid processare:• Productivity – higher welding speed.• More tolerant process – allows bigger gap than

with pure laser welding.• Lower heat distortion and, hence, much less

post work, especially in the shipyard application.• Stiffer car body due to the continuous joint,

compared with resistance spot welding, resulting ina safer car.

The hybrid process with YAG-lasers is attracting considerable interest from car manufacturers asrobots with optical fibre for the supply of the laserpower, offer high flexibility. In Japan interesting resultshave been achieved with AC pulsed MIG and Diodelaser welding of Al for car bodies (Fig. 18) [7].

This set-up offers large tolerances for joint gap, torch-aiming deviations, and good penetrating control andbead stability. It is a method with high productivityand consistent and high quality output.

Besides these three types of laser - CO2, YAG andDirect Diode - a new type, the Fiber Laser, is attractinga lot of interest. To my best knowledge, no DirectDiode or Fiber Lasers are, yet, running in regular production, but several installations are being testedand evaluated.

Structural adhesiveStructural adhesive as a process is still in its infancy,needing more in-depth investigation and the satisfyingof concerns about the working environment. The

Figure 16. Required energy kJ/m for welding of carbon steel(t=4 mm) with full penetration.

Figure 17. Energy consumption for Al with t = 4 mm

Figure 18. AC pulsed MIG arc and YAG-laser beam hybridwelding at a speed of 4 m/min

Gap Bead Cross

0.0mm

0.5mm

1.0mm

Top plate: A5052, 1.2mmBottom plate: A5052, 1.5mmWire: A5356, 1.2mmWire feed rate: 13 m/minWelding current: 135AArc voltage: 16.9VEN ratio: 30%Laser output power:2.5kw


long-term properties of adhesive joints must be betterknown, and testing methods of glued joints must bedeveloped. When non-destructive test methods are inplace, the structural adhesive process will grow. Weldbonding is, however, a process in use for many yearsin aerospace applications. Different joining tech-niques are illustrated in Figure 19.

In many cases, gluing is confused with sealing.Estimates indicate that 90% of the market coverssealing. The market for bonding has growth mainly inthe automotive industry. The total market of $20 billion is estimated to grow, annually, at less than 4%.

Summing upIn summary: • Steel will remain the dominating material - with a

growth of 1.4 %/year.• China is by far the largest consumer of steel - 27%

with a high annual growth exceeding 25%.• Stainless steel has the highest growth - 5.5%/year.• Al consumption lower than expected - 2.8%/year.• Conversion from stick electrodes to solid and cored

wires will level out - but greater move from solid tocored wires.

• Al-consumption may increase rapidly when more Alis used in cars.

• Sustainable environment demands development ofthe joining processes.

• Safety issues will require major developments inwelding processes.

• New joining processes introduced include:- Laser hybrid- FSW- Arc and laser brazing

• Structural adhesives will grow - but from a lowlevel. The limited design knowledge, lifetime of thejoint and working environment concerns are majorhurdles for rapid growth.

• Mechanical joining, such as clinching and selfpiercing riveting, will continue to grow.

• The main driving forces in the joining processes are:- Shipbuilding and construction- Car manufacturing- Sustainability

• Joining activities will move, geographically, in linewith changes in consumption patterns

It means we will see an evolution rather than a revolutionof joining. There are no current signs of any uniquetechniques to be introduced in the near future.However, unexpected step changes can still occur, andESAB is very well equipped to meet this technologychallenge and market opportunity.

