1. 28 Assessment and Accreditation of Non-Formal Management Education and Development Programmes Lichia Yiu and Raymond Saner Summary and skills through formal management This chapter provides an overview of the education (initial formal education at MBA non-formal management education and in- schools) is no longer sufcient for future service training and identies various assess- managers to ensure successful careers and ment tools used in Western Europe and adequate performance at the job site for the Northern America. The chapter ends with an examination of options of safeguard- remaining years of their work life. Continuous ing the value of non-formal management education and training is a must. However, education and management development satisfactory learning outcome judging from programmes in the spirit and context of the transferability of learning to the workplace life-long learning. is not necessarily assured. Literature on non-formal management education and train- ing and its overall performance are scarce, INTRODUCTION especially outside of the North American context. Impacted by rapidly evolving technology, While the demand for continued man- global competition and instant communica- agement learning has been growing, the tions, workers and managers alike are nding supply has also been increased. Many adult it more difcult to keep up with their job education institutions and private service requirements. Learning has become a syn- providers sprang forward to ll the need that onym for survival. Acquisition of knowledge was too vast to be satised by the formal[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 531 531546

2. 532 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT education institutions. In a little more than Key proponent of calling for change is a decade ago, continuing education for adult Mintzberg (2004) who criticised business learners has taken a giant step forward to schools for failing to educate and develop true ll the vacuum and has since blossomed managers. into a full industry in its own. One of the While Mintzbergs concern centres on most dynamic and thriving sector of adult the MBA programmes of formal education education no doubt is management studies and institutions like universities and colleges, his management training. Revenue for the adult criticism does not extend to the growing learning is substantial. In the UK alone, it eld of non-formal management education was estimated that 43 billion Euros are spent which so far has eluded the critical eye of on training of adults each year. The market management scholars and researchers even size for leadership development alone for the though the eld of informal management FT top 500 European companies is estimated training has grown in size without adequate to be around 105 million Euros (ECUANET, quality assessments and practically without 2006). Spending for adult training in the any form of accreditation systems. What US is also high. According to the ASTD follows is an attempt to take a closer look estimate, the market turnover reached $280 at this under-researched and under-published billion in 2006. Management development eld of management education and training. and training on-the-job constitute a substantial share of this total amount spend on adult learning. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND A variety of the adult learning organisations INFORMAL LEARNING are dedicated to management education and development programmes. Among them are There is a confusion of terminology between corporate universities, a hybrid between a informal learning and non-formal learning. It real university and upgraded training unit. is important to clearly dene the meaning of It was estimated by experts that in the US each term used before proceeding with the alone there are more than 2,000 corporate discussion of assessment and accreditation. universities (Knight, 2007) while Europe has In 2001, the European Commission dened about 36 corporate universities, with France the terminology used in the discussion about having the highest number (ECUANET, training within the EU countries (Bjrnvold, 2006). 2001: 21): The spread of management education and training was made easy by the integration of Formal learning is typically provided by internet and related communication technolo- education or training institutions, structured gies at the workplace and the rapidly lowering (in terms of learning objectives, learning cost of providing an ICT platform for deliver- time or learning support) and leading to ing training and education across geographic certication or an academic degree. This is divide. Today, access to on-line management intentional from the learners perspective. education and training is unhindered in most countries, and commercialisation of higher Informal learning results from daily life education is gaining momentum driven both activities related to work, family or leisure. by the institutions need for mobilising social It is not structured (in terms of learning resources and by the consumers demand for objectives, learning time or learning support). more education and qualication. Typically, it does not lead to certication. In the midst of this development, concerns Informal learning may be intentional. But over credibility of business schools have in most cases it is incidental or at random. been voiced leading to broader reection It comprises all forms of more or less about the essence of managerial learning and conscious self-learning outside of the formal the core mission of the business schools. educational settings, in direct relation to life[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 532 531546

