©2005 mcgraw-hill ryerson ltd. chapter 2 prominent approaches in life- span development
TRANSCRIPT
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
As researchers formulate a problem to study, they often draw on theories and develop hypotheses.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of a Theory
• A theory is a interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make predictions.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a specific assumption or prediction that can be tested to determine its accuracy.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Prominent Approaches in
Life-Span Development
The Psychoanalytic Approach
The Cognitive Approach
The Behavioural and Social Cognitive Approach
The Ethological Approach
The Humanist Approach
The Ecological Approach
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Psychoanalytic Theories
• Behaviour is primarily unconscious – beyond awareness.
• Behaviour is heavily coloured by emotions.
• Behaviour is merely a surface characteristic with symbolic meaning.
• Early experiences with parents shape behaviour extensively.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Psychoanalytic
Approach
Sigmund
Freud
Erik
Erikson
Other
Psychoanalytic
Theories
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)
• Medical doctor specializing in neurology
• Developed ideas about psychoanalytic theory from work with mental patients
• Considered problems to be result of experiences early in life
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Id
• Totally unconscious: has no contact with reality
• Consists of instincts: our reservoir of psychic energy
• Has no morality
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Ego
• Deals with the demands of reality
• Called the “executive branch” of personality: uses reasoning to make decisions
• Has no morality
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Superego
• The moral branch of personality
• Takes into account whether something is right or wrong
• Our “conscience”
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Psychosocial Development
• Five stages.
• Each stage focuses on a part of the body for experiencing pleasure.
• How conflicts between sources of pleasure are resolved determines adult personality.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of Erogenous Zone
• Erogenous zones are parts of the body that have especially strong pleasure-giving qualities at particular stages of development.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Five Stages of Psychosocial Development
• The Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)
• The Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
• The Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
• The Latent Stage (6 years to puberty)
• The Genital Stage (puberty on)
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Oral Stage (birth to 18 months)
• Pleasure centres around the mouth.
• Chewing, sucking, biting are sources of pleasure.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years)
• Pleasure centres around the anus.
• Elimination functions are sources of pleasure.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Phallic Stage(3 to 6 years)
• Pleasure focuses on the genitals.
• Self-manipulation is a source of pleasure.
• Oedipus Complex appears.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of Oedipus Complex
• The Oedipus Complex is Freud’s term for the young child’s development of an intense desire to replace the same-sex parent and enjoy the affections of the opposite-sex parent.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Resolution of the Oedipus Complex
• Children recognize that their same-sex parent might punish them for their incestuous wishes.
• To reduce this conflict, the child identifies with the same-sex parent, striving to be like him or her.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Latent Stage(6 years to puberty)
• The child represses all interest in sexuality.
• The child develops social and intellectual skills.
• Energy is channelled into emotionally safe areas.
• The child forgets the highly stressful conflicts of the phallic stage.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Genital Stage(puberty on)
• This is a time of sexual reawakening.
• The source of sexual pleasure comes from outside the family.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of Fixation
• A fixation occurs when the individual remains locked in an earlier developmental stage because needs are under- or overgratified.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Examples of Fixations
• Oral – due to parents weaning too early, as an adult the individual seeks out oral gratification through smoking, drinking, gum chewing.
• Anal – due to parents being too strict with potty training, as an adult the individual is excessively neat and orderly (known as “anal retentive”).
• Phallic – due to parents punishing the child for masturbating, as an adult the individual seeks out pornography.
• Genital – due to parents smothering the child with too much affection, as an adult the individual has difficulty in romantic relationships, the result of being extremely “needy.”
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Contemporary View of Freud’s Theory
• Unconscious thought remains a central theme
• Conscious thought plays larger role
• Less emphasis on sexual instincts
• Greater emphasis on cultural experiences
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994)
• Recognized Freud’s contributions
• Believed Freud misjudged some important dimensions of human development
• Developed the Psychosocial Theory of Development
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Psychosocial Theory of Development
• The primary motivation for human behaviour is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people.
• Eight stages of development unfold throughout the entire life span.
• Each stage consists of a unique development task that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be faced.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Psychosocial Theory of Development (cont’d)
• Crises are not catastrophes but rather turning points of increased vulnerability and enhanced potential.
• The more an individual resolves crises successfully, the healthier development will be.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Trust vs. Mistrust• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt• Initiative vs. Guilt• Industry vs. Inferiority• Identity vs. Identity Confusion• Intimacy vs. Isolation• Generativity vs. Stagnation• Integrity vs. Despair
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Trust vs. Mistrust(First Year)
• A sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal amount of fear and apprehension about the future.
• Trust in infancy sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt(Second Year)
• After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their behaviour is their own.
• They start to assert their sense of independence or autonomy.
