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The

Human

Body:

Introduction

to

Anatomyand

Body

Organisation

INTRODUCTIONLet us all sit up straight, take a deep breath, and feel the air enter our lungs.Imagine the passage of air from your nose into your lungs and back out again.Still sitting up straight, put the palms of your hands on your knees and moveyour fingers in a gentle motion. How many pieces of your body can you feel?Your knee cap? The muscles of your thighs? Your elbow joints and your shouldermuscles as you moved your hands to your knees? And in your fingers? Imagine

TTooppiicc

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5 List the main organ systems of the body.

4 Discuss relationships between different levels of organisation in yourbody and how these levels interact to result in specific activities; and

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1 Compare different levels of organisation in your body;

2 Name the component parts of your body;

3 Identify the parts of your body responsible for different actions inyour daily life;

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TOPIC 1 THE HUMAN BODY: INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND BODY

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the number of moving parts as those little pieces of nail, flesh and bone gentlytap on your knees?

We are an incredibly complex union of parts. Our function and survival isdependent on all these parts working together towards a common goal. For thisto be successful, all the parts that form our bodies have to be of specific shapeand size, have to work in a predictable manner and have to communicate. Toallow this to happen, our bodies are built on an organisational basis, with anincreasing hierarchy of size and complexity from the level of the cell to the entire

body. The study of the function of our bodies (how they work) is calledphysiology, while the study of the form of our bodies (how they look, what theyare made of) is termed anatomy.

As a biologist, I am surrounded by my subject. I eat, drink and sleep engulfedin biology. Literally. And of course, so do you. Think about it. Imagine theopportunities you have to learn biology, and try to put some of them inpractise. For example: Did you know that our heads are made up of several

bones? More advanced animals like mammals have fewer bones in our skulls,while more primitive animals like fish have many more. Next time you eatkari kepala ikan(fish head curry), arrange all the bones (after licking them, ofcourse) in two groups, one for the left side of the head, and one for the right.Did you know you have the same bones in your head, also divided into leftand right, except yours are fused to form a different shaped head with

modifications for the larger brain and the different mechanism of breathing.

Staying on the theme of food, next time you are having a meal, think aboutnot only the beauty and complexity of the organism you are eating, but alsothe process that allows you to enjoy your meal. Think about why and howyou feel hungry (function or physiology). And think about how the differentparts of your body work together to allow you to eat. You use your hands to

bring food to your mouth. How many moving parts, muscles and bones, canyou feel in your hands? You put food in your mouth, and begin to chew it. Somany organs are involved in this process. Your lips, tongue, teeth. Then youswallow, and the story continues. Try and list all the organs you can feelworking during your meal, and keep the list to tick of each organ as weproceed through this module.

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INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY1.1

Anatomy is the study of the bodys form and structure. It involves the learning of

the names of the various parts of our body and the location of the various organsand systems in our body. Anatomy also examines the relationship between thestructure of our body and the functions of our body. Together with physiology,anatomy aims to explain the way our body works and the two disciplines formthe basis of biology.

Anatomy can be approached from a number of perspectives. Generally, anatomyis divided into the following categories:(a) Gross anatomy

Gross anatomy also called macroscopic anatomyis the study of large body

features that are visble to the naked eye. Gross anatomy can be dividedinto:

(i) Regional anatomy, which is the study of all the structures in aparticular region of the body;

(ii) Systemic anatomy, which is the study of the body system by system;and

(iii) Surface anatomy, which is the study of the external form of the bodyand its relationship to deeper structures.

(b) Microscopic anatomyThis is the study of body structures too small to be seen by the naked eye.Microscopic anatomy is generally divided into two groups:

(i) Cytology, which is the study of cells; and

(ii) Histology, which is the study of body tissue.

Anatomy can be studied using several techniques. Because it is the study of thestructure of our body, all studies of anatomy must involve the visualisation of theform of the various parts of the body. The most common approach to studying

anatomy is using diagrams or photographs of the body. This is the approachtaken in this course.

Where a more proactical knowledge of anatomy is required, dissections are oftenused to study body parts. Because we cannot legally dissect living humans forstudy, practical studies of anatomy depend on studies of animals related tohumans (such as other mammals) that share similar structures with us, or on thedissection of human cadavers. Modern technology has allowed for alternatives todissections. There are currently several techniques for imaging that can give

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quite accurate pictures of the insides of our bodies. The most common of theseare:

X-rays

Ultrasound

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Computed tomographic (CT) scanning

Computed axial tomographic (CAT) scanning

ACTIVITY 1.1

Based on the several techniques for imaging, discuss with yourclassmates the differences between them and identify whichtechnique can provide the most accurate pictures.

ORGANISATION OF THE HUMAN BODY1.2

We call this the Age of Information. It might be better to call it the Age ofElectronic Information. The age of information begun more than 4 billion years

ago with the appearance of the first living thing. Biologists and philosophershave been grappling with a definition of life for millennia. Is it growth,reproduction, nourishment, or sensation? Or is it a combination of these?