3. ACCREDITATION IN NON-FORMAL MANAGEMENT 533 Facets of informal learning International, Incidental self-initiated and and implicit subjectively designed Explicit Learning Tacit learning from learning experience Competence development / competence acquisition Figure 28.1 Facets of informal learning Source: (Frank in Wittwer (2003): 177). and experience from unconscious, tacit children, life-skills, work-skills, and general culture. learning on the one hand to conscious, self- Non-formal education programmes do not neces- organised learning on the other hand(adopted sarily follow the ladder system, and may have differing duration. (Coombs, Prosser and Ahmed, from Fietz et al., 2006). 1973: 185) Informal learning was conceptualised into three elements (Frank, 2003. see Figure 28.1): explicit learning, learning from experience Simkins (1977) compared non-formal edu- (reection) and tacit learning. cation with formal education in terms of Non-formal learning on the other hand, is purpose, timing, content delivery systems and not provided by an education or training control, and developed ideal type models institutions and typically is not leading to of formal and non-formal education (see certication. However, it is structured, in Table 28.1). In short, non-formal education terms of learning objectives, learning time and training are therefore courses or pro- or learning support, and intentional from the grammes that are not part of a universally learners perspective. It refers to any activity recognised programme and involve little or involving the acquisition of understanding, no reliance on pre-determined guidelines for knowledge or skill which occurs outside the its organisation, delivery or assessment and curricula of formal educational institutions do not lead to any formal qualication or and without necessarily the presence of an certication. institutionally-authorised instructor. Both informal learning (intentional aspect) An important distinction was also made and non-formal learning have been greatly between informal learning and non-formal supported by the availability of information learning or education, which is the theme of on the internet (informal learning) and have this chapter. According to UNESCO, non- been facilitated by access to educational formal education implies: materials and courseware through the internet (non-formal learning or education). Formal Any organized and sustained educational activities educational institutions, such as MIT, have that do not correspond exactly to the denition made available their whole teaching and of formal education. Non-formal education may course material on-line free of charge to aid therefore take place both within and outside individuals due to life circumstances who educational institutions [and cater to persons of all ages]. Depending on country contexts, it could not afford or attend the formal education may cover educational programmes to impart programmes. Actions taken by institutions adult literacy, basic education for out-of-school such as MIT in the public interest have[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 533 531546

4. 534 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT Table 28.1 Simkins (1977) ideal type models of formal and non-formal education Formal Non-formal Purposes Long term and general Short term and specic Credential-based Non-credential based Timing Long cycle/preparatory/full time Short cycle/recurrent/part-time Content Standardised/Input centred Individualised/Output centred Academic Practical Entry requirements determine clientele Clientele determine entry requirements Delivery System Institution-based, isolated from environment Environment-based, community related Rigidly structured, teacher-centred and Flexible, learner-centred and resource saving resource intensive Control External/Hierarchical Self-governing/Democratic Adopted by Fordham (1993) from Simkins (1977: 1215). contributed in providing the eld of informal as more effective accreditation systems, better learning possibility also for a more structured monitoring and evaluation, improved statis- and coherent learning in terms of subject tical systems, better performance evaluation matter mastery. at the institution level, and better monitoring Taking into account the difculty in of student outcomes and destinations (OECD, discerning the complexity (due to its hetero- 2003). geneity) and the diversity of non-formal education and training, the question arises as how to strengthen the accountability of this form of learning delivery which has ACCREDITATION AND QUALITY become more relevant and urgent. In the ASSURANCE OF NON-FORMAL past few years, most developed countries TRAINING AND EDUCATION have increasingly emphasised the crucial role of learning that takes place outside formal Although accreditation services for formal education: in light of the increasing demands management studies and programmes have for updating knowledge and upgrading skills matured, the same cannot be said of non- of their working population in general and formal education. The United States is one the more mature workers in specic. How to of the few countries providing accreditation recognise informal and non-formal learning specically for this purpose in a formalised so that adults can continue their more manner and with dedicated accreditation bod- advanced learning in a formal education ies. For example, the Accrediting Council for setting has become a hot topic. Continuing Education & Training (ACCET, This emphasis of enriching the human www.accet.org) is one of such organisations capital and re-enrolling large number of specialised in continuing education. ACCET working population into systematic learning was founded in 1974 and provides institu- processes has led to an increasing number tional accreditation for organisations whose of political and practical initiatives in the primary function is for educational purposes eld of informal and non-formal learning and and also for organisations offering continuing education; thus gradually shifting the practice education as a clearly identied institutional of lifelong learning (in other words, providing objective within the operational entity, such lifelong learning opportunities) from the stage as in-service corporate training. of experimentation to implementation. For the ACCET accreditation can include educa- purpose of improving and ensuring quality tional institutions that offer programmes at of adult training and education, different locations other than the main headquarters measures have also been put into action, such under specied conditions and controls.[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 534 531546