• They realize their will.• If infants are restrained too much or
punished too harshly, they are likely to develop a sense of shame and doubt.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Initiative vs. Guilt(Preschool Years)
• As preschool children encounter a widening social world, they are challenged more than when they were infants and active purposeful behaviour is needed to cope with these challenges.
• Children are asked to assume responsibility for their bodies, behaviour, toys, and pets.
• Guilt may arise if the child is irresponsible and made to feel anxious.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Industry vs. Inferiority(Elementary School Years)
• As children move into middle and late childhood, they direct their energy towards mastering knowledge and intellectual skills.
• The danger during this time is the development of a sense of inferiority – feeling incompetent and unproductive.
• Erikson believed that teachers have special responsibility for children’s development of industry.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Identity vs. Identity Confusion(Adolescence)
• Individuals are faced with finding out who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life.
• Adolescents are confronted with many new roles and adult status.
• If the adolescent explores roles in a healthy manner and arrives at a positive path in life, then positive identity will be achieved.
• If an identity is pushed on the adolescent by parents, if the adolescent does not adequately explore many roles then identity confusion reigns.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Intimacy vs. Isolation(Early Adulthood)
• Individuals face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships with others.
• Intimacy is defined as finding oneself yet losing oneself in another.
• Intimacy is achieved through the formation of healthy friendships and an intimate relationship with another individual.
• Isolation results from failure to achieve the above.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Generativity vs. Stagnation(Middle Adulthood)
• A chief concern is to assist the younger generation in developing and leading useful lives (generativity).
• The feeling of having done nothing to help the next generation is stagnation.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Integrity vs. Despair(Late Adulthood)
• This involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one’s life has been well spent.
• Integrity is achieved through reflecting on a past deemed worthwhile.
• If the older adult resolved many of the earlier stages of negativity, looking back will lead to doubt or gloom (despair).
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Contributions of Psychoanalytic Theories
• Early experiences play an important part in development.
• Family relationships are a central aspect of development.
• Personality can be better understood if it is examined developmentally.
• The mind is not all conscious; unconscious aspects of the mind need to be considered.
• Changes take place in the adulthood as well as the childhood years (Erikson).
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Theories
• The main concepts have been difficult to test scientifically.
• Much of the data used to support these theories come from individuals’ reconstruction of the past, often the distant past, and are of unknown accuracy.
• The sexual underpinnings of development are given too much importance (especially by Freud).
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Criticisms of Psychoanalytic Theories ( cont’d)
• The unconscious mind is given too much credit for influencing development.
• Psychoanalytic theories present an image of humans that is too negative (especially Freud).
• Psychoanalytic theories are culture- and gender-biased.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The
Cognitive
Approach
Piaget;’s
Cognitive
Developmental
Theory
Lev Vygotsky’s
Socio-cultural
Cognitive
Theory
Information-
Processing
Approach
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)
• Swiss psychologist• Observed his own
children to develop theory of cognitive development
• Changed how we think about the development of children’s minds
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
• Children actively construct their understanding of the world.
• Children progress through four stages of cognitive development.
• Two processes underlie development: – Assimilation– Accommodation
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of Assimilation
• Incorporating new information into their existing knowledge.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of Accommodation
• Adapting one’s existing knowledge to new information.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
• Sensorimotor Stage (0 – 2 years)
• Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)
• Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years)
• Formal Operational Stage (11 and up)
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Sensorimotor Stage(0 – 2 years)
• Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical motor actions.
• At the beginning, newborns are limited to reflexive patterns.
• By the end, 2-year-olds are beginning to operate with primitive symbols.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Preoperational Stage(2 – 7 years)
• Children begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of Operations• Internalized mental actions that allow
children to do mentally what they previously did physically.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Concrete Operational Stage(7 – 11 years)
• Children can perform mental operations.
• Logical reasoning replaces intuitive thought, as long as reasoning can be applied to concrete examples.
• Algebra is too abstract for this stage.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Formal Operational Stage(11 and up)
• Individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in the abstract, more logical terms.
• Problem solving is more systematic and involves hypotheses.
• Adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Cognitive Theory
• Shares Piaget’s view that children actively construct their knowledge.
• Emphasizes developmental analysis, the role of language, and social relations.
• Like Piaget, Vygotsky’s ideas were not introduced in America until the 1960s.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Vygotsky’s Three Basic Claims about Children’s Development
• The child’s cognitive skills can be understood only when they are developmentally analyzed and interpreted.
• Cognitive skills are mediated by words, language, and forms of discourse.
• Cognitive skills have their origins in social relations and are embedded in a socio-cultural backdrop.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Information-Processing Approach
• Emphasizes that individuals manipulate, monitor, and strategize about information.
• Central are the processes of memory and thinking.
• Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information.