References[1] Pettifor M.J.: Technology driving steel forward Steel

World 2002 Vol.7 page 11 [2] Karlsson L., Arcini H., Rigdal S., Dyberg P. and Thuvander

M. New possibilities in Submerged Arc Welding with theSynergic Cold Wire (SCWTM) Technique WeldingConference LUT Join 2003

[3] Thomas W.M., Evans D.G., Nicholas E.D. and Evans P.Reversal Stir Welding – RE-STIRTM – Prelimanary trials.Published on TWI website 23 January 2003

[4] Thomas W.M., Staines D.G., Johnson K.I. and Evans P.Com-StirTM - Compound Motion for Friction Stir Weldingand Machining Published on TWI website 6 March 2003

[5] Thomas W.M., Braithwaite A.B.M. and John R. Skew-StirTM Technology 3rd International Symposium onFriction Stir Welding, Kobe, Japan 27-28 September 2001

[6] Jernström P. Hybrid welding of hollow section beams fora telescopic lifter Report from Lappeenranta LaserProcessing Centre Finland 2002

[7] Tong H., Ueyama T., Yazama I., Hirami M., Nakata K.,Kihara T.and Ushio M. High speed welding of aluminiumalloy sheets with laser assisted AC pulsed MIG process

Figure 19. Different hybrid bonding techniquesa) Weld - bondedb) Clinch - bondedc) Bolted - bonded

About the author

Bertil Pekkari has recently retired from ESAB afteralmost 40 years of service. During his long career atESAB, Bertil has held a number of senior positions, themost recent being Technical Director for ESAB and SiteManager in Gothenburg, he was also the publisher ofESAB´s technical journal, SVETSAREN. Bertil will becontinuing as the President of IIW and he will be chairingboth the Swedish Welding Commission and TWI inCambridge UK. He will also be delivering papers atinternational conferences, to which he is often invited asthe keynote speaker. In addition, he will also continue tooffer his service as a Management Consultant.


Today people come into close contact withaluminum on an everyday basis and seldom give the material a second thought.In America alone, nearly 100 billion alu-minum beverage cans are used each year.More than 60% of these cans are recycledand made into new aluminum items.

Within just one industry sector, the automotive industry, there have been majoradvancements in the use of aluminum as a material of preference. The average modern motorcar contains more aluminumthan ever before. Radiators, engine blocks,transmission housings, wheels, body panels, bumpers, space frames, enginecradles, drive shafts and suspensionframes are now, commonly, made of aluminium and found on many of today’sautomotive models.

As well as our automobiles, our homes andoffice buildings have become more alumini-um intensive, incorporating such items aswindow frames, gutters, electrical wiring,siding, roofing and, often, furniture is alsomade from aluminium alloys.

To appreciate aluminium in today’s world, it should beremembered that it was an aluminium engine thatpowered the Wright Brothers first flight at Kitty Hawk,North Carolina on December 17, 1903. And, what isprobably more relevant, if aluminium had not beenavailable for the development of the aircraft industry,aircraft, as we know them today, would not exist. Theextremely high strength-to-weight ratio of aluminiumis the very reason why today’s large aircraft can flywith such relatively small engines.

The United States is the world’s largest producer ofaluminium, although it is made in abundance in manyother areas of the world. Containers and packagingare aluminium’s largest market; transportation (cars,trucks, planes, trains) is second, followed by buildingand construction. Today, aluminium is everywhere, fromcooking utensils used in kitchens to highway indicatorsigns. As commonplace and important as aluminium isin everyday lives, it might be imagined that it has beenaround for a very long time. In reality, the process of

converting aluminium ore into the metal known andused everyday as aluminium, was discovered relativelyrecently. Industrial production of aluminium only beganin the late 19th century, making this material very mucha latecomer among the common metals.

The story behind the metalAluminium is one of 92 metallic elements that haveexisted since Earth was formed. It makes up about 8%of the earth’s crust, exceeded only by oxygen (47%)and silicon (27%). Despite aluminium’s abundance, it was not until 2000 years into the Iron Age that it wasfreed from its mineral state. Over countless millennia,(through physical and chemical action), the ancient aluminium-silicon rocks were ground down to exceed-ingly fine particles. These particles formed aluminousclays from which primitive pottery was made. In a widebelt around the Earth, hard rain and high temperaturesbaked and pounded clays and other compounds toform large deposits of aluminium ore. This ore was dis-covered first at Les Baux, France, where it became

The History of Aluminum WeldingBY: Tony Anderson, Alcotec Wire Corporation, USA

In order to appreciate the history of aluminum welding, it helps to befamiliar with the history of aluminum itself.


known as ‘bauxite.’ When the ore was refined, it formedaluminium oxide, also known as “alumina.’