5. ACCREDITATION IN NON-FORMAL MANAGEMENT 535 ACCET also accredits non-collegiate con- (5) learning success, and (6) quality assurance tinuing education and training organisations and development. Increasingly, eduQua certi- throughout the United States and accredits cation has been put forth as a prerequisite programmes abroad. Institutions that may be for public funding in different Swiss cantons1 eligible for accreditation include: (a) Trade (EduQua, 2007). There is also talk among and professional associations; (b) Private educational ofcials about applying the same career schools; (c) Corporate training depart- quality criteria to the providers in the ments; (d) Intensive English programmes; education sector in all of Switzerland and (e) Labour union training programmes; make national subsidies dependent on a proof (f) Religious organisations and ethical soci- of quality. eties; (g) Public affairs and cultural societies; A different approach was taken by experts and (h) Social service, volunteer and personal focusing on quality of training from an ISO development organisations. perspective. A team of international experts Accreditation of non-formal training and developed the ISO 10015 Standard which education is an effort to safeguard the public is an international standard approved by interests and to provide a minimum guarantee ISO member states. ISO certication is an of educational and training quality through internationally recognised quality label which third party actors. Often these third party demonstrates an organisations commitment actors also seek certication of their own to quality and a well-functioning quality management systems in order to demonstrate assurance system. their commitment to certain quality standards The ISO 10015 Quality Standard for Train- and in turn strengthen their reputation and ing was published in December 1999. The credibility. These third party accreditation Centre for Socio-Eco-Nomic Development bodies could be public or private entities. (CSEND) is the rst organisation to become What follows is a short survey of the a certication body for ISO 10015 related accreditation of non-formal education by quality assurance work. CSEND received its different European countries. accreditation from the Swiss Accreditation Agency (SAS) in February 2003 and has since certied training systems in China, Switzerland India, Bahrain and conducts seminars on the Switzerland has established a special moni- application of ISO 10015 to management toring and certication instrument for adult training. In contrast to the EduQua, ISO learning in the 1990s. The Swiss Certication 10015 focuses not only on the four-stage for Institutions of Continuing Education was training process, i.e., dening training needs, the entity to offer quality certicate ser- designing and planning training, providing for vice named EduQua (http://www.eduqua.ch) training, and evaluating training outcomes; to the adult continuing education institu- it puts equal emphasis on the alignment of tions in Switzerland. Its members are 800 training to the needs of the organisation. By schools, institutions, and academies through- so doing, training is not only focused on out Switzerland. In Geneva, the Foundation the individual acquisition of knowledge and for Adult Training (IFAGE) is one of the many skills, but equally on the application of these eduQua certied non-formal institutions that acquired knowledge and skills in solving indi- provides courses either for professionals or vidual performance issues and in enhancing beginners in business and nance. organizational performance (Saner, 2002; Yiu EduQua assesses training and education and Saner, 2005) (see Figure 28.2). providers by using the following six criteria, which it considers to be keys to the quality of Europe an institution: (1) the course offer, (2) commu- nication with clients, (3) performance based In the rest of Europe, certication of educa- value, (4) staff meaning the educators, tional institutions is a relatively new concepts.[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 535 531546

6. 536 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT It is not common in Europe to see accreditation informal learning are considered as basic organisations cater specically for the adult features to increase individual skills and learning and non-formal sector. In Nordic work competences. Recently, the Learning countries and in Austria, accreditation bodies and Skills Council (LSC, www.lsc.gov.uk) usually have the dual role of accrediting has taken a strategic interest in the recognition both formal and non-formal training. For of non-formal learning for adults. LSC has example, in Austria, accreditation of non- therefore become an accreditation agency formal training programmes is given by the focusing on non-formal training and educa- Bundesministerium fr Wirtschaft und Arbeit tion. The Adult learning Inspectorate (ALI), (Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour) now merged with the Ofce for Standards according to the Austrian Akkreditierungsge- in Education (Ofsted, www.ofsted.gov.uk), is setz (Accreditation Act). another quality control body for both formal In other countries, institutions delivering and non-formal education funded by the accreditations in the non-formal system con- public funded provisions in the UK. centrate their task primarily on management British Accreditation Council (BAC, of the learning environment such as class- www.the-bac.org) is a registered charity rooms and educational facilities, but taking (non-prot-making organisation) in the UK little into account the quality of actual training which was established in 1984 to act as the and learning. For example, in the United national accreditation body for independent Kingdom and also recently in Germany, further and higher education. Until 2000, regular inspections by the public authority BAC accreditation was only available to constitute part of the approval procedure colleges in the United Kingdom, but there are for non-formal training bodies to apply for now accredited colleges in different countries public nancial support. These inspections including Switzerland. At present BAC are targeted mostly at the institutional man- accredits over 200 colleges in the United agement systems and do not focus specially Kingdom, and nearly 30 overseas. These on the training programmes themselves. accredited independent colleges include Nevertheless, in the United Kingdom, there business and professional education and is an established practice of adhering to training. an output-oriented and performance-based model to education and training. This is Scandinavian countries not the case in Germany, however, where validating informal learning still appears Adult education and training in the Scan- to be rather low (Fietz et al., 2006). On dinavian countries is mostly regulated with the whole these particular cases reveal the the same tools and the same institutions excessive diversity in the monitoring of non- involved in the formal educational system. formal training all over Europe. A focus Nevertheless, it is not possible to speak on specic European countries and regions of a Nordic model. Finland, Norway, that have different background in non-formal Denmark and Sweden have chosen differ- training will show evidence for improving ent approaches and are working accord- the coherence of training and education ing to different schedules. These differ- monitoring both at a national and at an ences do not change the fact that all international level. four countries have taken practical steps through legislation and institutional initia- tives towards strengthening the link between United Kindom formal education and training and learning In the United Kingdom, there is general accep- taking place outside of schools(Colardyn tance of learning outside formal education and and Bjrnvold, 2004). In fact, these coun- training institutions as a valid and important tries have created institutes in charge of pathway to competences. Non-formal and evaluating the quality of education and[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 536 531546