• This enables the acquisition of increasingly complex knowledge and skills.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Contributions of the Cognitive Theories
• They present a positive view of development, emphasizing individuals’ conscious thinking.
• They emphasize the individual’s active construction of understanding.
• Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories underscore the importance of examining developmental changes in children’s thinking.
• The information-processing approach offers a detailed description of cognitive processes.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Criticisms of the Cognitive Theories
• There is skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages.
• They do not give adequate attention to individual variations in cognitive development.
• Information processing doesn’t provide adequate description of developmental changes in cognition.
• Psychoanalytic theorists argue that the cognitive theories do not give enough credit to unconscious thought.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories
• These theories believe that scientifically we can only study what can be directly observed and measured.
• They also believe that development is observable behaviour that can be learned through experience with the environment.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Behavioural and
Social Cognitive Approach
Pavlov’s
Classical
Conditioning
Skinner’s
Operant
Conditioning
Social
Cognitive
Theory
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Classical Conditioning
• In the early 1900s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered the phenomenon in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a behavioural response originally produced by another stimulus.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Operant Conditioning
• B. F. Skinner demonstrated that the consequences of a behaviour produce changes in the probability of the behaviour occurring again.
• Consequences can be either reward (increasing the likelihood of behaviour recurrence) or punishment (decreasing this chance).
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Social Cognitive Theory
• Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel believed that cognitive processes are important mediators of environment-behaviour connections.
• Learning occurs through observing what others do, as individuals cognitively represent what they see and adopt the behaviour themselves.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Contributions of Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories
• They emphasize the importance of scientific research.
• They focus on the environmental determinants of behaviour.
• They underscore the importance of observational learning (Bandura).
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Criticisms of Behavioural and Social Cognitive Theories
• Pavlov and Skinner put too little emphasis on cognition.
• They put too much emphasis on environmental determinants.
• They give inadequate attention to developmental changes.
• They are too mechanical and give inadequate consideration to the spontaneity and creativity of humans.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Ethological Theory
• Behaviour is strongly influenced by biology.
• Behaviour is tied to evolution.
• Behaviour is characterized by critical periods.
• European zoologist Konrad Lorenz (1903 – 1989) identified imprinting.
• John Bowlby theorizes about attachment.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of Critical Period
• A fixed time period very early in development during which certain behaviours optimally emerge.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Definition of Imprinting
• The rapid, innate learning within a limited critical period of time that involves attachment to the first moving object seen.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Attachment
• A concept based on principles of ethological theory.
• Attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences:– Positive and secure attachment results in
positive development. – Negative and insecure attachment results in
problematic development.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Contributions of Ethological Theory
• It has an increased focus on the biological an evolutionary basis of development.
• It uses careful observations in naturalistic settings.
• It emphasizes critical periods of development.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Criticisms of Ethological Theory
• The critical period concept may be too rigid.
• It places too strong an emphasis on biological foundations.
• It gives inadequate attention to cognition.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Humanist Approach
• Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed that people work hard to become the best they can possibly become.
• Acknowledged the role of values, intentions, and meaning in understanding human behaviour.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987)
• Best known for his contribution to therapy by introducing client-centred therapy.
• Actualizing tendency is Rogers’s term for people’s ability to become the best they can become.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970)• Self actualization is Maslow’s term for
ability for people to become the best they can become.
• Developed a Hierarchy of Needs that helps to explain human motivation.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Belonging Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-actualization
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Physiological Needs
• Maslow believed that our physiological needs must be met first.
• Examples include oxygen, water, food, sleep, etc.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Safety and Security Needs
• Once our physiological needs are met, we are motivated to the second level of need: safety and security.
• Safety and security may be realized by job security, economic stability, savings for retirement, insurance, etc.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Love and Belonging Needs
• Once we feel safe we look for love and a sense of belonging.
• We are motivated towards behaviours that encourage our acceptance by family and friends.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Esteem Needs
• Once our belonging and love needs are met, we strive for recognition.
• If our esteem needs are not met, most of us will suffer from varying degrees of low self-esteem and inferiority.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Self-Actualization
• Realizing our potential or being the best we can possibly be.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Contributions of Humanist Approach
• Reflects a positive regard for human nature.
• Influenced and reshaped the nature of the therapist-client interaction.
• Considers the role of the environment on development.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Criticisms of Humanist Approach
• Interpretation is too subjective.
• Approach lacks scientific rigor of other approaches.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Ecological Approach
• Emphasizes environmental factors.
• Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development consists of five environmental systems, ranging from direct interactions with people to broad-based inputs of culture.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Contributions of Ecological Approach
• A systematic examination of macro- and microdimensions of environmental systems.
• Attention to connections between environmental settings.
• Consideration of socio-historical influences on development.