For thousands of years, people tried without successto develop something similar to what we now know asmetallic aluminium. The primary reason for such a latedevelopment of this metal was the difficulty ofextracting it from its ore. It combines strongly withoxygen in a compound that, unlike iron, cannot bereduced in a reaction with carbon.

Sometime between 1808 and 1812, Englishman, SirHumphrey Davy, was the first to concentrate what hesuspected to be a new metal mixed with iron from itsnaturally occurring ores. Davy named the new element“aluminium,” derived from alum, its bisulfate salt,which was known already to the ancient Egyptians forits use in dyeing. Hans Christian Orsted first succeededin making aluminium on a laboratory scale in Denmark in1825; Friedrich Wohler did the same in Germany a littlelater. Finally, in 1854, Frenchman, Henri-Etienne Sainte-Clair Deville (who named the ore “bauxite”), found a wayto produce aluminium through a chemical process. Eventhough several plants were established to make this newmetal, it was so expensive that samples were displayedto the public next to the crown jewels of France at theParis Exposition of 1855.

It took more than 30 more years before an economicalprocess of making aluminium was developed.In 1886, by an amazing coincidence, two men (one inFrance, and the other in the United States of America),simultaneously discovered the electrolytic process forproducing aluminium that is still used today. Charles Martin Hall was an Oberlin (Ohio) College studentwhen he became interested in producing aluminiuminexpensively. He continued to use the college laboratoryafter he graduated in 1885 and discovered his methodeight months later. He had ultimately developed aworkable electrolytic process that formed moltenaluminium when purified alumina was dissolved in a molten salt called cryolite and electrolyzed with directcurrent. When Hall went to patent his process, he discovered a French patent for essentially the sameprocess, developed by Paul L. T. Heroult.

This process is now known as the Hall-Heroult process.After several unsuccessful attempts by Charles MartinHall to interest financial backers in promoting the discovery, he obtained the support of Alfred E. Hunt anda few of his friends. Together they formed the PittsburghReduction Company (later to become the AluminiumCompany of America, ALCOA). Understanding alumi-nium’s potential, Hall founded an industry in the USAthat contributed to the development of many others,particularly the manufacture of aircraft and automobiles.

The industrial production of aluminium began inearnest around 1888 at about the same time in Americaand in Europe - in the USA, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,

using Hall’s process, and in Switzerland at Neuhausenusing Heroult’s process. By 1914, the Hall-Heroultprocess had brought the cost of aluminium downincredibly. Aluminium, once a precious metal used forfine jewelry, is now becoming an accessible materialthat can be used to advantage for many applications.

Consequently, the production of aluminium multipliedamazingly. In 1918, it had already reached the 180,000ton level, and it has maintained steady long-termgrowth ever since. The production and consumption of aluminium grew, on average, through the mid-1970to more than 8% per year. The total consumption ofaluminium in the western world reached 2 million tonsin 1952 and 20 million tons in 1989. Aluminium hadbeen recognized as a material of the future.

Developments in welding aluminiumAfter the initial discovery of a suitable method to producealuminium as a cost effective material, the next step wasto modify and improve upon the basic material.

Pure aluminium has some unique and very importantcharacteristics, for example, its corrosion resistanceand electrical conductivity. However, pure aluminium,because of its relatively low strength, was not the mostsuitable material for structural welded fabrications. It was soon found that by adding relatively smallamounts of alloying elements to pure aluminium, majorchanges could be made to the material’s properties.One of the first aluminium alloys to be produced was thealuminium-copper alloy. Around 1910 the phenomenonof precipitation hardening in this family of alloys was discovered. Many of these precipitation-hardeningalloys would produce immediate interest within thedeveloping aircraft industry. Following the aluminium-copper alloys, many other alloys were developed. Itwas found that by adding such elements as copper(Cu), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), silicon (Si),and zinc (Zn) and combinations of these elements, variousphysical and mechanical characteristics of pure

Figure 2. Welding Kaiser Aluminum1st edition published 1967

Figure 1. Welding Alcoa Aluminum,first published in 1954


aluminium could be dramatically changed. Many ofthese new alloys could match the strength of goodquality carbon steel - at one third of the weight.