7. ACCREDITATION IN NON-FORMAL MANAGEMENT 537 training both in the formal and informal a recent reform process that increasingly sector. Documenting and recognising high takes into account the non-formally and infor- qualications acquired through non-formal mally acquired competences. The vocational and informal learning has been emphasised for qualication system is widely appreciated and decades in the Scandinavian countries (Fietz the tendency is that all kinds of skills and et al., 2006). competences should get formally validated In Denmark, for example, the Danish credits. Evaluation Institute (EVA, www.eva.dk) is an independent agency formed under the France auspices of the Danish Ministry of Education in 1999 under national legislation (Act on the In several respects, France can be charac- Danish Institute of Evaluation, Consolidated terised as one of the most advanced European Act of September 2000). It is responsible countries in the area of identication, assess- for external quality assurance at all levels ment and recognition of non-formal learning of education in Denmark, including higher (OECD, 2003). Concerning the opening up education (public and private subsidised of the national vocational education and higher education institutions). It initiates and training system including management related conducts systematic evaluations of higher training for competences acquired outside education programmes. Their activities may formal institutions, nowadays there are include institutional, auditing and other forms several different forms of recognition for of evaluation. competences acquired outside formal courses Accreditation of all programmes leading of study. The bilan de competences and to a professional Bachelors degree began the Validation des Acquis Professionnels in 2004. EVA conducts the accreditation/ (VAP) legally regulate the recognition of evaluation, and the Ministry of Education vocationally acquired competences in order makes the accreditation decision. EVA also to undertake certain courses of study in the conducts accreditation of private courses as formal educational system. Since 1992, voca- part of the Ministry of Education proce- tional certicates like the Certicat daptitude dure determining whether students at private professionelle can be obtained (to various teaching establishments should be eligible for degrees) on the basis of assessments of non- Danish state study grants. Business schools, formal and prior learning. Another important for example, the Copenhagen Business initiative was taken by the French Chambers School (CBS), may go for double accred- of Commerce and Industry where the aim was itations. In the case of CBS, it has the to set up procedures and standards to assess national accreditation from EVA, but also independently the informal education and obtained EQUIS accreditation for interna- training system (OECD, 2003). Concerning tional recognition. the competences strictly in management and The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assur- business, there has been an initiative in 1999 ance in Education (NOKUT, www.nokut.no) of the French employers association MEDEF was created in 2003 to be responsible for (Mouvement des Entreprises de France) under the evaluation and accreditation of all higher the title of Objectif Comptence that aims education institutions. As from 1 January to anchor this competence aspect more 2002, an accreditation has become mandatory strongly especially in small and medium-sized and universal for all formally recognised enterprises. higher education in Norway which covers both institutional and programme based Mediterranean countries accreditations. Non-formal learning is recog- nised on the individual basis; there is no In the Mediterranean countries, despite the formal accreditation procedure for non-formal fact that informal training and education education providers. The Finnish case shows are very spread, there is still a lack of[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 537 531546

8. 538 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT monitoring and evaluating. Nevertheless, topic of higher learning. It is obvious that some countries in the South of Europe knowledge production and related services, have taken important initiatives. In Spain, including accreditation and recognition of institutional level work led to the creation non-traditional learning, have become one of a system for assessment, recognition and of the major drivers of Western economy. accreditation of vocational skills acquired This sector, i.e., accreditation, could warrant through non-formal and informal channels greater regulatory control. (The Law on Qualications and Vocational training of June 2002). An important further step could be marked with the set up of the ERA program Evaluacin, Reconocimi- SHOULD NON-FORMAL ento y Acreditatin de las competencias MANAGEMENT TRAINING profesionales(Fietz et al., 2006). Recently, INSTITUTIONS BE ACCREDITED Portugal has undertaken a programme for OR SUBJECT TO QUALITY Certication of Training Institutions named CERTIFICATION SCHEMES? QUALFOR that can be compared to the EduQua certication in Switzerland. Many The proliferation of the private accred- rms and nancial institutions deliver learn- itation bodies reects the reality of the ing programmes for their employees. Some increasingly deregulated education market of them aim to set up corporate universities to worldwide, making it easier to provide non- deliver specic training in management and formal management training and course work. leadership. This informal scope of manage- This proliferation has also created challenges ment development is generally not aligned to and difculties in recognition of learning standardisation or accreditation because their attainments, making it more of an increasing education and training are strictly focused on concern regarding the compatibility of diplo- their employees. As a result, the quality of mas, certications and qualications by the the teachings and the training mostly depends employers. on the quality and the success of the rm in Seeing it from the providers point of its elds. Nevertheless, some major rms or view, organisations which manage training banks have voluntarily asked for accreditation programmes would like to differentiate their of their training units and programmes. products by acquiring quality certication EFMD through its CLIP (Corporate Learning through an accreditation procedure offered Improvement Process) programme provides by an independent entity. Accreditation could accreditation of corporate learning func- help screen-out sub-standard or unqualied tion. So far 12 leading Corporate Learning management education and development pro- Organisations from across Europe have been gramme suppliers. Yet, it does not necessarily awarded the Corporate Learning Improve- address the question of learning outcome or ment Process. that of an active instrument in protecting A summary list of the accrediting institu- the public and private interests of achieving tions and quality assurance systems of non- quality non-formal management education formal management training is presented in or learning. It is also questionable whether Table 28.2. the self-regulated accreditation bodies abide According to Business Podium Boards by stringent standard of good governance (BPB, www.business-podium.com), there are imposed by international organisations such more than 100 unrecognised accreditation as the International Organisation for Stan- associations of higher learning in the US, dardisation and afliated international metal UK and Europe (see Table 28.3). Some of organisations or government bodies. Unless the accreditation associations listed by BPB verication mechanisms exist to monitor are discipline or professional specic. A large and regulate these non-state soft regulators, number of them are dealing with the general accreditation of the non-formal training and[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 538 531546