Recently, physicists and mathematicians have stumbled upon a definition that isbeautiful in its simplicity. They consider life, to put it simply, to be an orderedmechanism of information storage and transfer. Life is seen as a system thatgathers, stores and transfers information creating order in an otherwisedisorderly and chaotic universe. This definition encompasses two vitalcharacteristics of life, namely order and organisation, that make life stand outfrom other systems in the universe. Life is infinitely more ordered and organisedthan any other physical system, and more ordered than any technologicalsystems we have built; more ordered than a car engine, than a computer, or evena multi-million dollar satellite that orbits the earth or explores the far reaches ofthe universe.

We shall return to this characteristic of order and organisation soon. For now itwould be appropriate to consider the basic characteristics of life as defined by

biologists.

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1.2.1 Characteristics of Life

Biologists consider life to have a number of characteristics. These can generally

be summarised in Figure 1.1 below:

Figure 1 1:Characteristics of Living Things

These characteristics of life determine the development of the various structuresof our bodies. Specialised cells for example, develop to perform specialisedfunctions such as reproduction, while organ systems develop to performfunctions like movement. The organism as a whole is a collection of parts thatallows all the above characteristics of life to be displayed.

ACTIVITY 1.2

Working in pairs, identify the characteristics that distinguish living

things from non-living things.

1.2.2 Body Organisation

Organisation is one of the most important characteristics of life. By approachinglife from an organisational point of view, we are better able to study it and tounderstand the basic functions of our bodies. Anatomy involves high levels oforganisation and it is on the organisation of the human body that your study of

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anatomy will begin. In anatomy, organisation is accepted as beginning from thecellular level and extending to the organism level (in contrast, in biochemistryorganisation begins at the molecular level, while in ecology organisation ends at

the biospheric level). The main levels of organisation of relevance to the study ofanatomy can be summarised as follows (see Figure 1.2):

Figure 1 2: The levels of organisation of the human body, from constituent atoms to thewhole organism

Source:Seeley, Stephens, Tate, (2003, pg. 6)

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Molecularor chemical level: Many molecules play a vital role in life processesand their structure is important in determining their functionalcharacteristics. These range from the organic molecules that make up life (like

structural phospholipids) to inorganic molecules needed for various lifeprocesses (like the oxygen molecules carried by our blood).

Cellular level: Cells are the basic units of life. Molecules combine to formorganelles, which in turn form the functional units of cells. Cells will beaddressed in more detail in topic 3 of this course.

Tissue level: Tissue is formed from an aggregation of cells. Most of thespecialised functions of the body are carried out by tissue. Tissue isaddressed in more detail in topic 4 of this module.

Organ level: Organs are made up of tissue. An organ is composed of two or

more tissue types that perform common functions. Examples include theskin, the heart and the urinary bladder.

Organ System Level: An organ system is a grouping of organs performing aset of related functions as a unit. Several organs make up an organ system.This course is based on the study of selected organ systems. Examplesinclude the skeletal system and the nervous system.

Organism Level: An organism is a whole collection of functional partsdisplaying the characteristics of life. Some organisms are simple unicellularcreatures with no organ systems but they still display all the characteristics of

life. For the study of human anatomy, though, we consider the humanorganism which is a large multi-cellular mammal made up of several organsystems.

This organisational hierarchy allows for the development of high levels ofcomplexity as different levels of organisation cooperate to produce a singleindividual. This course will introduce the basic features of cells and tissue, andshift into discussion of the organ systems most important in sports. Organsthemselves will not be treated separately. The study of anatomy is rarelyapproached from the perspective of individual organs. Rather, organs are

studied in detail as parts of functional organ systems. Nevertheless, there are anumber of so-called vital organs in the human body. These are illustrated inFigure 1.3 and include such well known organs as the heart, the lungs, thekidneys, the liver, the brain and the stomach among others. On their own,outside their organ systems, these organs cannot perform their function andwould be useless in our body. Consider for example how you would function ifyou had a well developed brain but lacked the other components of the nervoussystem such as the nerves that connect your brain to the rest of the body. Your

brain would be as useless as a lump of flesh.

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Figure 1 3: The main organs of the human bodySource:Seeley, Stephens, Tate, (2003, pg. 7)

THE ORGAN SYSTEMS1.3

This course will approach human anatomy from an organ system perspective.There are 11 major organ systems in the human body. These are:

(a) Integumentary systemThese organ systems are illustrated in Figure 1.4, with a brief description ofthe functions of each system.

(b) Skeletal system

(c) Muscular system

(d) Nervous system

(e) Endocrine system

(f) Cardiovascular system

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(g) Lymphatic system

(h) Respiratory system

(i) Digestive system(j) Urinary system

(k) Reproductive system

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Figure 1 4: The human organs systemSource: Seeley, Stephens, Tate, (2003, pg. 8&9)

The organ systems can be grouped into four categories according to the functionsthey perform. These categories are:

(a) Support and movement systemsthat include the integumentary system, the

skeletal system and the muscular system;(b) Integration and control systemsthat include the nervous system, the sense

organs and the endocrine system;

(c) Regulation and maintenance systems that include the cardiovascularsystem, the lymphatic system, the respiratory system, the digestive systemand the urinary system; and

(d) The reproductive systems that are differentiated into the femalereproductive system and the male reproductive system.

These systems function in a complex and coordinated way to keep us alive.Though each system has its own functions and its own set of organs, thefunctions (and sometimes the organs) overlap between systems, and each systemis dependent on other systems for its function. The end result is a smoothrunning multi-system organism of high organisation and complexity.

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This inter-relationship between systems is illustrated in Figure 1.5. The digestivesystem absorbs nutrients that are then collected by the cardiovascular system.These nutrients are transported all over the body. One of the beneficiaries of the

nutrients is the muscular system that allows the body to move in search of morefood for the digestive system to consume. Similarly, the nutrients from thedigestive system are used in the production of red blood cells for thecardiovascular system as well as in the growth of nerve cells for the nervoussystem and the production of hormones for the endocrine system. The nervoussystem and cardiovascular system in turn stimulate and control the function ofthe digestive system as it acquires nourishment for the body. The other systemsare not being left out either. The muscular system is supported by the skeletalsystem. The urinary system maintains water balance in the body to allow all theabove systems to function. The sense organs help to locate food, while the

respiratory system helps in the provision of energy for the function of themuscular system. The lymphatic system, together with the cardiovascular systemand the urinary system, help in maintaining water balance among otherfunctions. And finally, the reproductive systems allow us as organisms tocontinue to exist but producing offspring who form the next generation ofpeople.

Because this course is concerned with sports sciences and aims to offer anintroduction of human anatomy to students of sports science, it will not cover allthe organ systems described above. You will only learn about the five mostimportant systems form a sports perspective. These are the integumentarysystem, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the nervous system and thecardiovascular system. If you are interested in the other systems, feel free to readabout them in your book or use abundant freely available on-line material.

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Figure 1 5:A diagrammatic representation of theinter-relationship between organ systems.

Source:Marieb, (2004, pg. 5)

STUDYING HUMAN ANATOMY1.4

Anatomy is a descriptive science. It is all about names and locations and is suchfull of details that have to be remembered. The most difficult part of studyinganatomy is remembering the names of the multitude of structures that you learnabout. These ranges from the sub-cellular level (like the troponin, tropomyosine,myosine, and actin molecules involved in muscle function) to the organ systemlevel.

Do not make an attempt to remember the names of everything at once. Rather,attempt to approach the course in a systematic manner. Take an organ system byorgan system approach, and break down each topic into manageable units ofstudy. Try to remember as many details as possible from each study unit. Alsotry to remember the relationship between the different structures you are

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studying and associate this with their function. This will often help you toremember the names of structures.

Some topics may appear to be more intimidating than others. This need not beso. For example, we have over 400 muscles in our bodies and you would neverbe expected to remember them all. Follow the same advice given above for all thetopics, even if you find them intimidating. Study the topic section by section,making an attempt to understand and remember all the information given in thetopic. If a section proves too difficult, do not spend too much time on it. Often,when the whole topic is completed, you would be able to return to a section of atopic and find that you are better able to understand it.

Because anatomy is a very visual subject, it is important to use visual aids, such

as diagrams, in your study of the body. Your textbook offers a goodaccompaniment to this module by providing colour picture of many of thesystems studied here. Also make good use of the interactive CDs available atyour study centre. Talk to your tutors if you do not have access to the anatomyCD and make sure they arrange for you to view it.

Today, one of the best sources of information and diagrams is the internet. Makea point to visit anatomy related websites. Not only are they quite interesting, butsome of them can also be a lot of fun. Below is a list of some recommendedwebsites and a brief description of their contents. Visit at least some of themduring the course of this course.

Anatomy is the study of the bodys form and structure.

Anatomy is divided into gross anatomy, also called macroscopic anatomy,and microscopic anatomy.

Biologists consider life to have a number of characteristics includingreproduction, growth, responsiveness, mobility, metabolism, organisation,

and evolution.

The main levels of organisation of relevance to the study of anatomy are themolecular level, the cellular level, the tissue level, the organ level, the organsystem level, and the organism level.

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Organ systems can be grouped into four categories according to the functionsthey perform, namely:

Support and movement systems

include the integumentary system, theskeletal system and the muscular system;

Integration and control systems include the nervous system, the senseorgans and the endocrine system;

Regulation and maintenance systems include the cardiovascular system,the lymphatic system, the respiratory system, the digestive system andthe urinary system; and

Reproductive systems differentiated into the female reproductivesystem and the male reproductive system.

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