The development of many new aluminium alloys, whichwere suitable for structural application, immediatelyposed the question of suitable joining methods. It isone thing to have a desirable base material, but withouta practical and reliable method of joining such a material,it becomes impractical to use it as a fabrication material.

The development of welding procedures for aluminiumalloys was somewhat different to that of carbon steel.Because of the many variations of aluminium basealloys, and the different effects each alloying elementwould have on the weldability of the base materials, itwas necessary to develop many different filler alloysto accommodate these variables. For instance, someof the aluminium base alloys were of a particularchemistry, having been designed that way for specificdesirable mechanical and physical characteristics,and were not the most suited to good weldability.

These base alloy chemistries were not conducive tothe most desirable solidification characteristics, andoften rendered the base alloys particularly prone to solidification cracking. The various degrees ofsolidification crack sensitivity for each of the differentalloys needed to be established in order to provideguidance for the development of suitable welding procedures that would produce consistently crack-freewelds. This welding development work was a majorproject in itself. Much development work was performedby the aluminium base material manufacturers, as itwas most certainly to their advantage to show thataluminium could be reliably welded, and also by someof the first aluminium fabricators, who recognized thepotential of this new material and were eager to use it within their manufacturing operations. Two of thepioneers in welding development in the USA wereALCOA (The Aluminium Corporation of America) andKaiser Aluminium and Chemical Corporation, withtheir publications; Welding ALCOA Aluminium, firstpublished in 1954 (see fig 1) and Welding KaiserAluminium, first published in 1967 (see Fig. 2).

To be competitive in the modern industrial world, astructural metal must be readily weldable. The earliestwelding techniques suitable for aluminium includedoxy-fuel gas welding (see Fig. 3) and resistance welding.Arc welding of aluminium was mainly restricted to theShielded Metal Arc Process (SMAW) sometimesreferred to as the Manual Metal Arc Process (MMA).This welding process uses a flux-coated weldingelectrode. It was soon found that this process was notthe most suited for welding aluminium. One of themain problems was corrosion caused by flux entrap-ment, particularly in fillet welds where the flux couldbe trapped behind the weld and promote corrosionfrom the back of the weld.

The breakthrough for aluminium as a structural materialoccurred with the introduction in the 1940s of the inertgas welding processes, for example, Gas Metal ArcWelding (GMAW), also referred to as Metal Inert GasWelding (MIG) and Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)also referred to as Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)(see advertisement next page). With the introduction ofa welding process that used an inert gas to protect themolten aluminium during welding, it became possibleto make high quality, high strength welds at highspeeds and in all positions, without corrosive fluxes.

Today, aluminium and its alloys are readily weldableusing a variety of techniques and welding processes, twoof the most recent being Laser Beam Welding andFriction Stir Welding. However, the GTAW/TIG andGMAW/MIG welding processes remain the most popular.

Figure 3. US Military water bottle stamped in 1918and welded with the Oxy-fuel gas welding process.

About The Author

Tony Anderson is Technical Director of AlcoTec WireCorporation USA, Chairman of the AmericanAluminum Association Technical Advisory Committeefor Welding, Chairman of the American WeldingSociety (AWS) Subcommittee for D10.7 Arc Welding ofAluminum Alloy Pipe, Chairman of the AWSSubcommittee for D8.14 Automotive and Light TruckWelding – Aluminum, Chairman of the AWSSubcommittee for D3.7 Aluminum Hull Welding andVice Chairman of the AWS Subcommittee for D1.2Structural Welding Code – Aluminum.

Fig 4. 1944 -1994 advertisement celebrating 50 years of Heliarc (The trade name used for the GTAW/TIG welding process that is still used by ESAB today)

ESAB ABBox 8004 S-402 77 Gothenburg, Sweden

Tel. +46 31 50 90 00. Fax. +46 31 50 93 90www.esab.com

2004

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