9. Table 28.2 Examples of accrediting institutions and quality assurance systems of non-formal management training in Western Europe and North America Organisation Scope of work Methods of Accreditation procedure Validity Level of recognition Accreditation Territory and size External quality Oversight Type of programme Status of Organisational regulation of informal of the users assurances recognition status education/training measures Accrediting council ACCET accredits Independent 1. Inquiry 3 to 5 years Recognised by the Specically informal USA 248 No All sorts of private Private initiative Private accrediting for continuing non-collegiate peer-review 2. Application U.S. Department schools & career schools agency[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] education & continuing and evaluation 3. Accreditation and of education programmes corporate training training (ACCET) education and evaluation workshop Certied as an departments training 4. Analytic self-evaluation ISO 9001-quality For our interest: organisations report (ASER) management Trade and throughout the 5. Examination teamPaper: a4 system Professional - United States 6. On-site examination Associations and accredits 7. Team report Labour union programmes 8. Accrediting commission training-Public abroad action affairs and 9. Time schedule cultural societiesJob No: 5210 Eduqua Eduqua is the Voluntary 1. Subscription within 3 years Secrtariat dEtat Schools & Switzerland 49 No Proformation All sorts of Label rst Swiss a certication lEconomie (SECO) programmes of business & SQS accreditation/ organisation all sorts management SGS label for adult 2. Adult education type of schools for 800 ProCert education programme institutions of IQB-FHS 3. Work on the type of all sorts SCEF programme 4. Sending off the nal work Qualications and QCA develops Voluntary A two-stage process Variable Sponsored by the Specically informal: UK No All sorts of QCA is a non- It is governed by curriculum criteria which must be completed: department for Schools programmes in departmental a board whose authority (QCA) awarding bodies the recognition education and programmes Business and public body members are and their process; the skills (DfES) Personals: administration appointed by qualications application for accreditating for the Secretary of must meet, and accredited example ILM State for processes they qualications dedicated to Education and must go through. advancing the Skills, and Examinations and capability of managed on a qualications managers and day-to-day leaders basis by an executive teamArmstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. (continued)Page: 539 531546

10. Table 28.2 Continued Organisation Scope of work Methods of Accreditation procedure Validity Level of recognition Accreditation Territory and size External quality Oversight Type of programme Status of Organisational[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] regulation of informal of the users assurances recognition status education/training measures EFMD-CLIP- A quality Independent 1. Application Accredited: Supported by a EQUIS is not Worldwide 11 Granting of the EFMD Banks and rms An international A voluntary Corporate improvement tool peer-review 2. On-site brieng 3 years broad primarily focused EQUIS award not-for-prot afliation of learning for the corporate and evaluation and initiation of reaccredited international body on the MBA or is made by an association organisationsPaper: a4 improvement learning function the process 5 years of academics and any other specic independent process 3. Eligibility professionals. programme. Its EQUIS 4. Guided ENQA scope covers all accreditation self-assessment programmes awarding board 5. On-site peer review offered by an 6. Awarding of the institutionJob No: 5210 quality label 7. Follow-up: Quality improvement and institutional development International ISO 10015 is a Voluntary Third party audit on Certied and Recognised by Applicable for all Worldwide Yes. National IAF (Interna- All International International NGO, organisation for quality assurance annual basis for registered national standard training functions authority tional recognition governed by standardisation, tool for the certication for 3 year setting authorities accredits ISO accreditation a Board and (ISO 10015) in-service training purpose cycle and international certication forum) and Swiss laws system and mutual bodies. respective custom-tailored recognition National national training system authority is authority programmes also subject to responsible international for standard- peer review isation in order to sustain good governanceArmstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop.Page: 540 531546

