2009 university of south africa - gimmenotes · organisms (a bit like plants and rats in a...

# 2009 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by theUniversity of South AfricaMuckleneuk, Pretoria

EDC1015/1/2010±2012

98473980

3B2

A4 6pica style

Contents

Unit Page

INTRODUCTION iv

1 THINKING CLEARLY AND LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE:THE BEGINNING OF OUR NEW WORLD 1

2 ASKING QUESTIONS: CHALLENGING WHAT THE WORLD TELLS US 7

3 HOW IN THE WORLD CAN WE GIVE OUR LIVES MEANING? 12

4 WHAT OF AN AFRICAN WORLD? 17

5 CAN WE CHANGE OUR WORLD? 22

6 RETHINKING A WOMAN'S WORLD 30

7 WHO IN THE WORLD AM I? 34

8 IS THERE A WORLD THAT SPEAKS TO US? 38

9 WHERE IN THE WORLD ARE WE GOING? 43

(iii) EDC1015/1/2010±2012

Introduction

We want to welcome you to this module in Theoretical frameworks inEducation. We sincerely hope that you will enjoy working through theprescribed book with its interactive text, with the additional assistance ofthis wrap-around guide. We hope you will find the content interesting andinformative. Above all we hope that this module will inspire you to thinkabout yourself, your teaching, your own context and the wider worldaround you.

We use a pluralistic (more than one), problem-centred approach to exposeyou to several life views and the practical application of these frameworksin your specific situation. We want to emphasise that there is not one singlesolution to life's problems and questions; and there certainly is not oneperson with all the answers.

In the introduction to your prescribed book, Philip and Jane tell us thatphilosophy wants us to rethink, recreate and transform. Philosophy startswhen people start asking questions. We want you to ask questions whileyou work through this module. Play around with ideas, and include fellowstudents in your journey. If you want to contact your lecturers, use the webpage (myUnisa), email or telephone to continue with the conversationsstarted in the prescribed book and the study guide.

In this study guide we literally guide you through the nine units of yourprescribed book; you should therefore use this guide in conjunction with theprescribed book. We give learning outcomes at the start of each unit. Wewill give the outcomes of the whole module, as well as the assessmentcriteria in your Tutorial letter 101.

Good luck with your studies

Your Lecturers

(iv)

D

D

D

D

UNIT 1

Thinking clearly and learning fromexperience: the beginning of our newworld

LOGICAL EMPIRICISM

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

Philosophy of logical empiricism

Main divisions

Linguistic analysisLogical symbolism

Empiricism

Teaching and learning

Theory of behaviourismObjectives and results

Reinforcement Ð positive and negative

Main ideas

Verification ObjectivityExperience Logical truthAnalysis Factual truthMeasurement ExperimentsQuantitative research Scientific/mathematical

statements

Main proponents

B RusselAJ AyerJ LockeD HumeRS Peters

BF Skinner & Vienna Circle

Advantages Disadvantages

Encourage disciplined thinking Ignore human valuesDiscourage prejudice Considers emotions as unim-Help with clear thinking portantVerifies knowledge Places too much emphasis

on science

1 EDC1015/1

2

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this unit, you will be able to

. give an explanation of linguistic analysis, logical symbolism andempiricism

. explain the kind of problems these theories will be able to solve

. apply these theories in a teaching/training environment

. give the advantages and disadvantages of espousing this way of thinking

KEY CONCEPTS

Keep the following key concepts in mind when reading through yourprescribed book Rethinking our world (RW). We will explain the meaningof the concepts as we work through the prescribed book.

. Linguistic analysis

. Logical symbolism

. Empiricism

. Verification

. Objectivity

. Experience

. Analysis

INTRODUCTION

We are going to look at logical empiricism (logical positivism) in this unit.This metatheory/philosophy consists of three branches, namely linguisticanalysis, logical symbolism and empiricism (see RW [Rethinking ourworld Ð we will use the abbreviation throughout the guide] p 16).

ACTIVITY 1a

Logical empiricism has two basic ideas: logic and empiricism. Withoutlooking in a dictionary, try to explain what you think these words mean:

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 1b

Now get the dictionary and write down the definitions you get from it:

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

3 EDC1015/1

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

We give concept clarifications as we work through this unit, and explain thethree points of view included in logical empiricism.

Briefly, a logical idea is an idea that can be defined precisely. A sentence islogically true if its truth can be determined by an appeal to the meaning ofwords and its grammatical structure. Empiricism claims that a statement isempirically true if the truth can be determined through sense experience.

OVERVIEW

Logical positivism thrived during the early part of the 20th century,especially in Britain and the USA. The main objective in this metatheory isto practise science as objectively as possible, and to try and verify allstatements. The point of departure was that personal values, which aresubjective, are not important enough to include in research projects. Valuesare regarded as meaningless, seeing that one cannot verify them. It isproposed that if the research object cannot be proved to be right or wrong,it is not researchable. Emotions like hope, fear, love, religious beliefs andpolitical commitment are seen as not important, because they cannot bemeasured and checked in the same way scientific statements can bechecked.

Plato was the first philosopher who tried to get people to think clearly. Readmore about his views in RW p 7.

We are now going to discuss the three main divisions of logical empiricismor positivism.

Linguistic analysis (RW pp 9±11)

The history of linguistic analysis is discussed on p 10 of RW. It is proposedthat the main aim in linguistic analysis is to clear our minds of all wordsthat muddle us and confuse the scientific enterprise. You can read a lotabout the meaning of words in pp 1±7 in RW.

An example of a statement that would be usable in linguistic analysis couldbe: ``Metal expands when heated''.

ACTIVITY 1c

Give an exact definition of each of the words in the statement. You might beable to do this by using a dictionary:

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

4

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

We can give a very clear and precise definition of all the words in thestatement Ð we know the meaning of ``metal'', ``expand'' and ``heat''.

An example of a statement that is not so easily explained could be ``God islove''.

ACTIVITY 1d

Try to define the different words in the above statement as precisely aspossible. The dictionary definition will probably not give you a satisfactoryexplanation, because our personal values are involved in a statement likethis.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

What is your scientific clarification of the concept of ``God''? We as humanscannot give a clear and precise definition of the words ``God'' or ``love''.This kind of statement would be meaningless in linguistic analysis.

The general advantages and disadvantages of using linguistic analysis areon p 10 of RW.

Logical symbolism (RW pp 11±13)

Factual and logical statements are important in logical symbolism.

A factual statement would be something like ``It is raining outside''. Thisstatement can be proved right or wrong.

Factual statements are different from value statements in the sense thatthey cannot be proved right or wrong (see pages 12±13 in RW). Values aresomething important to you personally. However, values do not fit thethinking paradigm of logical positivism, because there is no scientificclarification for values. Objective truth is of importance in this frame ofreference, and subjective truth is seen as less significant.

Mathematical statements are logical statements, eg 2 + 2 = 4.

Empiricism (RW pp 13±16)

The Shorter Oxford Dictionary defines empiricism as ``the theory thatregards experience as the only source of knowledge''. In other words,empiricism refers to the belief that the only real knowledge one has comesfrom experience Ð either one's own or those of others.

Empiricists propose that knowledge gained from our senses (eg seeing,hearing, touching, smelling, tasting) is the most reliable kind of knowledge.

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED BY LOGICAL POSITIVISTS OR EMPIRICISTS

ACTIVITY 1e

What kind of problems do you think we could solve by using any of theabove points of reference? Give an example from your field of interest.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

The most straightforward problems would be from the natural sciences orin mathematics or language analysis. One could also approach problems inthe human and social sciences from this perspective, as long as one usesscientific methods (eg observation, testing, induction or deduction). If wewant to research the question: ``Why is the divorce rate so high in SouthAfrica?'' we will probably follow some of these steps:

. Set hypotheses

. Define precisely what the different cultural/religious groups in thecountry see as divorce

. Find statistics already done on the subject

. Get a sample from the population to study

. Draw up carefully worded questionnaires

APPLICATION IN PRACTICE

This way of thinking often reduces human beings to purely physicalorganisms (a bit like plants and rats in a laboratory). Researchers whostudy human beings through the theoretical framework mentioned aboveare convinced that they can find out why people behave in a certain manner.These scientists believe that they can control human behaviour.

This way of thinking is especially part of the theory of behaviourism.Logical empiricism gave rise to this theory. The theory of behaviourismclaims that human beings are entirely physical; that our minds are no more

5 EDC1015/1

6

than our brains and that our brains are simply complex electronic deviceslike computers. This ``computer'' receives input from the world around usand then responds to this input Ð its response is our behaviour.

The theory of behaviourism is associated with three people in particular,namely IP Pavlov, BF Skinner and J Watson. Pavlov was the researcher whoperformed the well-known experiments with dogs, studying stimulus andresponse reactions known as ``unconditioned behaviour''.

This theory can be applied with great success in teaching and training. Thebasic purpose of human sciences is to solve problems by changing people'sbehaviour.

With positive (reward) and negative (``punishment'') reinforcement, onegets results. Objectives are important in order to get results.

ACTIVITY 1f

Give examples of behaviourism in your field of interest.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

In teaching and training one would make use of the concept of ``reward''and ``punishment''. For instance if you are the teacher/trainer and you needto get your students to attend classes and pass examinations, you could give``debits'' for failure to attend class and deduct marks from their test scores;or you might give ``credits'' for class attendance and maybe award bonuspoints in tests. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of practices suchas these.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

7 EDC1015/1

D

D

D

D

UNIT 2

Asking questions: Challenging what theworld tells us

CRITICAL RATIONALISM

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

Theory of critical rationalism

Theory of critical analysis; theory of constant questioning


Debate/dialogue

Explanation

Rational problem solving

Questioning

Main ideas

Debate Criticism

Freedom of expression Explanation

Falsifiability Democracy

Questioning Anti-authoritarian

Open society Non-dogmatic

Some supporters

Socrates

K Popper

S Hawking

W Brezinska


Encourage questioning Makes people feel insecure

Promote justice and fairness No help with quick decisions/

Basis for democracy immediate action

Help with problem solving Cannot help with finding

meaning in life

8

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this unit you will be able to

. explain what critical rationalism entails

. discuss the kind of problems to be solved by critical rationalists

. apply this theory in a teaching/training environment


KEY CONCEPTS

. Critical rationalism

. Falsification

. Trial and error

. Open-mindedness

. Antidogmatic

. Anti-authoritarian

INTRODUCTION

Like logical empiricists, critical rationalists emphasise that scientists must

be objective. Scientists espousing this philosophy are prepared to have their

views criticised and challenged by other scientists. But, unlike logical

empiricists, critical rationalists say that values should not be ignored,

because values and meaning are important.

ACTIVITY 2a

Let's do the same exercise as previously and try to explain the two words

``critical'' and ``ratio'' without a dictionary.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 2b

Use the dictionary and see whether you could find the abovementioned

words there:

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

Critical rationalism emphasises the importance of clear thinking and the

asking of questions. The driving force behind critical thinking is rationality,

that is, the readiness to learn from mistakes and false theories.

OVERVIEW

Socrates was one of the first philosophers who challenged ideas and beliefs,

and he encouraged his students to do the same. Critical rationalism as a

philosophy, however, is a 20th century philosophy. The history of critical

rationalism is on p 22 of RW.

Karl Popper was the most important supporter of critical rationalism in the

20th century. Critical rationalists believe that nobody starts scientific

research with a blank mind. One always starts off with theories or ideas in

mind that one needs to test for falsity (read scenarios 1, 2 and 3 in RW

pp 21±22).

According to Popper, we can find that a statement is definitely false, but not

that it is definitely true. This is known as the ``principle of falsification''.

We usually try to prove something wrong in critical rationalism by using

the trial and error method.

ACTIVITY 2c

Questioning is really important in critical rationalism. Many people do not

question things. People generally accept what religious ministers tell them,

what the papers say and what advertisements tell them to believe. Even

consumers do not like to complain Ð they accept badly made goods and

poor service. Do you agree or not? Sketch a scenario from your own life

depicting how you allowed yourself to be brainwashed, accepting some-

thing uncritically.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

Read pp 22±23 in RW for a summary of critical rationalism.

The whole aim of critical rationalism is to make sure we do not come to

9 EDC1015/1

believe in an idea that is false. According to critical rationalists, it is only bytesting our ideas using the most stringent tests that we can begin toprogress in our knowledge.

The principle of asking questions and of falsification makes criticalrationalism a very open-minded, antidogmatic and anti-authoritarianphilosophy. It is only in open societies that problems are discussed andsolved through the free exchange of ideas.

Critical rationalists claim that values, like scientific discoveries, must beopen to debate. We must be prepared to have our values challenged (readpp 24±26 in RW about values in critical rationalism). If we are not preparedto respond to these kinds of challenges, we do not support the principle ofan open society and democracy. Critical rationalists are bitterly opposed toregimes that silence and intimidate people.

Values guide scientific research, but science and objectivity should be usedto examine our values. Values that are important in scientific researchwould for instance be honesty, reliability and truthfulness. If the peopledoing the research are not honest and reliable, the research results will bemeaningless and often even untrue.

The advantages and disadvantages of espousing critical rationalism aregiven on p 27 of RW.

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED IN CRITICAL RATIONALISM

Scientists, in critical rationalism, are said to start their research by tryingto prove existing theories or research false. In fact, we all do this as we gothrough life. We grow up believing certain things (usually what our parents,teachers or religious leaders have told us). The experiences we have in lifethen tell us whether these beliefs and traditions are true or false. Mostpeople modify their beliefs as they grow older. Most of us, includingscientists, find things out by trial and error. In science we will talk about ahypothesis that we check against reality to find out whether it is wrong.

The difference between scientific statements and nonscientific statementsis that scientific statements can be proved wrong; nonscientific statementscannot be proved wrong.

If scientists start asking ``why?'' then they start searching for the answer totheir question. For instance, why does a stone fall to the ground if I let it go?Why do some people succeed in business while others fail? Why do somemanagers get the best out of their staff while others provoke hostility andresentment? Why do some people work more effectively than others? Allthese ``why'' questions need some explaining. According to criticalrationalism, the aim of science is to find satisfactory explanations Ð wedo this by trying to reject that which is false and then find a moreacceptable explanation. People often do not argue in a rational way, and sotheir explanations will be unacceptable/unsatisfactory.

10

ACTIVITY 2d

The classification of various types of false arguments can be found onpp 27±29 in RW. Read through this section and try to think of your ownexamples of the different types of false argumentation.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

Read the statements on p 23 of RW and answer the questions.


In the classroom or lecture hall the principles of open-mindedness, debateand dialogue could be practised with great success.

ACTIVITY 2e

Take a theme that is important in your field of interest and explain how youwould apply the above principles in practice:

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

11 EDC1015/1

D

D

D

D

UNIT 3

How in the world can we give our livesmeaning?

EXISTENTIALISM

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

Existentialism

Theory on the meaning of life


Individuals should find their own meaning in life

Main ideas

Self-examination/Self-discovery

Decisionmaking/Choicemaking

Meaning of life

Understanding of existential purpose

Opposed to nihilism

Some proponents

Jean-Paul Sartre, Frantz Fanon, Jean Baudrillard,

Jacques Derrida, Frederick Nietzsche, WEB du Bois


Questions people's ideals and May make us too trusting

values Can be confusing at times

Seeks openness about ourselves May lead to despair

Requires us to trust our instincts Can cause anger and help-

Helps us to spot fakes lessness

Encourages us to enjoy life more May be disruptive

12

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After working through this unit, you will be able to

. explain the central assumptions of existentialism

. compare existentialism and hermeneutics

. describe ways in which existentialism can/cannot help us understand

problems

. draw on existentialism in your teaching practice

KEY CONCEPTS

. Existentialism

. Nihilism

. Self-examination

. Self-discovery

. Decisionmaking

. Choicemaking

. Meaning of life

INTRODUCTION

ACTIVITY 3a

Let's do the same exercise as previously and try to explain the word

``existence'' without a dictionary.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 3b

Use the dictionary and see whether you could find the abovementioned

word there:

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

13 EDC1015/1

14

Existentialism asks the question ``what is the meaning of life?'' or ``why doI exist?'' Individuals need to find meaning for their own existence. There isno single answer to the above questions. Every person will find a uniqueanswer to the questions. The way people respond to this question willdepend on factors including their cultures and belief systems. Existential-ists believe that people should not be told what their unique lives mean.Freedom of choice/decision is very important.

OVERVIEW

Socrates already talked about the risk of living an ``unexamined life'', butthe philosophy actually only gained momentum in the 20th century inreaction to modernism, reliance on technology and the two World Wars.Read more about existentialism and its proponents on pp 34±37, 40 and 42in RW.

Nihilism is the opposite of existentialism Ð read about nihilism on p 39 inRW.

The general advantages and disadvantages of espousing existentialism areon p 40 of RW.

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED IN EXISTENTIALISM

In this unit we look at the different ideas and concepts of existentialismmentioned in the schematic overview. The different activities below aremeant to guide you to discover these ideas and concepts. You will alsodiscover how existentialism can/cannot help you solve your everydayproblems.

ACTIVITY 3c

Read p 35 (RW) on Michel Foucault's thoughts on the influence ofinstitutions such as schools, churches, the family and the civil service onhuman existence. Tell us which of these institutions influenced you,whether in a positive or negative way.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 3d

On the same page, Foucault argues that ``human beings are essentially freeand unformed''. Another philosopher who advocated the freedom of human

15 EDC1015/1

beings is John Locke. He argues that ``we are all by nature free and equal''.But how valid are these claims about freedom and equality? In what waysdo you feel that you are human, free and equal?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 3e

Perhaps the questions asked in 3d are a bit depressing, more like nihilism,which is described on p 39. How would you respond to the followingquestion: ``What is the purpose of your existence?''

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 3f

Read the section, ``Existentialism in a nutshell'', on p 42 (RW). If you wereto follow Socrates and examine your life, within your culture and beliefsystem of course, how would you describe it?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 3g

Existentialists do believe that there is purpose and meaning to life, and thatwe should try to discover them for ourselves (p 40 RW). Tell us how youwould want to spend your life, and why.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................


ACTIVITY 3h

Reflect on how your knowledge of existentialism could assist you in tryingto help a learner/student in your class/lecture hall who has lost bothparents to HIV/AIDS. He or she probably has to take care of his or heryounger siblings, which is a huge responsibility. He or she might feel thatthere is no freedom of choice or meaning in his or her life.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

16

D

D

D

D

UNIT 4

What of an African world?

AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

African philosophy

Different strands/kinds/modes of inquiry

Ethnic philosophySage philosophy

Political philosophyPure philosophy


Use different ethnic and cultural groups in examplesTolerance, respect

Group workTransmission of culture and traditions

Main ideas

Oral traditionIndigenous knowledge systems

AnticolonialismCosmosDeity

CommunityUbuntu

Humanness

Some proponents

Kwame Anthony Appiah, Kwasi Wiredu, Leopold Senghor


Promotes African identity Not widely acceptedConsiders tradition to be important Relies too much on traditionProvides cultural unity Comprises more than oneOrientated towards participatory/ philosophy

group

17 EDC1015/1

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After having studied this unit you will be able to

. explain the central assumptions of African philosophy

. explain the different strands of African philosophy

. differentiate between African philosophy and Western philosophy

. describe ways which African philosophy can/cannot help us understandsocietal problems

. draw on African philosophy to apply in your teaching practice

KEY CONCEPTS

. Cosmos

. Deity

. Humanness

. Community/communalism

. Ubuntu

. Indigenous knowledge systems

INTRODUCTION

ACTIVITY 4a

Do you consider yourself as an African? Why or why not?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

African philosophy has its roots in oral tradition. Its written form datesback to the pharaohs in Egypt. In Africa south of the Sahara, writtenAfrican philosophy emerged as a response to the way colonialism andimperialism subjugated (controlled or dominated) the cultural, scientific,economic and political lives of Africans. The post-colonial era in Africarevolves around the continued struggle for an African identity. Africanphilosophy developed because African intellectuals sought to disprove thebelief held by western philosophers that Africans cannot develop a fully-fledged philosophy. African traditional thought was concerned with thenature of the cosmos, conceptions of deity, the philosophy of the mind, acommunalist and humanistic notion of moral responsibility and aconsensual philosophy of politics. In the overview we talk about the fourtypes/strands of African philosophy.

OVERVIEW

The most important aspect of African philosophy is that, unlike westernphilosophy, which regards the individual as the centre of life, it puts thecommunity first. This is evident in Julius Nyerere's idea of ujamaa; Kenneth

18

Kaunda's humanism; Kwame Nkrumah and Sekou Toure's scientificsocialism; Leopold Senghor's negritude, and Steve Biko's black conscious-ness.

Now go back to your RW and read pp 44±46. In these pages you will readabout the different types/strands of African philosophy. These include:sage, ethnic, political and pure philosophy.

African philosophy emphasises the community and the sense of commun-alism that we as human beings should have. Tradition and culture play amayor role in this way of thinking.

Ubuntu is considered as the central ethical idea of traditional Africanthought.

Read about ubuntu from p 47 to the top of p 48 in RW.

Use the activities below to help you to discover by yourselves theimportance of African philosophy in our lives.

ACTIVITY 4b

Other than the example given in the text you have just read, can you think ofany other classic example of ubuntu that has become part of South Africanhistory since the advent of democracy?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 4c

Most traditional African communities have religious rites and ritualsthrough which they communicate with their gods, ancestors or spirits. Canyou briefly describe a set of religious rites and rituals that your communitypractices?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 4d

Over the years the Basotho people developed a joint communal practice ofworking together as a team on family fields known as the Letsema. Describea similar activity/activities that your community practices.

19 EDC1015/1

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 4e

In most traditional African cultures the political and social decisions aremade by a gathering of senior men known as the Lekgotla (nationalassembly). In modern-day democracies the Lekgotla is likely to come underheavy criticism. Can you think of any reasons why this might be the case?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 4f

One of the characteristic features of African philosophy is the oral tradition.This is the practice of storytelling that gets passed down from generation togeneration, and has a specific moral purpose. Can you describe some of themorals that oral tradition seeks to uphold in your culture?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED BY AFRICAN PHILOSOPHY

ACTIVITY 4g

A central component of African philosophy is generally referred to asindigenous African knowledge systems (IKS). This encompasses a broadrange of issues, eg indigenous technologies, indigenous medicines,indigenous games, etc. Can you list examples in each of these categoriesthat are still being practised in either your community or a community youhave knowledge of?

20

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................


There is a lot of talk about ``Africanisation of the curriculum'' in educationand training. This is a call for an African-centred approach to educationaldiscourse, for it is argued that all education in Africa must have Africa as itscentral point and focus, or else such education becomes alien, oppressiveand irrelevant. The term ``Africa'' does not mean a homogeneous conceptionof the term, but includes a variety of indigenous cultures characterised bydiverse languages, beliefs, cultures and social practices.

ACTIVITY 4h

Imagine that you are a teacher at the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academyfor girls. How can you draw on African philosophy to instil a sense ofubuntu among the girls at a school that has raised concerns about itspotential to alienate learners from their communities by exposing them toexcessive luxury and privilege?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

21 EDC1015/1

D

D

D

UNIT 5

Can we change our world?

SYSTEMS THEORY AND CRITICAL THEORY

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

Critical theory


Critical pedagogyEverybody has a voice

Critical thinking Ð against marginalisation

Main ideas

Ethics are importantCriticism of power structures

Focus on power gamesWants to liberate everybody from oppression

Knowledge created by humans

Some proponents

Karl MarxM FoucaultP Freire

J HabermasH MarcuseT Adorno

Frankfurt School


Realistically assess power structures It may lead to despairMorals and ethics are important Language is often difficultUnmask the powerful It can become fanaticalOpposed to marginalisation It can be too idealisticEncourage emancipation

22

D

D

D

D

Systems theory

Life = huge number of complex systems


Understanding of systemsAnalysis of systemsChanging of systems

Main ideas

AnalysisComplexity

Dynamic relationsProblem-solving

Systematic approachWholeness

Functionality

Some proponents

BertalanffyT Parsons

Engineers in general


Encourages logical analysis No focus on ethicsDisciplined thinking Ignores problems of powerAnalytical, thorough approach No focus on emotions

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. explain what critical theory and systems theory entail

. discuss the kind of problems to be solved by critical theorists andsystems theorists



KEY CONCEPTS

. critical theory

. oppression

. emancipation

23 EDC1015/1

. critical reflection

. systems theory

. wholeness

. complexity

. functionality

. input x output

INTRODUCTION

ACTIVITY 5a

Systems theory and critical theory both comment on the systems in whichwe live and how these systems influence our lives as a whole. How has thesystem (community/society) you live in influenced your life?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

We will discuss both theories in more detail below. We will concentrate oncritical theory in all the examples.

OVERVIEW

Systems theory

Bertalanffy (see p 64 RW) attempted to develop a new way of doing scienceby looking at everything (including human beings) in a system.

A short summary of systems theory is on p 64 of RW. The first thing of noteis that systems theory sees things as wholes. It does not believe that onewould understand something better by splitting it up into parts. Modernsystems theory is based on the idea that all systems share certain concepts.The following essentials are mentioned:

. The parts of the system work together in some way.

. The system is a whole.

. All systems have goals.

. All systems have inputs and outputs.

. All systems take inputs and turn them into outputs.

. All systems absorb and generate some form of energy.

. Systems work in a certain order.

In many ways systems theory is problem-centred. It sees the world andhuman activity largely as a process of problem solving.

24

25 EDC1015/1

Systems theory is not social critique Ð it is not idealistic in the sense that itcriticises, for example, the capitalist system in the way critical theorywould. Systems theory merely says there are different ways of looking at aproblem. It also emphasises that problems are very complex and that ourunderstanding of these problems is always incomplete.

Although systems theory does not set out to reform the world, itsquestioning approach often reveals inconsistencies. It claims that socialreformers often take an overly simplistic approach to society and theworkings of society.

Any system is part of the wider world. The education system, for instance,is a good example. It does not exist by itself; it takes place in a society.Education and training are carried out within a certain social system, aswell as a particular education system. The purpose of education andtraining is to change and improve individual students' own systems. Whatmakes it so difficult is that these systems always feed on each other and theeffect of this is impossible to predict. The learner's own system contains somany possibilities that the education system cannot cater for all the needsof any one student. Then the whole class still needs to be taken intoconsideration and that makes it an almost impossible task. Furthermore,training and education are carried out deliberately and one cannot predicthow a learner will react to the compulsory learning input. No amount ofgood teaching guarantees any results.

ACTIVITY 5b

People are also systems. Explain how a person can be a system.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

We are all made up of different elements which form systems. For instance,our minds and personalities have evolved in response to the problems weencounter in the greater environment around us. We are, however, inconstant interaction with other systems, such as the community around us,the bigger society, our friends and our family.

The advantages of using systems theory are the following:

. It is a simple philosophy in the sense that everything can be described asa system with a function.

. It encourages openness in the sense that scientists from different fields ofresearch talk to each other.

. Systems theory can be applied to observe anything and everything. Itreveals blind spots in people's thinking.

26

The disadvantages could be:

. It often uses difficult language to say something very simple.

. It is sometimes vague and impractical. It is often too abstract to bepractical.

. It ignores problems of power and prefers things to stay as they are,instead of considering change.

ACTIVITY 5c

Which specific systems in society influence education and training? Inwhich manner does this influence take place?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

Critical theory

Critical theory started in Germany in the 1930s. Since the 1960s it hasdeveloped from a German-based philosophy to a powerful influencethroughout the world. The history of critical theory is on p 71 of RW.

Critical theorists have a lot to say about power structures in society andtheir influence on society. They say that all forms of domination stop peoplefrom being free.

Critical theorists believe they can offer us a comprehensive account ofsociety and the production of knowledge. Their aim is the total emancipa-tion (empowerment) of each and every human being from all forms ofoppression.

ACTIVITY 5d

Critical theory is about society and the way in which we are all dominatedby society, the social structures and the power structures at a certain time.Read about power structures on pp 75±79 in RW. If you think about yourown life, how were/are you oppressed or discriminated against by people inpower?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

27 EDC1015/1

Critical theorists believe that all of us are trapped by modern society. Thisis because modern society is run by technology which is developing too fastand which has become complex and alien to most people (compare also tothe views of postmodernism). Critical theorists feel that the mass mediamake people passive and resigned about the problems created byauthorities, and that they brainwash people to adopt a particular point ofview.

Critical theorists believe that all societies have inequalities of wealth andstatus. This happens, because modern democratic societies are dominatedand driven by the global money market and the mass media. The massmedia encourage us to do things that serve the interests of the wealthy andthe powerful, and often people do not even know that they are manipulated.

Critical theory wants us to critically reflect on society. We should try todiscover the hidden assumptions that maintain existing power relations.We should look at what ``enslaves'' people. Then we should try to altersocial reality by the way we participate in it.

According to critical theorists, knowledge should not be manipulated by thepowerful in society. Knowledge should be part of everyday life. Knowledge,including scientific knowledge, is part of human existence and our need toknow is a human need. Science is a human activity carried out only byhumans. Wants, desires, emotions and personal convictions guide allhuman beings and therefore also their scientific endeavour. Science,therefore, cannot be totally neutral and objective. Knowledge cannot beseen separately from everyday practice. Critical theorists talk about praxis= theory-in-practice.

Read about the advantages and disadvantages of critical theory on pp 79±80 of RW.

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED IN CRITICAL THEORY

Researchers using critical theory will for instance look at the way in whicheducational and social reform is related to changing power structures insociety. They might also look at what happens in classrooms, lecture hallsor in society itself and how these practices influence learners' identities.

The instrumental and manipulative approach of modern society is seen veryclearly in modern education and training institutions. From the age of 6upwards, children are made to fit into the ``system''. What would yourreaction be to the following questions regarding the education system?

ACTIVITY 5e

How does our way of seeing education lead to discrimination and injustice?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

What are the power relations that form the basis of education?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

How is the way we think about education the effect of power?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

Learners today are not the same as they were in ancient Greece. What is

regarded as an ``educated person'' today differs a lot from what was

expected in the past. What is regarded as an ``educated person'' in any

society, however, is very much related to social and political conditions.

ACTIVITY 5f

In modern educational reform, educators have been eager to turn learners

into problem-solvers. Could all learners be moulded like this? Is this not a

form of manipulation of learners to become what society wants them to

become? What about each individual's unique abilities? What is your

reaction to this?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

The same kind of manipulation becomes part of curriculum development.

Think about the following questions:

ACTIVITY 5g

In whose interest is the development of a specific curriculum?

Who decides what needs to be taught?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

28


We believe that the most valuable contribution of critical theory toeducation has been the notion of questioning what is meant by ``knowl-edge''.

Critical pedagogy is the term used to describe critical theories in education.One of the basic beliefs of critical pedagogy is that educational institutionsand teaching do not educate people at all. They merely teach people toaccept power structures in society.

ACTIVITY 5h

We live in a society and time of ``quick fixes''. We need to quickly ``grab abite'' when working, because we do not have enough time to sit and relax ortalk to our fellow workers. Luckily we can get plastic containers with allkinds of quick food. Unfortunately these containers are being thrown allover the place and are often not biodegradable. Are you prepared to livewith this kind of lifestyle in this kind of society? Somebody makes moneyout of us, and then we help to mess up the environment. We give littleattention to communication skills and to building relations with our fellowworkers. What could be a solution to this kind of problem?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

If you did come up with a solution, you probably reflected critically on thesituation and on society. You were thinking like a critical theorist.

29 EDC1015/1

D

D

D

D

UNIT 6

Rethinking a woman's world

FEMINISM

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

Feminism

Different strandsAfricanAmericanBritish

EuropeanIslamic


Questions traditional social rolesTolerance and respect

Main ideas

Male dominationFemale oppression

Social rolesSexual stereotyping

PowerExclusionPatriarchy

Some proponents

Mamphela Ramphele, N'Dri Assie-Lumumba,Margaret Atwood, Catherine Odora Hoppers,Naomi Wolf, Lindiwe Zulu, Maria Mzamo


Encourages re-examination Limits dialogue between menvalue systems and women

Empowers women Tends to portray men asGives women courage predatory

Tends to idealise women

30

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. explain the central assumptions of feminism

. differentiate between different forms of feminism

. describe ways which feminism can/cannot help us understand societal

problems

. draw on feminism to apply in your teaching practice

KEY CONCEPTS

. Feminism

. Power

. Male domination

. Exclusion/Marginalisation

. Patriarchy

INTRODUCTION

Feminism is a cluster of philosophies (see different kinds/strands of

feminism on p 88 in RW) whose focus is on sexual stereotyping, in

particular the rejection of the assumption that women are inferior to men. It

lobbies for the recognition and acknowledgement of the worth of women in

society. Feminist theory advocates that women, just like men, have rights

that ought to be respected and not violated; that women have valuable

talents and strengths; and that they are equally capable of doing anything

men can do. Nigerian Afro-beat singer Fela Anikulapo-Kuti captures this

more clearly in his heat song, ``Lady'':

She go say, she equal to man

She go say, she got power like man

She go say anytin' man can do himself fit do

OVERVIEW

The main focus of all forms of feminism is given on p 88 of RW. There is

also a description of some of the different forms feminism can take (RW

p 88). African feminism is discussed on pp 90±91 (RW) and British and

American feminism (First and Second Wave feminism) on pp 91±97. There

is also a very concise discussion of Islamic feminism on pp 96±97 (RW).

ACTIVITY 6a

At your work place, of the people who are in positions of responsibility, how

many are male and how many are female? Which group is favoured: men or

women? And if the disparities favour men, why do you think this is the

case?

31 EDC1015/1

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 6b

Which tasks and duties are performed by men, and which ones areperformed by women? In your opinion, are there compelling reasons whythis should be so?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

Read your prescribed textbook (RW) from pp 88±96 to find out whyfeminism came into being and how it proposes to eradicate the issues dealtwith in the activities above.

ACTIVITY 6c

Read on p 97 about patriarchal fundamentalism. What is your response tothe claim that the universe was created and is ruled by a male god whocreated men in his image?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 6d

In your opinion should God be addressed as a male, as in ``God-the-Father'',or as a female ``God-the-Mother''? Why?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

32

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED BY FEMINISM

Explain how feminism could influence the decision of a highly successfulcareer woman who wants to get married, but her husband-to-be believesthat a woman does not need to have a career because he will take care ofher.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................


How would you succeed in getting the boys/young men to sweep and dustyour classroom (a so-called women's job)?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

33 EDC1015/1

D

D

D

D

UNIT 7

Who in the world am I?

PHENOMENOLOGY

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

Philosophy of phenomenology

Different divisions

Phenomenology and the self

Social phenomenology

Cosmic phenomenology


Learning is the discovery of the self

Teaching is helping learners to discover who they are

Main ideas

Inner being is more important than the outside world

Essence of a phenomenon is being researched

Important in various religions, such as Buddism

Discovery of truth is important

Main proponents

Husserl

M Heidegger

M Green

J Derrida


Ethical concerns are important Can be authoritarian

Enables us to examine our lives Language can be difficult

closely It can be too uncritical of

Slow down authority

Lead less stressful lives

Humanitarian and compas-

sionate

34

INTRODUCTION

In critical theory we spoke about the way society constructs and forms us.We need to be aware of all the outside influences in our lives if we want tobe free from social pressures and if we want to enjoy real freedom. Realfreedom in phenomenology lies in discovering ourselves and getting to knowwho we really are and what we could become. One of many ways people tryto discover their true being is by using the philosophy called phenome-nology.

The word ``phenomenon'' in this philosophy is an indication of howphenomenologists work. They try to get to the essence (the heart) of thething that they research. They concentrate on one thing (phenomenon) at atime, by putting all prejudices, emotional reactions and labels to one sidefor the moment.

Phenomenology and logical empiricism are the same in the sense that bothare concerned with real experience. Phenomenology is different fromempiricism in the sense that the researchers concentrate on the essentialuniqueness of the individual or the essence of what is being researched. Thequestion asked is ``What is really happening here?''

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. explain what phenomenology entails

. discuss the kind of problems to be solved by phenomenologists



KEY CONCEPTS

. phenomenon

. essences

. being

. prejudices

. consciousness

OVERVIEW

ACTIVITY 7a

If somebody asked you to describe a typical day in your life, what wouldyou tell this person?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

35 EDC1015/1

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

You will probably describe a day in your life with all the emotionalreactions and prejudices you experienced included. You probably wake up,not feeling like going to work but knowing that you have to go, becausepeople would know that you are playing truant if you do not pitch. You willprobably include how you drive on the same road as a lot of hooligans whodo not know the rules of the road. You work with some good people, butalso some idiots, etc.

ACTIVITY 7b

Try to keep all prejudices and emotional reactions to one side and describea typical day again by merely focusing on the essence:

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

The emphasis should be on what is ``really happening'' and on going back to``the things itself'' (essence).

We get a description of phenomenology on pp 106±107 and pp 109 and 115in RW. We also read about the different categories of phenomenology onp 107.

Phenomenology started at the end of the nineteenth century with the studyof the mind and the development of psychiatry and psychology. It startedoff as a study of human consciousness (in other words, what is going oninside our heads/minds).

To be conscious means to be awake. The experience of ``awakening'' is athinking experience, or an experience in our consciousness. We activelyparticipate in things when we are awake Ð we are not passive spectators.To be awake means to have the possibility of being change agents. Peopleshould not be treated as objects.

Social phenomenology focuses on the individual in society. Socialphenomenologists will ask questions such as: What is society? What isreally happening in society?

We all live in a society. We need to be aware of the essences of this societyto understand how our ``lived'' world works. We need to focus on the worldwe live in as it presents itself in the here and now. Social reality is a human

36

invention. The moment we start putting our prejudices and beliefs to oneside and actually look at what is really going on, the social world starts toappear as it really is at that moment in time.

Cosmic phenomenology focuses even more broadly on the individual's placein the universe.

The advantages and disadvantages of phenomenology in general are givenon p 113 of RW.

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED IN PHENOMENOLOGY

Phenomenology asks questions such as: What is actually happening to me?What is actually going on in the world around me? Phenomenology tries tograsp the very nature of existence itself (also see existentialism).Phenomenology wants us to go back to the basics and ``wonder anew'' atlife itself. If scientists learn to wonder anew, they will discover the truespirit of science that led to scientific discovery in the first place.


Educators who believe in phenomenology need to take into account learnersthemselves and their experience of the world. They should focus on theindividual's conscious experience of the educational situation Ð in otherwords, on the learner's/student's inner, mental experience of education/training. If educators ignore the inner experiences of their learners/students, they make it impossible to enter into meaningful dialogue with thestudents. Educators need to see every individual in their class as he or shereally is. Educators need to be concerned with helping students explore theworld and develop their own conscious experience Ð that is, their being.

ACTIVITY 7c

If you are a phenomenologist and you need to get to know the individuallearners in your class, what would you concentrate on?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

Questions for research would be: How does learning affect people inthemselves? How can we help young people to find personal meaning? Howcan education and training be changed to become meaningful to learners/students?

37 EDC1015/1

D

D

D

D

UNIT 8

Is there a world that speaks to us?

HERMENEUTICS

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

Hermeneutics

Theory of life as a process of interpretation

Learning and teaching

Learning as interpretation

Teaching as dialogue

Main ideas

Culture and history important

Art, drama and music important Ð creativity

Importance of listening and watching

Individual's life experience

Understanding of the world

Conciliation, peacemaking

Dialogue

Anti-authoritarian

Some proponents

Carl Jung (Swiss psychologist), Hans-Georg Gadamer (German

philosopher), John Mbiti (African philosopher),

Ngugi wa Thiongo (African writer)


Anti-authoritarian Very subjective

Encourages individuals to create Can lead to waffle

own meaning Lack of disciplined thinking

Dialogue important

Encourages learning as a life-long

process

38

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. explain the central assumptions of hermeneutics

. compare and contrast hermeneutics with other theories

. describe ways in which hermeneutics can/cannot help us understand

problems

. draw on your hermeneutical understanding to apply in their teaching

practice

KEY CONCEPTS

. Listening and watching

. Life experience

. Understanding

. Conciliation/peacemaking

. Dialogue

. Anti-authoritarian

INTRODUCTION

Hermeneutics means ``the science of interpretation'', or the ``science of

communication''. For instance, when we study history we are listening to

the voices of the past, which are communicating with us through the

documents and things people left behind. These may be things found by

archaeologists, such as pots and tools. Schleiermacher, and other

hermeneuticians such as Martin Heidegger and Hans-Georg Gadamer,

believed that we could use hermeneutics to understand all forms of human

behaviour. Hermeneutics has critical implications for education because

when educators and learners listen and communicate with each other,

effective learning takes place.

OVERVIEW

The formal studies of hermeneutics started in the 16th century and

concentrated on the interpretation of ancient sacred texts. By the 19th

century, hermeneutics was being used for the understanding of both sacred

and profane texts. Today hermeneutics is used in our understanding of text,

art, music, science etc. Schleiermacher believed it should be used for all

forms of human expression. Heidegger and Gadamer claimed that both

culture and history are important in hermeneutics to understand other

human beings.

Some of the history of hermeneutics and its main ideas are on p 123 (RW).

39 EDC1015/1

PROBLEMS RESEARCHED BY HERMENEUTICS

ACTIVITY 8

Read the section ``Quick Summary'' on hermeneutics at the bottom of p 125(RW). Using this information, briefly describe how you can use hermeneu-tics to facilitate a discussion in your class, which comprises children withMuslim, Christian Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and traditional Africanreligious backgrounds.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 8

The South African Constitution prohibits discrimination by the state oranybody else on grounds of race, class, religion, gender, disability, sex,sexual orientation and nationality. Drawing on your understanding ofhermeneutics, describe how you would get students from mixed back-grounds as above to communicate their differences and understand oneanother.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 8c

Hermeneutics claims that ``arts and crafts, even more than science, areimportant in human life'' (RW p 129). What is your opinion? In what waysmight arts and crafts be more important in human life than science?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

40

ACTIVITY 8d

On p 129 (RW) Steven Biko is quoted arguing that his movement rejects

``the power-based society of the Westerner that seems to be ever concerned

with perfecting their technological know-how while losing out on their

spiritual dimension''. Do you agree that commitment to science is

detrimental to one's spiritual life? If your answer is yes, explain how this

is the case.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 8e

If hermeneutics is about creating meaning, draw on your hermeneutical

understanding to say what, in your opinion it means to be South African.

Incidentally, Ivor Chipkin, a senior researcher at the Human Sciences

Research Council (HSRC), South Africa, has published a book titled Do

South Africans exist?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 8f

You have already looked at the main concepts and ideas of existentialism in

chapter 3 of your prescribed textbook. List any similarities/differences

between hermeneutics and existentialism.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

41 EDC1015/1

The next unit deals with postmodernism. As you work through the activitiesin this unit, see if you can find any similarities or differences betweenpostmodernism and hermeneutics.


You are a tour guide and one of the tourist attractions you have to showyour group of tourists is the newly erected Freedom Park in Tshwane. Howwill you explain to the tourists the significance of this park to the history ofSouth Africa? Would your race influence the way you understand the park'ssignificance?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

42

D

D

D

UNIT 9

Where in the world are we going?

POSTMODERNISM

SCHEMATIC OVERVIEW

Postmodernism


Questioning of all truths

Teaching as dialogue/questioning

Self-empowerment

Main concepts and ideas

Grand narratives Ð need to silence dominant voices Ð no single

truth

Linguistics Ð language games

Truth and falsity Ð human creation

Critique of reason

Imagery and symbolism

Values/ethics

Some proponents

Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault

Jean Baudrillard, Jacques Lacan


Enables us to re-assess quality May encourage negative atti-

of our lives tudes

Resists pressure to be workahol- Does not provide alternatives

ics Discourages disciplined ef-

Leads to more creative energy fort

Encourages freer lives May lead to despair

Is elitist and inaccessible

43 EDC1015/1

LEARNING OUTCOMES


. explain the central assumptions of postmodernism

. compare postmodernism and other philosophies

. describe ways in which postmodernism can/cannot help us understandproblems

. draw on postmodernism to apply in your teaching practice

KEY CONCEPTS

. Modernism

. Postmodernism

. Grand narratives

. Linguistics

. Critique of reason

. Imagery and symbolism

INTRODUCTION

Postmodernism is a philosophical mode of inquiry that raises importantquestions and challenges our faith in modernism. Modernists have a verystrong belief in the power of science and scientific discoveries. Technologyis seen as the solution to most problems. They believe that human beingscan master themselves and the world around them by careful, logicalreasoning.

Postmodernism invites us to rethink our belief in science and scientificprogress. For instance, what drives us as human beings? Do our lives havemeaning outside of mere scientific discoveries? Are we all merely reason-able individuals? What about our desires, hopes, wishes, dreams,aspirations and nightmares? Can modernity, which relies on science,explain these? What about the make-believe world of neon advertisingscreens, giant billboards and glass lifts, man-made lakes, aquariums, birdcages in shopping malls, or images and dreams in the make-believe world ofmodern cinemas? And what about failed intimate relations, routine troublewith neighbours or colleagues at work, violent crime, racial unrest,rampant unemployment, the widening gap between the rich and poor, andpolitical and religious fundamentalism? Postmodernism recognises thatwhile these issues sound silly and trivial, and may not be scientificallyexplained, they do shed some light on what it means to be human.

OVERVIEW

Postmodernism's disbelief in our powers of reasoning to liberate us, itsradical scepticism and finally its rejection of all metanarratives have madeit either hated or loved in education and training institutions, depending onthe emotions it evokes. Postmodernism defies definition, therefore nosingle, definitive definition of the concept exists (see RW p 135).

44

The main ideas of postmodernism are summarised on p 135 (RW).

ACTIVITY 9a

Australian actor and film maker Mel Gibson made a film called The Passion

of the Christ which caused considerable anger, especially at the Roman

Catholic church and in Israel, for its depiction of the violence inflicted on

Jesus, and for its perceived anti-Jewish views. How do you think a

postmodernist would have reacted to all the fuss the movie caused?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 9b

Postmodernism believes that people get excited about images beamed

during advertising. Explain why you do or do not agree, using real

advertisements as examples.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 9c

Our lives are imprisoned by so much technology: cell phones, SMSs, digital

cameras, satellite TV (eg DSTV in South Africa), computers, the internet,

email, MP3s, 3G data cards, iPods, heart rate monitors and more. Describe

how you see life without these contraptions.

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

45 EDC1015/1

ACTIVITY 9d

Read the description of the work and thoughts of French postmodernistwriter Michel Foucault, on p 136 (RW). Foucault believed schools werebased on ``military ideals of punctuality, discipline, neatness, submissive-ness and authority''. Is there anything wrong with these ideals, or any ofthem?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 9e

On the same page, p 136 (RW), Jean Baudrillard, another Frenchpostmodernist, concludes that because of consumerism (excessive buyingof commodities) ``human society is now in a deeply alienated state''. Whatyou think Baudrillard means by this?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

ACTIVITY 9f

Now go back to the chapter on hermeneutics (chapter 8) in your prescribedtextbook (RW). What similarities/differences can you find betweenpostmodernism and hermeneutics?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................


Imagine a scenario in which modernity, which ushered in science and allthe progress as a result of science from which we are now benefiting, never

46

occurred. How do you think human beings would have dealt with lifewithout all the discoveries of the modern scientific world Ð if there wereplagues like smallpox, polio, tuberculosis (TB) without vaccines, or ifurgent communication with distant relatives in cases of emergency justwasn't possible?

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................

47 EDC1015/1

2009 university of south africa - gimmenotes · organisms (a bit like plants and rats in a...

Documents