11. ACCREDITATION IN NON-FORMAL MANAGEMENT 541 Table 28.3 Unrecognised accreditation associations of higher learning according to BPB Survey as of 30 September 2007 Accrediting Commission International (ACI) (in Beebe, Arkansas) (aka International Accrediting Commission) Accrediting Council for Colleges and Schools (ACCS) Accreditation Governing Commission of the United States of America Alternative Institution Accrediting Association (AIAA) American Accrediting Association of Theological Institutions (AATI) (in Rocky Mount, North Carolina) American Association of Bible Colleges American Association of Drugless Practitioners Commission on Accreditation (AADPCA) American Association of Independent Collegiate Schools of Business American Association of International Medical Graduates (AAIMG) American Association of Non-traditional Colleges and Universities (AANCU) American Association of Schools (AAS) American Council of Private Colleges and Universities (ACPCU) (connected to the operator of Hamilton University, now called Richardson University) American Federation of Colleges and Schools (AFCS) American Federation of Colleges and Seminaries (AmFed)(AFCS) (in Lakeland, Florida) American Naturopathic Certication Board (ANCB) American Naturopathic Medical Certication and Accreditation Board (ANMCAB or ANMAB) American Naturopathic Medicine Association (ANMA) American Universities Admission Program (AUAP) Arizona Commission of Non-Traditional Private Postsecondary Education Asia Theological Association (ATA) Association for Distance Learning (ADLP) (aka National Academy of Higher Education and Association of Distance Learning Programmes) Association for Online Academic Excellence (AOAE) (in Wales) Association of Christian Colleges and Theological Schools (in Louisiana) Association of Christian Schools International (ACSI) (in Colorado Springs, Colorado) Association of Distance Learning Programs (ADLP) (aka Association for Distance Learning and National Academy of Higher Education) Association of International Education Assessors Association of Reformed Theological Seminaries Board of Online Universities Accreditation (BOUA) Board of Theological Education of the Senate of Serampore College (BTESS) British Learning Association (BLA) Central States Consortium of Colleges & Schools (CSCCS) (connected to the operator of Breyer State University) Centre of Academic Excellence UK (CAEUK) Central States Council on Distance Education (CSCDE) Christian Accrediting Association (CAA) Commission on Medical Denturitry Accreditation (COMDA) Council for Distance Education Accreditation (CDEA; connected to Association of International Education Assessors) Council for International Education Accreditation (CIEA) Council of Online Higher Education (COHE) Council on Medical Denturitry Education (COMDE) Distance Education Council (DEC) (connected to the operator of Saint Regis University) (not to be confused with the legitimate Distance Education Council recognised by the Indian Department of Education) Distance Graduation Accrediting Association Distance Learning Council of Europe (DLCE) (connected to University Degree Programme) European Committee for Home and Online Education (ECHOE) (connected to University Degree Programme) European Council for Distance and Open Learning (ECDOE) (connected to University Degree Programme) Examining Board of Natural Medicine Practitioners (EBNMP) Global Accreditation Commission (GAC) Higher Education Accreditation Commission (HEAC) Higher Education Services Association (HESA) (connected to University Degree Programme) Integra Accreditation Association (IAA) Inter-Collegiate Joint Committee on Academic Standards (ICJCAS) (continued)[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 541 531546

12. 542 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT Table 28.3 Continued Interfaith Education Ministries (IEM) International Academic Accrediting Commission (IAAC) International Accreditation Agency for Online Universities (IAAOU) (connected to operators of Ashwood University, Belford University, and Rochville University) International Accreditation Association (IAA) International Accreditation for Universities, Colleges and Institutes (IAUCI) International Accreditation and Recognition Council (IARC) International Accrediting Association for Colleges and Universities (IAACU) International Accrediting Commission (IAC) (aka Accrediting Commission International) International Accrediting Commission for Postsecondary Institutions (IACPI) International Association of Educators for World Peace (There are different groups by the same name though none are authorized accreditors.) International Association of Universities and Schools (IAUS) International Commission for Higher Education (ICHE) International Commission of Open Post Secondary Education (ICOPSE) International Council for Accrediting Alternate and Theological Studies (Kerala, India) International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICODE) International Distance Learning Accrediting Association (IDLAA) International Interfaith Accreditation Association (IIAA) (closed down operations at the end of May 2007) International University Accrediting Association (IUAA) (in California) Kingdom Fellowship of Christian Schools and Colleges Middle States Accrediting Board (MSAB) Midwestern States Accreditation Agency (MSAA) National Academy of Higher Education (NAHE) (aka Association for Distance Learning) National Accreditation Association (NAA) National Association for Private Post-Secondary Education (NAPSE) National Association of Alternative Schools and Colleges (NAASC) National Association of Open Campus Colleges (NAOCC) National Association of Private Nontraditional Schools and Colleges (NAPNSC; Grand Junction, Colorado) National College Accreditation Council (NCAC) National Council of Schools and Colleges (NCSC) National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE) National Distance Learning Accreditation Council (NDLAC) (Glenndale University and Sufeld University claim NDLAC accreditation) National Learning Online Council (NLOC) Naturopathic National Council (NNC) Non-Traditional Course Accreditation Body (NTCAB) Online Christ Centered Ministries Pacic Association of Schools and Colleges (PASC) Regional Education Accreditation Commission Southern Accrediting Association of Bible Institutes and Colleges (SAABIC) [6] The Association for Online Distance Learning (TAODL) Transworld Accrediting Commission International (TWACI) United Congress of Colleges (UCC) (Ireland, UK) US-DETC Nevada (not to be confused with the legitimate DETC, based in Washington DC.) Universal Council for Online Education Accreditation (UCOEA) Virtual University Accrediting Association (VUAA) West European Accrediting Society (WEAS) Western Association of Private Alternative Schools (WAPAS) Western Council on Non-Traditional Private Post Secondary Education (WCNPPSE) Virtual University Accrediting Association (in California) (VUAA) World Association of Universities and Colleges (WAUC) (in Nevada; operated by Maxine Asher) World Online Education Accrediting Commission (WOEAC) World-wide Accreditation Commission of Christian Educational Institutions (WACCEI)[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 542 531546

13. ACCREDITATION IN NON-FORMAL MANAGEMENT 543 education might not full its mandate in Initiatives to create an international common assuring quality of learning experience and professional competence standard, such as outcomes. certication of project management managers For instance, accreditation of corporate (PMM), has gained credence. Similar trends university is no guarantee either in ensuring could be predicated for other management that an enterprises training inputs will applications. actually result in the attainment of strategic No amount of accreditation, however, objectives of the corporation or productivity would be able to guarantee minimum stan- improvement of the manager. It is the view dards of non-formal management training of the authors that accreditation has not yet or outstanding learning outcome of in- fullled the expectation of ensuring a return service management education. The former is on training investment. There is a need to inuenced less by the subject matter expertise strengthen both the outcome assessment and yet more by the ability of the faculty to the quality assurance of the learning process. communicate his material in a motivating While the outcome assessment is complex and manner and connected to the actual practices not fully reliable, in-process quality control and issues of the business. and assurance become all the more important Many young management teachers started and urgent. their career without proper training in ped- The analysis of the individual countries agogy or with little experience in actual relating to the goal of ensuring quality of practice as managers. Their teaching remains non-formal learning/education in continuing theoretical and to some extent, hearsay. Situa- education and higher education shows that tion in the non-formal management training further development is required, even in programmes are similar, even though these those countries that have already implemented programmes tend to have a greater mix of national systems for validating informal and academicians and practitioners. Experienced non-formal learning. In contrast to the frag- managers or practitioners are often asked mented approach that can be observed in many to conduct these courses because of their countries, a holistic approach encompassing personal reputation or because of the rms both non-formal and informal learning as that they represent. Often their teaching well as general education, vocational edu- is rich in anecdotes but poor in reection cation and enterprise training requires co- and short in generalisable conceptualisation. ordination at a national level. This shortcoming does not seem to matter, Approaches used in Scandinavian countries since non-formal management education and could serve as model for this combination development programmes are designed with of accreditation and recognition of formal a commercial purpose where entertainment and informal leaning and the corresponding value is supreme. service providers. Moreover, developing a co- Accreditation of non-formal management ordinated approach at an international level education and development programmes is between the different actors involved in non- only half of a measure, necessary but not formal learning process could be a preliminary sufcient. It is time also to look at the step toward standardisation of professional other end of the pipe: What competen- qualication in different elds of management cies are actually acquired by graduates of studies. Based on a transnational model, the non-formal management education and public and private agencies that provide development programmes? What difference certication and accreditation in tertiary edu- would this type of learning make to the cation and management studies need to agree persons, to their work organisations, and to upon a professional qualication standard for the economic development of their society? various branches of management studies in The institutional arrangements and basic order to benchmark different offers and to infrastructure for quality assurance for this provide guidance for curricula development. sector are yet to be completed. The emergence[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 543 531546

14. 544 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT Organisational performance GAP A Wrong or Under- Wrong Wrong or Insufficient deficient raw performing products? ineffective financial material or human (no market equipment? resources? parts? resources? demand?) A Inadequate Inadequate Recruitment Remuneration Inadequate organisa- Ineffective competencies of staff with not labour motivation? tional leadership? and skills wrong skills market (e.g. work structure? of current portfolio? competitive? overload?) HR? A Solution through Solution Solution through Solution rationalisation through hiring training of through job (substitution of HR of new staff with existing staff? rotation as through adequate (acquiring of new strategy for skills automation)? competencies? competencies?) improvement? Legend: A S1 = Analyse S1 S2 = Plan S3 = Deliver S4 = Evaluate S4 TRAINING S2 B S3 Figure 28.2 ISO 10015 based training management process Source: Centre for Socio-Economic development, 2003. of ISO 10015 quality standard could ll part Countries with knowledge based economies of the gap (see Figure 28.2). have come to rely on education production as one of the major engines of their economic performance and well-being. Individuals from Conclusions the emerging markets wanting to benet from Non-formal education and training became the economic opportunities are also eager part of the international discourse on edu- customers for these management training cation policy in the late 1960s and 1970s programmes and education. In this context, in the context of recurrent and lifelong short-term, focused non-formal education is learning. The 21st century, with its changing also thriving. international economic conditions, has not Proliferation of service providers formed only revived this policy discussion but a diverse landscape in terms of management also heightened the demand for continued training and education, with formal business education, especially in the management eld. schools offering short courses or executive[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 544 531546

15. ACCREDITATION IN NON-FORMAL MANAGEMENT 545 programmes at one end of the spectrum to Bjrnvold, J. (2001) Cited in Fietz and Junge (2006) private operators at the other end. In between, The changing institutional and political role of corporate universities occupy the space in non-formal learning: European trends, in P. Descy, providing their own brand of management M. Tessaring (eds), Training in Europe. Second education and training. Proliferation caused Report on vocational training in Europe 2000. Background report (CEDEFOP Reference series): difculty in consumer choice and recognition Luxembourg: Ofce of Ofcial Publications of of qualication, certicates and diploma. As a European Communities. result, both business schools and non-business Coombs, P.H. with Prosser, C. and Ahmed, M. (1973) school-based management education and New Paths to Learning for Rural Children and Youth, development programmes have been seeking West Haven, CT: International Council for Educational accreditation in order to boost its credibility Development Publications. and competitiveness in the marketplace. Colardyn, D. and Bjornavld, J. (2004) Validation of Does accreditation post an entry bar- formal, non-formal and informal learning: Policy and rier for the unqualied service providers? practices in EU member states. European Journal of Does accreditation guarantee effective use Education, 39 (1): 6989. of education and training resources? Does Danish Evaluation Institute (EVA) Adult education accreditation assure quality of management and continuing training. Retrieved June 6, 2007, from EVA web site: www.eva.dk/Methods/Adult_ education and relevance of learning outcome? Education_and_Continuing_Training.aspx Does accreditation strengthen the quality Department for Education, Lifelong Learning, and Skills of non-formal management education and (DELLS) Learning and qualications. Retrieved June protect the public and consumer interests? 17, 2007, from DELLS web site: http://new.wales. These are questions that beg further inquiry gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/learning_and_ and answers. A review of accreditation and qualications/?lang=en quality assurance measures in the formal ECUANET (2006) An overview of corporate university. education sector could generate new insights Accessible at p://www.google.ch/search?q=How+ which could also benet the non-formal many+corporate+universities+in+the+world& training and education sector. hl=de&start=20&sa=N.5. EduQua (2007) Good grades for good school, EDUQUA at http://www.eduqua.ch/002alc_0101_en.htm, NOTE accessed on 30/09/07. European Quality Link (EQUAL), European MBA 1 In the Swiss political system, cantons enjoy the guidelines. http://www.fibaa.de/ger/downlo/european autonomy in managing most of its public affairs. mbaguidelines.pdf A canton is similar to a province in France or state Fietz, G., Junge, A., Nicholls, B. and Reglin, Th. (2006) in the United States. Education is considered to be a Promoting visibility of competences the Exemplo cantonal competence and its policy and management toolkit for SMEs. EU Leonardo da Vinci Programme, are decided by the canton authority. pilot project. Impuls, 25. Retrieved July 4, 2007, from Exemplo web site: http://www.exemplo.de/exemplo/ Website_Produkte/impuls25_screenpdf.pdf REFERENCES Fordham, P.E. (1993) Informal, non-formal and formal education programmes, in YMCA George Williams ACCET (Accrediting Council for Continuing Education & College ICE301 Lifelong Learning Unit 2, London: Training): http://www.accet.org/index2.cfm, accessed YMCA George Williams College. 30/08/07. Frank, I. (2003) Erfassung und Anerkennung Accredited qualication databases, UK. Awarding Body informell erworbener Kompetenzen Entwicklung Directory. Retrieved from accredited qualications und Perspektiven in ausgewhlten europischen web site, on June 12, 2007, http://www.accredited Lndern, in W. Wittwer and S. Kirchhof (eds), Inform- qualications.org.uk/AwardingBodyDirectory.aspx# elles Lernen und Weiterbildung. Neue Wege zur Association of Collegiate Business Schools and Programs Kompetenzentwicklung. Mnchen/Unterschleiheim. (ACBSP). Accreditation. Retrieved from ACBSP web pp. 168209. site on June 6, 2007, http://www.acbsp.org/index. Knight, R. (2007) Corporate universities: Move to a php?module=sthtml&op=load&sid=s1_020acc collaborative effort, Financial Times. March 19.[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 545 531546

16. 546 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT Mintzberg, H. (2004) Managers not MBAs: A Hard de lOCDE: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/13/44/ Look at the Soft Practice of Managing and 34327758.pdf Management Development. San Francisco: Berrett- OCDE (2003) Les rles des systmes nationaux de Koehler Publishers Inc. certication pour promouvoir lapprentissage tout OECD (2003) Thematic review on adult learning: