Jagannath Institute of Management Sciences

Lajpat Nagar

BBA.HMTCT-II-SEM

201-F & B Production & Bakery -I

Unit-1

Culinary Terms

Western Ala / al: In the style of A la carte: In the style of the menu (card), items priced individually.

Anglaise: In the style of English; vegetables, meat and poultry cooked in either water or

stock; meat and fish, breaded or floured and fried. Aperitif: Any drink such as sherry or champagne usually taken before dinner as an

appetite stimulant. Au beurre: with butter, browned or in a sauce. Au Gratin: A baked or grilled dish sprinkled with grated cheese or bread crumbs or both.

Baba: Rich, fermented sponge introduced in France by King Stanislaus Leczinski of Poland out

of his admiration for the fairy tale, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, from which the name is

derived. It was popularized in Paris by the Polish Chef Stotchore at Rue Montgueli, Julienne;

he added raisins to the recipe.

Béchamel: The mother sauce, created by Louis de Béchamel, Marquis de Nointel, maitre d’ hotel to Louis XIV (1635 - 88)

Bacon: Boned pork, usually the side or belly meat; may be smoked or uncooked and cured with salt, sugar and spices. Baine Marie: It is equipment usually made of stainless steel with a small area to fill in water

and to keep other containers on it so that the food could be kept warm. It is electrically operated

(usually).

Beurre Maitre d’ hotel: Butter melted with parsley, salt, pepper and lemon juice and

served with meat, fish or vegetables. Bisque: A thick cream soup usually made with pureed shell fish.

Bouillon: A clear soup, stronger than broth but not as strong as consommé. It is even

referred to as a stock. Court Bouillon is the cooking liquor for fish.

Bouquet garni: A bunch of herbs, usually bay leaves, thyme, marjoram and parsley tied

together or enclosed in a muslin bag; if fresh bouquet garni is not available, use dried ones. This

bunch is removed before serving a dish. Brunoise: A garnish of diced vegetables; also any food cut or diced into small pieces.

Caviar: The prepared ripe eggs (ROE) of various species of sturgeon including beluga, osetra

and sevruga. Colour ranges from black to white and from golden to orange brown. They are

traditionally served in small dishes with a silver spoon accompanied by Melba toast, sour

cream, lemon wedges.

Cole Slaw: A salad of shredded raw cabbage, grated carrots, onions, green peas, Potatoes+ nuts combined with mayonnaise and sour cream.

Consommé: A crystal clear strained and clarified soup made from minced meat and Mire-poix.

It takes the name according to the garnishes added E.g.: consommé Julienne, Vermicelli,

Celestine, Profit role, Marmite. Croutons: small pieces of cubes of bread; fried or toasted.

Demi - glace: Literally half glaze; a thick brown sauce, Equal quantity of brown sauce and

brown stock reduced to Emulsion: An emulsion is formed from a mixture of two liquids that would normally repel each

other (or are immiscible) but are kept together by a substance that is soluble in both. e.g., milk

is an emulsion and it contains water and fat which are immiscible; but, both are kept together by

the protein present in milk, since the protein can dissolve both in water and fat. Estouffade: Brown stock.

Fillet: A thin, tender boneless piece of meat or other foods; a boneless skinless side of a

fish. Also spelled FILET. Gluten: An elastic protein substance present in some cereal grains, chiefly wheat and corn. It stretches and absorbs water, giving support and lightness to dough. Hollandaise sauce: A warm sauce of Dutch origin consisting of egg yolk, pepper, corn,

vinegar, and cream cooked to a sabayon consistency (on a double boiler to prevent lumps). It is

one amongst the basic mother sauces. Hors d oeuvre: it is an appetizer, served at the beginning of the dinner or Luncheon.

Julienne: Foods cut into match stick size, thin strips. The term reportedly comes from

a 17th

century chef named Julienne. Knead: To manipulate or work dough by hand or machine, folding and pressing until air is incorporated and texture is smooth.

Lard: White soft fat; the rendered fatty tissue of PORK.

Macedoine: Believed to be derived form the small islands of the Macedonian

Archipelagos, hence small cuts of vegetables (soup, entrees, large joints). Mayonnaise: A sauce made with egg yolks, olive oil, and vinegar or lemon juice, thoroughly blended. Meuniere: Lemon butter sauce: A way of cooking fish by lightly frying lightly flavored in butter and sprinkled with lemon juice. Minestrone: A traditional soup of Italy; made with many diced vegetables seared in fat

and simmered in beef broth garnished with parmesan cheeses. Mirepoix: Roughly cut vegetables such as carrots, onions, shallots, celery used as a

garnish; can be added to make soups, stocks, purees etc.

Mulligatawny: A very popular South Indian Soup with stock base; many variations are possible.

Name comes from a term Mulagu-tanni chili water. This is also very famous in Sri Lanka.

Parmentier: Antoine Auguste (1737 - 1817), French agricultural expert and politician, responsible for establishing the potato, hitherto a decorative plant, as a food crop in France.

The name has become a synonym of the potato in the kitchen (soup, potato dishes, sole,

noisettes, chicken).

Protein: Any of a large group of organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

and oxygen found in meat, fish, poultry, etc.; absolutely necessary for growth, repair and

maintenance of cells. The main composition of protein is the amino acids.

Roe: Eggs of some variety of fish. The roe of sturgeon is called caviar; the roe of lobster is coral. Roux: Equal quantity of Butter and refined flour heated and used as a thickener for gravies,

sauces etc. It may be blond Roux or White Roux.

Sauté: One of the methods of frying over moderately high heat in a little butter (oil or fat) and

stir it now and then to brown. It is a type of frying, where food is just tossed in oil. e.g., sauté

onions (chopped). Stock: A liquid containing the extracts of all vegetables or bones trimmings etc. which have been

simmered. It acts as the base for all sauces and curries e.g.: Brown stock, white stock etc. Suet: The fat from around the loins and kidneys of sheep, cattle, and other meat animals.

Tempering; A type of frying to get the flavors of herbs and spices (Mustard seeds, curry

leaves, garlic, red chili, green chili, fenugreek etc. are heated in oil in small quantities; they

finally splitter on heat and later, the mixture is added to any prepared dish to enhance the flavor.

Truffle: It is an underground fungus. It is white, beige, and brown, black in colour. Sizes vary. It is found in abundance near the Alps Mountains. Vinaigrette: A mixture of oil and vinegar, seasoned with salt and pepper.

Waldroff Salad: Salad of diced apples, celery, walnuts, with mayonnaise as base with cream added. Yeast: Tiny cells of fungi that multiply and make enzymes which, when combined with

liquid and carbohydrate foods, induce fermentation and give up CO2. It is a raising agent;

helps convert sugar/starch to alcohol and CO2. Zest: The outermost layer of nay citrus fruit usually the Rind without the white membrane.

Indian

Aata: Whole wheat flour Baffat: A rich Goan delicacy made from onion, radish etc. usually mutton is used. Bhajji: A soft snack of any vegetables such as Banana, Potato, sweet potato, brinjal dipped in gram flour or rice batter and then deep fat fried. Balushai: A hard round Indian sweet made from the dough of maida, curd and sugar and then sugar syrup (thick) is pored over. Barfi: Indian fudge made out of thickened glucose and desiccated coconut. Bhaji: A vegetable side dish usually made out of potato. Bel puri: A pavement snack mixture, which includes hard rounds of dough, rice, lentils, chopped onion, coriander, tomatoes, thick besan and vermicelli with sweet and sour water. Baghar: To indicated tempering. Bonda: Usually refers to mashed potatoes, spiced and dipped in besan batter and deep fat fried. Biriyani: The most popular rice preparation which is steamed in dum style with the addition of spices and meat. They are slightly yellowish or light greenish in colour. Bhatura: Larger version of Poories. Curry: Term which is very popular not only in India but abroad as well. Any Indian dish that has a sauce is called curry. The spices are heavy here. Dhansak: A Parsi food, literally meaning an amalgam of Basmati, lentil, vegetable and minced meat

and spiced well with Garam Masala � A must during nav - ROZ � a Parsi new year. Do Pyazza: It means onions added twice (once ground and then fried) in to the meat curry. Dum: A traditional, Mughalai way of cooking with slow steam to enhance all the goodness in cooking. E.g. : Biriyani and Dum alu.

Gushtaba : Kashmiri meat Kofta in Yoghurt and Poppy seed gravy Hing: Asafoetida Kheer: North Indian version of South Indian payasam; it is more mild and contains carrot, vermicelli or rice. Korma: Very rich thick red or, brown gravy out of Poppy seeds, coconut, spices, red chilly and cashew paste and curd. E.g.: chicken Korma, mutton korma. Moilee: Any Kerala style gravy which has plenty of coconut milk, usually preferred with fish curry. Phirnee: A sweet delicacy made out of boiled cows milk, rice powder, cashew, raisins and sugar. Pulao: Fine flavored basmati rice either steamed or double boiled. Rogan Josh: A fragrant red curry which is made by continuously cooking the measles with mutton and, finally a bark called as Rattan Jog is added for its characteristic colour. Shammi Kebab: - Flattened lamb mince is added with ground spices, chopped coriander leaves and green chilies and then shallow fried. Sheek Kebab: Minced lamb, herbs & spices with mashed potatoes are pressed in the skewer and roasted in a tandoor (Indian clay oven) Rasagulla: Strained yoghurt is worked in soft hands and plied in to balls and then cooked in sugar syrup and then stored in the same syrup. A Bengali Sweet. Sandesh: Quite similar to Rasagulla, but the strained yoghurt is plied in to balls and then flattened and then boiled in sugar syrup; later, it is kept in reduced condensed mild and saffron. Tandoor: An Indian roasting clay oven � a must in Punjabi cuisine. Upma: A South Indian snack which is made out of semolina or broken rice or broken wheat flavored with various spices such as ginger, red chili, mustard and cooked with water or stock (yakni) Vindaloo: A spicy red curry made up of Prawn or pork. It has other spices such as pepper, jeera, cinnamon, clove and moistened in vinegar. Zarda: A sweet digestive served at the end of a meal.

Introduction to Bakery and Confectionary

Most of bakers products are made of the ingredients such as flour, sugar eggs, milk, stabilizers and leaveners. There are two departments in a bakery, namely the bake section & the pastry section. The Pastry Section Although pastry section is part of the kitchen and, under the supervision of the head chef or catering

manager, it is considered to be a separate unit in a catering establishment. The main reasons for

this are that specialist staff and equipment are required for it to work efficiently and to avoid

contamination of sweet goods by the savory smells and flavors of the foods being prepared/stored in

the kitchen and larder areas. The purpose of the pastry section is to prepare and serve all hot and cold sweet dishes, pastries,

cakes, gateaux, petits fours, ice-cream dishes, confectionery and yeast goods. Often this includes

breads and special customer requirements such as celebration cakes. The section has specialist facilities, equipment and staff, and will therefore liaise with the kitchen and larder sections

on the production of savoury items; for example, pie coverings, vol-au-vents, sausage rolls, choux paste, cheese

straws,andpastasfleuron’. Pastes and other items will be supplied by the pastry section. In some cases they will be

prepared and baked by them for completion and service in the main kitchen. Depending on the type of establishment, the section would provide food for lunch, dinner and supper

menus, afternoon teas, buffets, banquets and possibly outdoor catering functions. If stewed fruits,

croissants and brioche rolls are served at breakfast, these would also be prepared by the pastry

section.

Basic Principles and Ingredients of Bakery

Basic Principles: Most bakers products are made of the same few ingredients - flour, shortening agent, sugar, eggs,

water or milk, and leavening agent. You should have no difficulty in understanding the importance of

accuracy in bakery, since slight variations in proportions or procedures can mean great differences

in the final product.

Formula: In case of cookery, the ratio of ingredients is called recipe. But here we call it a formula, since the proportion of mix has to be accurate.

Measurement in the Metric system: There has always been confusion with the usage of measure; the U.S. System is not much in use in

our Indian Bakeries and confectioneries. We use the metric system. In the metric system, there is

one basic unit for each type of measurement. gram is the basic unit of weight

litre is the basic unit of volume

meter is the basic unit of length

celsius is the basic unit of temperature.

Baking process:

The changes undergone by a dough or batter as it bakes are basically the same in all baked

products, from bread to cookies. You should know how these changes occur so that you

learn to control them.

Dough formation

Wheat contains proteins called the glutenin and gliadin, which together form gluten, when

wheat flour is moistened and mixed. Gluten also is a protein. When wheat flour is mixed with

water and kneaded, it forms a sticky and elastic mass called the dough. Gluten is

responsible for both the stickiness and the elasticity of the dough. At the time of

grinding the grain into flour, gluten quality can be improved by the addition of small quantity

of certain substances known as improvers.

Gas Formation and leavening Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases into a baked product to increase

volume and to produce shape and texture. These gases must be retained in the product until

the structure is set. The gases primarily responsible for leavening baked goods are (i) carbon

dioxide, which is released by the action of yeast, baking powder and baking soda, (ii) air,

which is incorporated into dough and batters during mixing and (iii) steam or hot dry air,

which is formed during baking. Acquiring the gases As the gases are formed, they expand and are trapped in a stretchable network formed by

the proteins in the dough. The proteins are primarily gluten and, sometimes egg protein.

Without gluten or egg protein, most of the gases would escape, and the product would be

poorly leavened. Breads without enough gluten are heavy. Gelatinization The starches absorb moisture, expand, and become firmer. This contributes to structure. It

begins to gelatinize (i.e., to form a soft some what elastic product like a fruit pulp) at about

650C.

Coagulation Like all proteins, gluten and egg proteins coagulate or solidify (i.e., the particles in the

proteins gather together into a solid mass), when they reach high enough temperatures. This

process gives most of the structure to baked goods. Coagulation begins at about 740C.

Correct baking temperature is very important. If it is too high, coagulation will start soon,

even before the expansion of gases has reached its peak. The resulting product will have

poor volume or a split crust. If the temperature is too low, the proteins will not coagulate soon

enough, and the product may collapse. Evaporation This takes place throughout the baking process. If a baked product of a specific weight is required, allowances must be made for moisture loss when scaling the dough. e.g., a loaf of 400 gram of baked bread shall need about 500 gram of dough. Shortening All fats are shortening agents. Films of fat get in between the layers of gluten in the flour and

shorten or break the gluten thereby making the dough tender and flaky. On cooking, different

shortening agents release trapped gases at different temperatures. The product when

consumed melts in the mouth; e.g., biscuits. Proper shortening agent should be selected for

each product. Browning A crust is formed as water evaporates from the surface and leaves it dry. Browning occurs

when sugar caramelizes and, starch and sugar undergo certain chemical changes caused by

heat. This contributes to flavour. Milk, sugar and egg increase browning.

Staling Staling is the change in texture and aroma of baked goods due to a change of structure and

a loss of moisture by the starch granules. Stale baked goods have lost their fresh baked

aroma and are firmer, drier, and more crumbly than fresh products. Prevention of staling is

major concern of the baker, because most baked goods loose quality rapidly. Staling begins almost as soon as the backed items are taken from the oven. There are

apparently two factors for staling. The first is loss of moisture or drying. This is apparent, for

example, when slices of fresh bread are left exposed to air. The bread becomes dry. The

second factor is a chemical change in the starch structure. Bread should never be stored in a

refrigerator; either it should be stored at room temperature for a short period or frozen for a

long term storage.

Unit-2

Bakery Layout

Baking Ingredients The usual ingredients in Bakery are as follows: Wheat flour

Starches

Sugars

Syrups

Fats

Shortenings

Margarine

Oil

Lard

Milk and cream

Cheese

Eggs

Leavening Agents

Nuts and fruits

Chocolate and Cocoa

Salt and spices

Wheat Flour Wheat Flour is the most important ingredient in Bakery. It provides bulk and structure to most of the bakers products, including breads, cakes, cookies and pastries

Types of Wheat: The characteristics of flour depend on the variety of wheat from which it is milled, the location in which the wheat is grown, and the growing conditions. Types of wheat used are:

Hard Red Spring Hard Red Winter Soft Red Winter Durum White

Hard Wheat flour is used in the making of breads Soft Wheat flour is used in the making of cakes and pastry.

Straight Flour: Straight flour is 100% extraction as flour. In other words, it is made from the entire wheat kernel after the bran and germ are removed. It is a product of Hard Wheat; it has high protein content and is usually used for making breads.

Whole - wheat Flour: It is made by grinding the entire wheat kernel, including the bran and germ. The germ, as you have learned is high in fat, which can become rancid.

Self - rising Flour: It is a white flour to which baking powder and sometimes salt have been added. The advantage is that the baking powder is blended in very uniformly.

Soft Wheat Flour: Let us consider the Cake flour. The cake flour is weak or has low gluten; it is made from soft wheat. Pastry flour is used for pie dough and for some cookies, biscuits and muffins.

Rye four: Next to white and whole wheat, rye is the most popular flour for bread making. Although rye flour

contains some proteins, it does not form gluten. Therefore breads made with 100% rye flour will be

heavy and dense.

Starches In addition to flours, other starch products

primarily to thicken puddings, pie fillings,

dessert production are as follows.

are also used in Bakery. Unlike flour, they are used

and similar products. The most important starches in

Corn Starch: It has a special property that makes it valuable for certain purposes. Products thickened with corn starch set up almost like gelatin when cooled. For this reason, it is used to thicken cream pies and

other products that must hold their shape.

Waxy Maize: It has valuable properties. Because they do not breakdown when frozen, they are used for products

that are to be frozen. Also, they are very clear when cooked and give a brilliant, clear appearance to

fruit pie fillings. Waxy maize does not set up firm like corn starch, but makes a soft paste, which has

the same consistency in hot or cold condition. This is not suitable for cream pie fillings.

Instant Starches: The instant starches are available precooked or pre - gelatinized; so they thicken cold liquids without further cooking. They are useful in situations where heat will damage the flavour of the product, as in fresh fruit glazes, like strawberry.

Sugar: Sugar occurs naturally in nearly all plant structures - fruits, leaves and stems; however sugar for

general commercial use is obtained from two major sources, sugarcane and sugar beet. 60% of the

world's supply of sugar is obtained from sugar cane and 40% from sugar beet. Cane contains

approximately 18% sugar, while, beet contains approximately 15% sugar.

Classification:

Source - Beet and Cane

Country - West Indies, Guyana, England, India.

Catering uses - Specific types of sugar should be purchased for par�ticular purposes. E.g.:

Cube sugar would usually be purchased for table use to serve with tea and coffee; icing sugar would usually be purchased for dusting or royal icing.

Chemical group Monosaccharide and Disaccharides

Functions:

To sweeten, cakes, pastries, sweet drinks etc. To act as preservative. To soften the gluten in flour and to make the baked product more tender to eat and lighter in texture. To colour the cooked product. e.g., the addition of sugar will assist bread and cakes having a good colour.

Action of Heat on Sugar: 115℃ - Soft ball. Making of marzipan and fondant 121℃ - Hard ball. Making nougats, petit fours etc.

138℃ - Soft crack. Making Italian Meringue

143℃ - Pulled sugar. Making 01 baskets, ribbons, roses, bows, etc. 154℃ - Hard crack.

163℃ - Caramel. Making for cream caramel. Sugars or sweetening agents have the following purposes in baking:

To increase keeping qualities by retaining moisture. To give crust colour. To act as creaming agents with fats and as foaming agents. To tenderize and impart fineness of texture, partly by weakening the gluten structure. To make any dish sweeter and flavoured.

Types of Sugars:

Granulated Sugar: Very fine and ultra fine sugars are finer than regular granulated sugar. They are prized for making cakes ad cookies, because they make a more uniform batter and can support higher quantities of fat.

Sanding Sugars: These are coarser and are used for coating cookies, cakes, and other products. Coarse sugar, can be used in syrups, where its mixing properties are not a factor. Even a very coarse sugar will dissolve readily when boiled in water.

Invert Sugar: When a sucrose solution is heated with an acid, cane sugar (sucrose) breaks down in to equal parts of two simple sugars, glucose and fructose. A judicious mixture of glucose and fructose is called invert sugar. Invert sugar has two properties that make it interesting to the baker.

It holds moisture well and thereby helps to keep cakes fresh and moist. It resists crystallization

Invert Sugar is produced commercially, and it is also present in honey.

Dehydrated Fondant:

It is a soft creamy preparation of sugar, water, and glucose that is used as a basis for candies or icings. Recipe:

Brown Sugar: Brown sugar is mostly sucrose (80 � 90%). It also contains varying amounts of caramel, molasses, and other impurities, which give it its characteristic flavour. In a nut shell, brown sugar is a regular

cane sugar that has not been completely refined. Keep brown sugar in an air tight container to

prevent it from drying out and hardening.

Syrups:

Molasses: It is concentrated sugar cane juice. It contains large amounts of sucrose and other sugars, including

invert sugar. It also contains acids, moisture, and other constituents that give it its flavour and colour.

Darker grades are stronger in flavour and contain less sugar than lighter grades. Molasses retains

moisture in baked goods and therefore prolongs freshnes Malt Syrup: Malt is available in two forms. Dried malt extract is simply malt syrup that has been dried. It must be

kept in an air tight container to keep it from absorbing moisture from the air. Malt flour is the dried,

ground, malted (softened by steeping in water and allowed to germinate) barley that has not had the

malt extracted from it. It is obviously a much less concentrated form of malt.

Leavening Agent: Yeast: Yeast is the leavening agent in breads, dinner rolls, Danish pastries, and similar products. Yeast

causes fermentation of sugar into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. This release of gas produces the

leavening action in yeast products. The alcohol evaporates completely during and immediately after

baking. Fermentable sugar in bread dough comes from two sources.

It is added to the dough It is produced from flour by enzymes that breakdown the wheat starch into sugar. These enzymes are present in the flour and are added in the form of malt.

Yeast is a microscopic plant that accomplishes this fermentation process by producing enzymes.

Some of the enzymes change complex sugar (sucrose and maltose) into simple sugars (glucose and

fructose). Others change the simple sugars into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. Yeast is a living organism; it is sensitive to temperatures as shown below:

At 10C Yeast is inactive

150C � 20

0C Yeast has slow action

200C � 32

0C Best for growth of yeast

380C Yeast reacts

600C Yeast dies

Yeast is available in two forms - compressed and active dry. Let us now study regarding two chemicals used in bakery for releasing carbon dioxide.

Baking Soda: Baking soda is the chemical, sodium bicarbonate. If moisture and an acid are present, baking soda releases carbon dioxide gas, which leavens the product. Heat is not necessary for the reaction.

Baking powder: Baking powders are mixtures of baking soda plus an acid to react with it. They also contain starch,

which prevents lumping and brings the leavening power down to a standard level. The baking

powder requires only moisture to be able to release gas. Like baking soda, baking powder can be

used, only if the product is to be baked immediately after mixing.

Salt: It brings out the flavor of other ingredients. The other name of salt is Sodium chloride. It is readily available in all part of the world. In solid ( rock salt) in solution ( sea salt). Correct quantity of salt can transform a normal dish into wonderful dish. It should be used skillfully, or too much of it may spoil the dish. Salt is available in 3 forms:

1) Table salt ( Fine) 2) Coarse or freezing salt

3) Celery salt which is a blend of celery root. It is used for flavoring certain dishes as an

alternate to fresh celery or celery seed.

Uses of Salt

1) Use of correct amount of salt improves the flavor of the savoury dishes & when little is added it enhance the flavor

2) It has a physical effect on gluten of flour (strengthen gluten and its resistance). 3) Cauliflower when put in salted water makes the insects out. 4) . it has a controlling effect on activity of yeast in bakery. It controls fermentation. 5) Salt added to water to make green vegetables help colour retention & enhance taste. 6) Salting is one of the oldest popular methods of preserving. 7) Salt is essential for good health.

Fats: There are many different varieties of fats available in the market. These fats have varying properties

that make them suitable for different purposes. While selecting a fat for a specific use, a baker must

consider the following properties; its melting point, it softness or hardness at different temperatures,

its flavour and its ability to form emulsions. Earlier, under baking process, we mentioned regarding

the ability of a fat to act as a shortening agent; films of fat get in between the layers of gluten in the

flour and shorten or break the gluten thereby making the dough tender and flaky. We generally use

the word shortening to mean any of a group of solid fats, usually white and tasteless, that have been

especially formulated for baking. Shortenings may be made from vegetables oils (hydrogenated) and

animal fats. There are two main types:

Regular shortenings Emulsified shortenings.

Butter Any fresh butter consists of about 80% fat, 15% water and about 5% milk solids. Butter is available

salted and unsalted. Unsalted butter is more perishable, it is hard when cold, very soft at room

temperature and it melts easily. Butter is having high flavour when compared to the shortenings.

Butter also has the melting qualities.

Margarine: It is a butter substitute, cheaper than butter and less in cholesterol content. The flavour in margarine is less than that of Butter. It contains 80-85% fat, 10-15% moisture and 5% salt and milk solid. Usually this is made out of vegetable fat. Sometimes, animal fat is also used.

Oil: It is liquid fat and used less for shortening. The main use of oil in the bakeshop is for greasing, deep frying, and as a wash for some kinds of Rolls.

Lard: Lard is the rendered fat of pigs. Because of its plastic quality, it was once highly valued for making

flaky pie crusts. Since the development of modern shortenings, however, it is not often used in the

bakeshop.

Shortening: These are the fats which shorten the gluten surround them and make them more easily broken

(short). When added to bread it gives a bit tenderness, richness & a sheen to crumb. For the

selection of good fat following points should be considered. A frying fat should have more smoking

point, low moisture content, high stability & acceptable flavor. Fats & oils having high percentage of unsaturated fats has more shortening power than saturated fats. Animal fat such as butter, lard & suet make food short, i.e. break off ( short) & readily melt in the mouth. For the selection of shortening the following factors should be observed:

1) Shortening should cream well or it will affect the cake volume. 2) It should have no moisture then it will be short

3) The shortening should be stable & should not get rancid so that the cooked product has a

good keeping quality.

4) The right consistency of fat , i.e. solidified puff & flaky pastry, soft for cakes & biscuits help to get good texture. To acquire good results in baking because of fats & other ingredients, certain rules should be followed

Fats & oils are used for various purposes: -

1) Spread 2) Shortenings 3) Tempering] 4) Salad Dressing 5) Frying Medium

Egg Certain foods play a major role in cooking. One of them is egg. It can be served as a main dish or as

an accompaniment to other dishes or as an ingredient in another item. Due to its versatility, the egg

is considered a primary ingredient in culinary preparation, providing moisture, structure and richness

in dishes. It is also an emulsifier and aerator, when properly handled and used. In cooking, the term

egg refers to the oval, thin-shelled ovum of a bird, used as food. There are many types of eggs, such

as those of goose, duck and turkey.

Composition Let us study the composition of egg Composition of an Egg The shell or outer covering of the egg may be white or brown. Shell color has no relation to the

quality, working properties or the nutritive value of the egg. The colour of the shell is determined by

the breed of the chicken. Composed primarily of calcium carbonate, the shell is very fragile. It is

porous, which allows it to breathe. The porous nature of the shell allows loss of moisture, even if

unbroken. The white part is the food and the moisture source for the embryo in a fertilized egg; it

accounts for 67% of liquid weight of the egg. Egg white is made up of two parts: a thick white liquid

and a thinner liquid part. Albumin, a protein, is the major component of the white. This protein also

contains sulphur. Albumin, in the egg white, is valued by the cook and baker for its ability to hold air,

when beaten. Besides, egg white provides light fluffy texture for souffls, chiffon pies, angel food

cakes and other food items. The yolk is the unfertilized embryo in the egg and is yellow in colour. The depth of colour will vary with the feed of the hen. The yolk is high in fat and protein and contains iron. The yolk is valued for the richness and texture, which it provides in both cooking and baking. Primarily, an egg is graded by weight: Grade A around 70 grams Grade B around 60 grams Grade C around 50 grams Purchasing Factors Purchase only the quantity of eggs needed for one or, at most, two weeks; accept only eggs which

are clean, sound and odour free. There are various methods of preserving eggs, such as oiling,

wrapping and refrigeration. However, the preferred method is refrigeration. Exposure to

temperatures above15 degree C shortens the life of an egg. Higher temperatures often break down

an egg white and yolk. Fresh eggs should be properly boxed. The best packaging for the commercial

kitchen is fiberboard boxes. Eggs should be packed in the carton in snug fitting trays to reduce

breakage. .

While accepting the consignment, the grade of eggs must be checked. The carton should be clearly

marked with the grade and size. It is advisable to break a few eggs at random to see if they meet the

specifications for the grade ordered. This will also help to determine if they have been properly

handled by the supplier.

Fresh Eggs: This is the preferred form for breakfast cookery. In many kitchens, fresh eggs are used for

production. Although the fresh flavour is much desirable for many types of preparation, they create

extra labour in handling. They also require more storage space.

Frozen Eggs: They are of high quality and available in a number of forms. They are pasteurized while processing,

reducing concerns about bacterial growth. They are available as whole eggs, yolks, whites or whole

with extra yolks added. These should be thawed under refrigeration. This requires two days. Frozen

eggs are excellent for many types of baking, scrambling, omelets, etc. However, in India,

pasteurized eggs have not made any head way.

Dried Eggs: These are available as whole eggs, yolks or whites. They are used primarily for baking. Dried eggs are not recommended for breakfast cookery. This dried product is not shelf stable. The dried eggs are to be refrigerated or frozen and, tightly sealed.

Action of Heat Whole eggs, after being beaten, coagulate at 70-72 degree centigrade.

Thin white part coagulates at 68 degree C and thick white in the range 50-66 degree C.

Yolks coagulate in the range 62-70 degree C.

Whole eggs combined with liquid, such as in custard, coagulate in the range 79-85 degree C. Storage and Handling Protection of egg is of great importance. When improperly handled, its properties, as an ingredient

and independent food item, are impaired. Remember that eggs loose quality when kept long at room

temperature. They should always be stored between 18 degree C to 20 degree C. Eggs have porous

shells, which allow air to enter the shell. The eggs should be stored away from foods that may pass on undesirable odours.

Eggs are best stored in a case to prevent moisture loss.

Catering Uses Nutritionally, eggs are important. They contain vitamins A. D, E. K and B complex. They are high in

iron and one egg equals one ounce of lean meat, fish or poultry. One large egg provides 15% of the

daily requirement of protein. Eggs are low in saturated fat and one large egg is approximately equal

to 80 calories. The major concern with eggs is cholesterol. One large egg averages 213 mg of

cholesterol. For many people with various health problems, cholesterol is restricted as part of their

diet. Although there is no effort to stop cooking with eggs, there is a need to find ways to reduce the

cholesterol content of prepared foods. One of the ways is to use egg whites instead of whole eggs,

since the cholesterol is in the yolk. Throughout culinary work, eggs are employed in a number of ways. To bind

To coat food with bread crumbs.

To emulsify - Hollandaise sauce, Barnaise, Mayonnaise.

To glaze and colour (egg wash for baking).

To aerate-souffls, batters.

Egg dishes, no doubt, appear on the traditional menus as a course in their own right and are often chosen as a preliminary item prior to the main dish. However they may also be selected as a main .course item.

Milk and Milk Products

Types:

Whole milk is fresh milk as it comes from the cow, with nothing removed and nothing added. Fresh whole milk is available in several forms.

Pasteurized milk: Milk has been heated to kill bacteria at 72

oC for 15 seconds.

Raw milk: Raw milk is that has not been pasteurized. It is not often used and, in fact, is generally not allowed to be sold.

Homogenized milk: Homogenized milk is processed such that the cream does not separate out. This is done by forcing

the milk through very tiny holes, which break up the fat into particles so small that they stay

distributed in the milk. The above terms apply not only to the whole milk but also to skim and non -

fat milk.

Cream Various types of fresh cream, differing primarily in fat content, are available.

Whipping Cream: Has fat content of 30-40%; within this category, you may find light whipping cream (30-35%) and heavy whipping cream (36-40%). Light Cream: It is also called table cream or coffee cream and contains 16 to 22% fat, usually about 18%.

Half and Half: Has a fat content of 10-20%, too low for it to be called cream.

Evaporated Milk: Milk, either whole or skim, is evaporated to remove about 60% of the water. It is then sterilized and canned. Evaporated milk has a somewhat cooked flavour.

Condensed milk: Condensed milk is richer than evaporated milk, because more water has been removed. It can be sweetened or unsweetened. It is available canned and in bulk. Fermented milk products. Fermentation means breakdown of an energy-rich compound like

carbohydrate into simpler compounds using enzymes. Let us give two applications of fermentation in

food preparation: (i) We shall study shortly how yogurt, a curd like food, is prepared from milk

fermented by the action of bacteria, lactobacillus bacteria. (ii) Also, you will see the role of yeast, a

living micro-organism as a leavening agent in breads based on its fermenting ability of sugars.

Fermented Milk Products:

Buttermilk: Buttermilk is fresh liquid milk, usually skim milk, which has been cultured or soured by bacteria. It is usually called cultured butter milk to distinguish it from the original buttermilk, which is the liquid left after butter making.

Sour cream: Sour cream is cultured or fermented by adding lactic acid bacteria. This makes it thick and slightly tangy in flavour. It has about 18% fat. Yogurt: Yogurt is a curd like food and is prepared from milk fermented by the action of bacteria, lactobacillus bacteria. Various types of yogurts are prepared with varying amounts of fat, flavour and sweetness. Cheese Two types of cheese are used in the bakeshop, primarily in the production of cheese fillings and

cheese cakes. Bakers cheese is a soft; un-aged cheese with a very low fat content. It is dry and

pliable and can be kneaded somewhat like dough, generally available in packs. It can be frozen for

longer time. Cream cheese is also soft cheese; un-aged, but has a high fat content, about 35%. It is mainly used in rich cheese cakes and in a few speciality products.

Acidic Ingredients- Cream of Tartar: it's a common ingredient for meringues or meringue toppings. But what exactly is the stuff? For those of you who

have ever wondered...let's take a moment to consider the life, times, and purpose of this unique white powder.

What it is: a fine, white, odorless powder. Were I to see it on the counter and not have the benefit of seeing its

packaging, I might confuse it with baking powder.

Why the name? The chemical name for this substance is potassium bitartrate, or potassium hydrogen

tartrate. As you might surmise, the "tartrate" part can explain where the "tartar" came from.

I wasn't able to find a good explanation of where the "cream of" came into play, but I should clear up any

confusion regarding Tartar Sauce. That name is derived fromtartare, which is a dish for which this sauce a

condiment of choice. Though tartar sauce is creamy, it has nothing to do with cream of tartar

Where it comes from: Believe it or not...it is a by-product of wine production! I'm totally not kidding. It is

formed from the sediment left over in barrels after the winemaking process; once formed, it is scraped off of the

sides of the barrels and then cleaned and ground to form cream of tartar. Interesting factoid: it's said that cream of

tartar residue has been found in pottery dating back 7,000 years!

Food uses: Arguably the most famous use for cream of tartar (or at least the one I've seen and used it for most

frequently) is to stabilize egg whites when making meringues or meringue toppings. The cream of tartar not only

stabilizes the egg whites and allows them to maintain their texture when whipped into stiff peaks, but it also

increases their tolerance to heat, which is very helpful, say, when you put a meringue topped pie or a baked alaska

into a hot oven. This allows them to brown nicely, hold their shape, and to not m elt away and expose the delicious

interior of these desserts!

However, there are other food uses for cream of tartar, including stabilizing whipped cream, preventing

discoloration of vegetables which have been boiled, and preventing sugar syrups from crys tallizing (I have never

used it for this purpose but am intrigued!).

It can also be used as an ingredient which will help activate baking soda (hence you may see it in some cake

recipes), and it also sometimes is listed as an ingredient in salt substitute s.

Other uses: Cream of tartar can also be used, if you're a hippie, as a homemade cleaner. Mix it with

something acidic like lemon juice or white vinegar to form a paste; this can be used to clean metals and

porcelain.

It can also be combined with hydrogen peroxide to clean rust from metal tools, but I will be completely honest and

tell you that I find this boring.

Food Additives:

A food additive is any substance that a food manufacturer intentionally adds to foods to achieve

specific desired effects or characteristics during production or processing. In general, food

additives contribute to the shelf life of foods and have made many convenience foods possible.

They also maintain the firmness, softness or texture of many foods.

Some people prefer to avoid food additives, when possible. If this is your preference, you

should read labels carefully and select more foods in the natural foods section of your store. Food additives in ancient times: Many food additives have been used for centuries. For example:

The Egyptians used vegetable food colorings

The Romans used honey to preserve fruit

Salting food was a common practice in the Middle Ages

Marco Polo searched for herbs and spices, additives for flavoring foods

Types of food additives: Food additives are used for a number of different reasons

including food preservation, spoilage prevention, flavor enhancement and to improve nutritional

value. There are approximately 3,000 food additives that are classified into six major categories 1. Nutritional supplements Many foods are fortified with vitamins and minerals. The primary reason for this practice is to

replace nutrients lost during processing and to prevent deficiency diseases. Some of the common

fortifications are: vitamin D in milk, vitamin A in margarine, iron and B vitamins in breads, and iodine in table salt.

2. Preservatives The safe-use period of many foods is greatly extended through the addition of preservatives, which

retard spoilage, preserve flavor and color and keep oils from turning rancid. Preservatives protect

foods, such as cured meats, from developing dangerous toxins, such as botulism, a food poisoning

illness.

3. Flavoring agents These are the most commonly used additives. Some, such as monosodium glutamate (MSG), are

used to enhance flavor. Others, like chemical concentrates of a flavor such as strawberry, are used

to boost flavor. Flavorings are often used when a natural flavoring is unavailable or too expensive

to use in a particular commercial product.

4. Coloring agents These additives are used strictly to make foods more attractive to the consumer. Even some

fruits, like oranges, have color added to their skins to make their color match the expectations of

consumers.

5. Emulsifiers, stabilizers, and thickeners A large variety of products from this category are used to improve the texture and consistency

of foods. Emulsifiers are commonly used to keep ingredients from separating in sauces and

salad dressings. Lecithin, gelatin and pectin are commonly used natural emulsifiers.

6. Acids and alkalis These additives are used to neutralize the acidity or alkalinity of certain foods. Citric acid,

for instance, might be used to add tartness to certain foods. 7. Sweeteners

We only have 4 tastes. These are sweet (like sugar), sour (like lemons), bitter (like strong coffee or

tonic water) and salt. Most of us like to eat sweet tasting foods. Food manufacturers can add

different sorts of sugars or sweeteners to their products to make them sweeter. Sugar may be bad

for your teeth and if you eat too much your body can change it into fat and you will put on weight.

Scientists have tried to find or make substances which will make your food sweeter but which do not

affect teeth or make people fat. These are called artificial sweeteners. A substance like this would

also be very useful for foods made for people who have diabetes. Artificial sweeteners can be

added to many different products such as chocolate, jam and chewing gum.

Government control of additives: The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 is the law

that sets the standards for food in the United States, while at the same time calling for truthful

labeling. This act gives the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) responsibility for safety and

wholesomeness of foods. There have been several amendments to this act, but one, in particular,

strengthens it in regard to additives. The Food Additives Amendment of 1958 requires pre-marketing

approval for substances intended to be added to foods. This amendment includes the Delaney

Clause, which states that no chemical can be added to food if, in any amount, it produces cancer

when ingested by man or animal. When the Food Additives Amendment of 1958 was adopted, over 200 substances were exempted

from the testing requirement because they were considered to be Generally Recognized as Safe

(GRAS). A number of other substances have been added to this list since its initial adoption. Allergies and sensitivities to additives: Some people have an immediate reaction to food preservatives, such as BHA, BHT, MSG, nitrites, sulfites, sodium bisulfite, and sulfur dioxide.

Some of these reactions are due to allergies. With allergies, preexisting antibodies in the body react

to the chemical molecules and cause a variety of problems, ranging from mild skin rashes to gastro-

intestinal upset to life-threatening anaphylactic episodes. Other reactions reflect an “intolerance” to the food or additive; rather than an allergy per se, but

these reactions may still be uncomfortable. An example of such a reaction would be a person

who gets a headache after eating MSG.

Fruits and Nuts: Nearly any kind of fresh fruit can be used in the production of deserts. In addition, a wide variety of dried, frozen, canned and processed fruit products are important ingredients in the bakery.

Fresh Dried Canned and Frozen Candied

Apple Figs Apple Cherries

Banana Dates Peaches Lemon peel

Lime Prunes Apricot Orange peel

Lemon Apricots Strawberries Pineapple

Orange Raisins Cherries Figs

Papaya Cherries Pineapple

Mango Currants Mango pulp

Passion fruit Leeches

Pears

Peaches

Kiwis

Apricot

Grapes

Nuts are available whole, halved, or crushed / powdered. Almonds Coconut

Walnut

Hazelnut

Peanut

Cashew

Chest nut

Nut Pastes Marzipan: Essentially a sweetened almond paste, used in decorative and confectionery work. This product can be purchased or made in the bakery from almond paste.

Praline paste:

This is a confectionery paste made from almonds and / hazelnuts and caramelized sugar, all ground to a paste. It is used as a flavouring agent for icings, fillings, pastries and creams.

Kernel paste: It is a product similar to almond paste but less expensive. It is made from apricot kernels, which have a strong almond like flavour.

Extracts and Emulsions: Extracts are flavoured oils and other substances dissolved in alcohol. This may include bitter almond, vanilla and lemon. Emulsions are oils with flavour, which are mixed with water with the aid of emulsifiers such as vegetables gums. Lemons and oranges are most frequently used in emulsions. Flavourings in general may be divided into two categories: natural and artificial. Natural flavourings are costly but quite superior in value.

Cocoa and Chocolate Chocolate liquor contains a white or yellowish fat called cocoa butter. After part of the cocoa butter is removed from chocolate liquor, cocoa remains as the dry powder.

Sweet chocolate: Sweet chocolate is prepared from bitter chocolate by the addition of sugar and cocoa butter in various proportions. Milk Chocolate: It is a sweet chocolate which contains added milk solids. It is usually used as a coating chocolate and in various confections

White chocolate: Cocoa butter, sugar and milk solids are used in preparing white chocolates. It is used primarily in confectionery.

Enzymes in Baking:

Enzymes play an essential part in modern baking technology and have done so for many

years. In many baking improver formulations enzymes are key technology products.

Enzymes used as processing aids in baking are the key differentiation factor for bakery

improver manufacturers and a great source of product innovations and differentiation.

The dough for bread, rolls, buns and similar products consists of flour, water, yeast,

salt and possibly other ingredients such as sugar and fat. Flour consists of gluten,

starch, non-starch polysaccharides, lipids and trace amounts of minerals. As soon as

the dough is made, the yeast starts to work on the fermentable sugars, transforming

them into alcohol and carbon dioxide, which makes the dough rise.

Gluten is a combination of proteins that forms a large network during dough

formation. This network holds the gas in during dough proofing and baking. The

strength of this gluten network is therefore extremely important for the quality of all

bread raised using yeast. Enzymes such as hemicellulases, xylanases, lipases and

oxidases can directl

201- Food Production & Bakery -I (Th)

Unit-4

Egg Cookery

Certain foods play a major role in cooking. One of them is egg. It can be served as a main dish or as an accompaniment to other dishes or as an ingredient in another item. Due to its versatility, the egg is considered a primary ingredient in culinary preparation, providing moisture, structure and richness in dishes. It is also an emulsifier and aerator, when properly handled and used. In cooking, the term egg refers to the oval, thin-shelled ovum of a bird, used as food. There are many types of eggs, such as those of goose, duck and turkey. In this unit, we are most concerned with the eggs of the chicken.

Composition

Let us study the composition of egg

Composition of an Egg The shell or outer covering of the egg may be white or brown. Shell color has no relation

to the quality, working properties or the nutritive value of the egg. The colour of the shell

is determined by the breed of the chicken. Composed primarily of calcium carbonate, the

shell is very fragile. It is porous, which allows it to breathe. The porous nature of the shell

allows loss of moisture, even if unbroken. The white part is the food and the moisture

source for the embryo in a fertilized egg; it accounts for 67% of liquid weight of the egg.

Egg white is made up of two parts: a thick white liquid and a thinner liquid part. Albumin,

a protein, is the major component of the white. This protein also contains sulphur.

Albumin, in the egg white, is valued by the cook and baker for its ability to hold air, when

beaten. Besides, egg white provides light fluffy texture for souffle‟s, chiffon pies, angel

food cakes and other food items. The yolk is the unfertilized embryo in the egg and is yellow in colour. The depth of

colour will vary with the feed of the hen. The yolk is high in fat and protein and contains

iron. The yolk is valued for the richness and texture, which it provides in both cooking

and baking. Primarily, an egg is graded by weight:

Grade A around 70 grams

Grade B around 60 grams

Grade C around 50 grams

Purchasing Factors Purchase only the quantity of eggs needed for one or, at most, two weeks; accept only

eggs which are clean, sound and odour free. There are various methods of preserving

eggs, such as oiling, wrapping and refrigeration. However, the preferred method is

refrigeration. Exposure to temperatures above15 degree C shortens the life of an egg.

Higher temperatures often break down an egg white and yolk. Fresh eggs should be

properly boxed. The best packaging for the commercial kitchen is fiberboard boxes. Eggs

should be packed in the carton in snug fitting trays to reduce breakage. . While accepting the consignment, the grade of eggs must be checked. The carton should

be clearly marked with the grade and size. It is advisable to break a few eggs at random

to see if they meet the specifications for the grade ordered. This will also help to

determine if they have been properly handled by the supplier.

Fresh Eggs: This is the preferred form for breakfast cookery. In many kitchens, fresh eggs are used for

production. Although the fresh flavour is much desirable for many types of preparation,

they create extra labour in handling. They also require more storage space.

Frozen Eggs: They are of high quality and available in a number of forms. They are pasteurized while

processing, reducing concerns about bacterial growth. They are available as whole eggs,

yolks, whites or whole with extra yolks added. These should be thawed under

refrigeration. This requires two days. Frozen eggs are excellent for many types of baking,

scrambling, omelets, etc. However, in India, pasteurized eggs have not made any head

way.

Dried Eggs: These are available as whole eggs, yolks or whites. They are used primarily for baking.

Dried eggs are not recommended for breakfast cookery. This dried product is not shelf

stable. The dried eggs are to be refrigerated or frozen and, tightly sealed.

Action of Heat Whole eggs, after being beaten, coagulate at 70-72 degree centigrade.

Thin white part coagulates at 68 degree C and thick white in the range 50-66 degree C.

Yolks coagulate in the range 62-70 degree C.

Whole eggs combined with liquid, such as in custard, coagulate in the range 79-85 degree C.

Storage and Handling Protection of egg is of great importance. When improperly handled, its properties, as an

ingredient and independent food item, are impaired. Remember that eggs loose quality

when kept long at room temperature. They should always be stored between 18 degree C

to 20 degree C. Eggs have porous shells, which allow air to enter the shell.

The eggs should be stored away from foods that may pass on undesirable odours.

Eggs are best stored in a case to prevent moisture loss.

Always refrigerate eggs in closed containers because the shells of eggs being very porous allow passage to moisture, bacteria and mould, if left uncovered for any length of time.

When there are a few eggs left in the fridge and you buy more eggs, there is a need to avoid confusion. To distinguish the old ones from the new, mark the old eggs with a pencil or a sketch pen with a number or a particular sign.

The freshness of the eggs can be ascertained using the water - immersion test

Test for Freshness of an Egg.

Catering Uses Nutritionally, eggs are important. They contain vitamins A. D, E. K and B complex. They

are high in iron and one egg equals one ounce of lean meat, fish or poultry. One large egg

provides 15% of the daily requirement of protein. Eggs are low in saturated fat and one

large egg is approximately equal to 80 calories. The major concern with eggs is

cholesterol. One large egg averages 213 mg of cholesterol. For many people with various

health problems, cholesterol is restricted as part of their diet. Although there is no effort

to stop cooking with eggs, there is a need to find ways to reduce the cholesterol content

of prepared foods. One of the ways is to use egg whites instead of whole eggs, since the

cholesterol is in the yolk. Throughout culinary work, eggs are employed in a number of ways. To bind

To coat food with bread crumbs.

To emulsify - Hollandaise sauce, Barnaise, Mayonnaise.

To glaze and colour (egg wash for baking).

To aerate-souffles, batters.

Egg dishes, no doubt, appear on the traditional menus as a course in their own right and

are often chosen as a preliminary item prior to the main dish. However they may also be

selected as a main .course item. e.g., Omelets, curried eggs.

Meat Cookery Different type of meat are : lamb, mutton, beef, veal, pork. It order to cook meat it is important to know the structure of the meat.

Factors that give meat a good quality

1. Fat :

The fat present in meat indicates the quality as it gives a good flavour. Fat in animals is found around or between muscles fibers. Fat contributes moistness to the meat, makes it tender, enhances flavour & makes it tender & juicy.

2. Colour of Meat :

Older the animals have darker coloured meat & yellowish fat , where as younger animals have a lighter coloured meat with a firm, dry, creamy white fat.

3. Tenderness :

The tenderness of meat depends upon the food animal is fed on. The finer the grain tender will be the meat. The amount of connective tissues is directly related to the tenderness of meat. Meats are of various types; some of the popular ways of classifying meat are as follows: By the cuts - sirloin of beef, saddle of lamb.

By the condition of meat fresh, chilled, frozen, pickled.

By the age and sex - steer (an ox less than four years old) beef, bull beef, cow beef

By the type of animal bovines (the ox or cow) (beef/veal), porcine (relating to swine) (pork), Ovine (relating to sheep) (mutton)

By the catering uses - For roasting, for frying, for grilling, for boiling

Slaughter of Animals In India slaughtering of animals is done in three ways; viz: 5) Jhatka II. Halaal III. Stunning

Jhatka:

It is a method of slaughtering an animal by chopping the animal�s neck part by a single

stroke of the huge chopper (talwar); this is practiced by the Hindus, especially the

Punjabis of the Northern India. Halaal:

It is the method of slaughtering an animal by means of a sharp knife (Blade and not saw).

This is done by slowly slitting the neck of the animal, so that the blood flows easily out of

the animal. Here the head is not separated from the body of the animal. Only when the

animal dies, its head is removed. This is practiced by the Muslims round the globe. More

than 70% of the slaughter houses in India practice this method, because most of the

butchers in India are Muslims. Stunning: Captive Bolt: This is the stunning of the animal by a captive bolt pistol and is used for large animals such as bovines & pigs. Electrical Stunning: This method is the passing of a small current of electricity through

the head of small animals for at least 7 seconds. It is done by applying a pair of special

tongs, connected to an electricity supply, behind the ears of the animal. Carbon dioxide stunning: This method is used for stunning pigs. The pigs are placed on a moving platform which passes through a tunnel containing mixture of CO2 and air.

Factors that make meat tender

1. Moist Heat :

White connective tissues are called as collagen which changes into gelatine when moist heat is applied on it. Yellow connective tissues are called elastin & this does not change by cooking or marinading.

2. Tenderizers :

When used tenderizers make the meat tender. Commercial tenderizers contain enzyme such as papain, an enzyme found in raw papaya and its leaf. Acidic food like vinegar, tomato, curd, lemon & tamarind help tenderize the food also.

3. Ripening or Ageing of Meat :

Meat should not be eaten immediately after killing as rigour mortis sets in & stiffens the muscles. The muscles are hung in cool conditions 1-2 degree Celsius time period depend upon the type of meat. There is an improvement in tenderness, flavor, moisture & colour. Veal & pork are not hung.

4. Marinating :

Tough meats soaked in an acidic solution i.e. Wine, vinegar or curd make the meat tender & enhance the flavor.

How to judge the quality of the various Meats

Beef

6) Fresh meat must be hung to allow it to become tender. The color darkens after it has been hung. 7) Lean meat should be bright red.

8) The fat should be form, brittle in texture, creamy white in color.

Veal

The flesh should be pale, firm not soft.

Cut surface should be moist. Bone in young animal is pinkish , porous & with very small amount of blood in their

structure.

Lamb

1. Carcass should be compact & evenly fleshed having an even coat of fat.

2. Bones are porous in young animals as age progresses they are smooth.

3. Fat should be evenly distributed, hard, brittle & white in color.

Pork

1. Lean flesh should be pale pink changing to rose as the animal matures.

2. The fat is white, firm, smooth & not excessive.

3. Bones must be small, slender & pinkish.

Lamb Cuts

Lamb is a meat of young sheep & mutton the flesh of the mature sheep or goat. Lamb usually is the flesh of animals not more than 14 months of age. The average weight of an

imported lamb is approx 32 lbs (16 kg). The average weight of an Indian lamb is 10 kg to 14 kg & for mutton it is between 20 kg to 25 kg.

Dissections of Joints Lamb/Mutton 1. Remove the shoulder. 2. Remove the breasts. 3. Remove the middle neck. 4. Remove the scrag-end. 5. Remove the legs.

Divide the best end from loin. Pork

The flesh of pig is called pork. Most of the pork meat comes from animals not more than

a year old. It generally has more fat than other meats. A suckling pig is about 5-6 weeks

old. First quality of pig are the leg & loin of pork. Order of Dissection 1. Remove the head. 2. Remove the trotters. 3. Remove the legs. 4. Remove the shoulder. 5. Remove the spare ribs. 6. Divide the loin from the belly. Ham It is taken from hind leg of pig preserved by curing or pickling in brine, then dried &

smoked. Ham is prepared from fresh pork meat. Boiling of ham is done by placing in cold

water first & soaking it. Then it is placed in suitable container and boiled slowly. Ham

after boiling can be decorated with chaud-froid sauce. Gammon is taken from the leg of

pig that has been reared for bacon. Bacon Bacon is obtained from the sides & back of a baconer. The bacon is obtain by taking the

meat & preserving the meat by salting. After the meat has matured the bacon is sold as

“green” bacon. Smoked bacon is very popular & this is done in smoke chambers, which

gives flavor & help to [reserve for longer time.

Beef Beef & veal are got from cattle animals they are classified by their ages :- 1. Veal - Flesh of calf ( less than 3 months of age) which lives on milk. 2. Calves - the animals are from 3-8 months old. 3. Beef - The meat is taken when the animal is above 8 months.

Beef is the most popular of all edible meat in the western countries. In India, beef is not very popular.the age & sex has an influence on the taste & quality of meat. Order of Dissection : Beef Cuts The carcass is divided into two lengthwise. For Hindquarters : 1. The whole side is divided between the wing ribs & the fore ribs. 2. Remove the rump suet & kidney. 3. Divide the loin & rump from the leg ( topside, silver side, thick flank & shin) 4. Remove the fillet. 5. Divide the rump from the sirloin. 6. Remove the wing ribs. 7. Remove the shin. 8. Bone cut the aitch bone. 9. Divide the leg into three remaining parts ( silver side, top side & thick flank) For Forequarters : 1. Remove the shank. 2. Divide in half down the center 3. Divide into joins. Beef Terms : 1. Carcass - Whole animal after dressing from slaughter house.

2. Side - A carcass that has been split down the center of the spinal column.

3. Quarter - A side that has been subdivided into two sections as forequarters &

hindquarters.

4. Offals - Products derived from the process of slaughtering other then carcass, the edible internal organs like liver, heart, kidney,tail, brain etc.

.

Beef Cuts

Animal Parts Catering Uses

1. Shin Consomme, stewing

2. Top side Braising, stewing

3. Silver side Boiling, pickling,stewing

4. Thick Flank Braising, silver side

5. Rump Grilling, frying

6. Sirloin 1st

class roast, grilling & frying

7. Wing Rib 1st

class roast, grilling, frying

8. Thin Flank Stewing, boiling, mincing, sausages

9. Fillet 1st

class roast, grilling & frying.

Poultry Poultry is the name given to domestic birds specially bred to be eaten. It includes

different varieties & sizes of chicken, turkey, ducks, geese etc. Drawn poultry loses

approx. 25% of its original weight. The word „Volaille‟ in french means poultry but

when it appear to the menu it means chicken. Signs of a fresh & Young Chicken 1. Soft fluffy feathers should be all over the body, especially concentrated under the wings. 2. The quills of the feathers should be easy to pull out. 3. The skin should be clear & smooth with no bluish tings spot. 4. The feet should be supple with smooth overlapping scales & if fresh , moist. 5. Combs should be small & well developed. The comb should be bright red. 6. The eyes should be prominent & clear. 7. It should not have a marked unpleasant smell. Preparation for Poultry Cleaning 1. Remove any pin feathers with a small knife. 2. Singe ( place it over open flame to burn the hairs) but do not scorch. 3. Cut the head off & slit the neck skin lengthwise on the back. 4. Cut the neck as close to the body. 5. Put the forefingers from top & loose the crop, intestines.

6. Make a slit near the vent & loosen the internal organs with the fingers. 7. Draw out the innards being careful not to break the gallbladder. 8. It should not have a marked unpleasant smell. Chicken Cuts 1. Drumsticks 2. Thighs 3. Winglets 4. Wings 5. Breast 6. Carcass

Poultry Cuts

Fish Cookery

Fish provides many attractive & satisfying dishes. Fish is high protein food. Fish could be

obtain from lakes, rivers, sea. Fresh water fish are considered to be superior in flavor to

salt water fish. The season also have bearing on the fish for better taste. The fat content

helps in determining the method of preparation. The fish which have fat will produce

superior eating qualities if baked or boiled. Lean fish are best when poached or steamed. Fumet de poisson is concentrated fish stock.

Classification of fish

1) White fish ( round) a) Round - cod, haddock, hake, chamli & turai It has oil in the liver

Lean ( Flat) b) Flat - Pomfret, sole, turbot, sangara

2) Oily Fish Salmon, mackerel, herrings, salmon trout,

trout.

Shell fish is subdivided into 1) Molluscs - Clams, mussels, scallops &

oyester. ( Immobile)

2) Crustaceans - Crayfish, lobsters,

prawns, shrimps ( mobile)

How to choose Fish

1) The condition of the fish should be shiny & of good colour.

2) In white fish the flesh should be really white not faintly yellow.

3) The body should be rather heavy in relation the length & the flesh plump & springy.

4) Eyes should be bright & not sunken.

5) Gills should be red. 6) For freshness the flesh should have pleasant, slightly salty smell, which increases with its staleness. 7) If the imprint of the finger remain after it has been pressed then it is not fresh.

8) If the scales come out by themselves then the flesh is stale.

9) Raw flesh should not come out from bones.

10) The tail should be stiff.

Fish should be stored at 1 degree Celsius.

Preparation of fish for cooking

1) soaking the fish in cold water for few minutes before descaling .

2) The blunt side of the knife should be used. 3) The head of the fish is held with left hand & holding the knife vertical, scraping is done starting from the tail towards head. 4) Cut off the fins, remove the head. The entrails should be removed by cutting the length of the fish from vent end to head on the belly side.

Filleting

Cut the flesh along the line of the backbone & raise the fillet from the middle of the back to the sides, first working towards the head, then the tail.

Skinning Hold the tail end of the fish in the left hand, first sprinkling salt on fingers for good grip. Skin the flesh from tail to head with quick short sawing of a sharp knife. Point the knife blade towards the skin so that no flesh is wasted.

Fish Cuts

Fillet - Deboned, long flat pieces of fish without the skin. Flat fish gives

fillet.

Paupiette - The fillet of fish is laid flat on the table stuffing is spread on it, then it

is rolled up, tied with string to keep the shape. Can be poached.

Supreme - Large fillet of fish cut on a slant of a large round or flat fish eg.

Supreme of turbot.

Goujons & Goujonettes - Strips approx. 8 cm long by 1 cm wide cut from fillets of fish mainly used as a garnish. Can be crumbed of deep fried.

Meuniere - Pan frying of fish , finished with butter noisette, chopped parsley & lemon juice.

Tron, con - It is thick piece of fish 4-5 cm thick, cut on the bone from a flat fish like the turbot. It is a fish cutlet or steak with bone.

Darne - A piece of fish cut across & through the bone of a large whole round

fish such as cod , salmon which is 2-3 cm thick.

Mignon - Fillet of fish folded as a cornet ( triangular fold as for piping bag).

Plie - Fillet flattened & folded in two.

Medallion - A medallion shaped portion from large fillets.

Fish Farce - Puree of fish , bound with white whole egg panada & cream.

Cooking Liquor Court Bouillon

Court Bouillon

To preserve & enhance the delicate flavor of fish the liquor in which they are poached are prepared with care. The poaching liquor is called court bouillon are :-

White Court Bouillon :- Sliced onion, bay leaf, parsley, peppercorn, juice of lemon, salt, milk & water.

Ordinary Court Bouillon :- Vinegar, water, peppercorn, sliced carrots, onions, salt, parsley, thyme & bay leaf.

White Wine Curt Bouillon :- White wine, water, minced onions, bouquet garni,

peppercorn, sliced carrots.

Red Wine Court Bouillon :- Red Wine, minced onion, bouquet garni, salt, parsley, peppercorn & sliced carrots.

Cooking Methods

Boiling -This method is suitable for the whole fish e.g- surmai, salmon etc.

Thick cuts of the fish should be boiled. Whole fish cleaned should be putted in court bouillon & boiled. The whole fish should be wrapped in cheese cloth & to

retain the shape. Liquor should be sufficient to over the fish.

Bisque - It is rich classical soup made from shellfish,shells, tomato, brandy

& cream.

Steaming - For steaming the fish should be well seasoned & sprinkled with

lemon juice to keep flesh white. Greased proof paper should be put in the bottom of the steamer before cooking. This help in lifting the fish & does not allow

it to stick. It should be well drained before service & accompanied

by well seasoned sauce.

Poaching -This method of cooking is suitable for small whole fish, cuts or

fillets. Court bouillon should be used for poaching. The poaching

liquor covers the fish covered with grease proof paper & poached in the oven.

Baking -Round white fish is suitable for baking. The fish should be cleaned

& the belly is stuffed with force meat (bread crumbs, chopped

onions, nutmeg, lemon rind, egg yolk, a little butter, seasoning) & edges are sewed.

Butter is applied to the fish & then it is baked in baking tray.

Frying -Small whole round of flat fish, goujons & fillets are suitable for

deep frying. As the flesh is very delicate , the fish must be coated

before frying. The following are the coatings normally used :-

a) Flour, egg white & bread crumbs. b) Milk & Flour. c) Flour Batter.

d) Flour & beaten egg. Shallow Frying - Fillet , tron con, supreme are shallow fried. The fish is coated with seasoned flour & shallow fried in butter.

Grilling -It is suitable method for various cuts & types of fish. They are

seasoned & cooked over heat on the grill or in a salamander.

The grill should be greased so that the fish does not stick. Fish do not need any extra

basting. Grilled fish is garnished with lemon & parsley.

Stewing -Bouillabaisse is a french regional stews in which a mixture of

different fish are used. Pieces of fish & shellfish with vegetables,

herbs & fish stock are cooked & the cooking liquid is not thickened.

Milk and Milk Products Milk is considered as the best wholesome food for one and all. It contains the much

needed nutrients, vitamins and proteins for healthy development of body and is high in

energy and rich in diet.

Types of Milk 1) Pasteurized milk - Milk which is generally heated at 72 degree centigrade for about 15 seconds to kill bacteria & then cooled quickly. 2) Ultra Heat Treatment (UHT) - Milk which is generally heated at132 degree centigrade for about 1 second. They can be commercially tetra packed and can be stored for almost 6 months if unopened. 3) Homogenized milk - The milk is treated through a high pressure vat where the fat globules are allowed to mix-in and set so that the cream gets

dispersed throughout the milk.

4) Sterilized milk - This is a type of homogenized milk which is heated to around 104 degree centigrade for about 30 seconds. 5) Evaporated milk - has had 60% of the water removed by evaporation before canning.

Condensed milk is richer than evaporated because more water has been removed. It can

be sweetened or unsweetened. 6) Dried milk - It is either spray or roller processed.

Uses of milk The milk is used for the following purposes: 1) Soups and sauces 2) Cooking of vegetable, making cakes and sweets 3) Making of puddings

4) Cold drinks - milk shakes and malts 5) Hot drinks- tea, coffee, cocoa and chocolate.

Milk Products: There are various types of milk products. We shall study them one by one in brief as detailed below:

1. Cream This is the concentrated skimmed milk. Creams are of different varieties. They are given below: 1) Single Cream: It contains18% fat and does not whip easily, but can be used in liquid

state with sweet dishes and for finishing soups, fish, meat and poultry. They are also used

for thickening sauces and stews. 2) Whipping Cream: It contains 30-40% fat and are meant for whipping purposes. 3) Double cream: It contains 48% fat and is used for decorating and filling pastries, gateaux and with sweet dishes. 4) Devon or clotted cream: It contains 55% fat and is costlier when compared to other forms of creams. 5) Imitation Creams: These creams resemble other creams in appearance but they are produced by emulsion of oil, margarine or butter with milk powder and water. They are used for filling and decorating cakes and finishing sweet dishes.

Uses of Cream 1) Fresh cream must be cold when required for whipping. 2) For preference it should be whipped on china or stainless steel bowls. If any other metal is used, the Cream should be transferred to china bowls as soon as possible. 3) If fresh cream is whipped too much, it turns to butter. This is more likely to happen in hot conditions. To prevent this, stand the bowl of cream in a bowl of ice while whisking. 4) When adding cream to hot liquids, dilute the cream with some of the liquid before adding to the main bulk. This helps to prevent the cream from separating.

2. Yogurt

Yogurt is a curd like food and is prepared from milk fermented by the action of bacteria, lactobacillus bacteria. Types of Yogurt: 1) Fat free yogurt - contain less than 0.5% milk fat. 2) Low fat yogurt - contains maximum 1.5% milk fat. 3) Whole milk yogurt - contains fat as in whole milk. 4) Whole or real fruit yogurt - contains whole fruit in sugar syrup. 5) Fruit flavoured yogurt - contains fruit juices or syrup.

3. Butter Butter is produced by churning the cream of milk. One liter of cream yields

approximately half kg butter. Butter must be kept away from strong smelling foods.

Butter is an energy food as it has a very high fat content. Quality 1) The taste should be creamy and pleasant. 2) The texture should be soft and smooth. 3) It must smell fresh. 4) The colour of pure butter is almost white or very pale yellow. 5) Fresh butter should be used fairly quickly, otherwise it goes rancid (acquires an unpleasant taste and smell).

4. Cheese Cheese making has been dated back over five thousand years. The nomads (a group of

people who have no fixed residence but move from place to place usually seasonally and

within a well-defined territory) of the Middle East were the first skillful cheese makers.

Cheese even played a part in Greek mythology. Cheese was a staple part of every

Roman�s diet but the production of cheese started to flourish when the French

monasteries were created. The use of milk from a goat, sheep, or cow and an enzyme

resulted in whey (the watery part of milk rich in lactose, minerals, vitamins and protein

with traces of fat). What is Cheese?

All cheese is made from milk, but different manufacturing and aging processes are used to

produce the array of cheese available today. Cheese is made by coagulating or curdling

milk, stirring and heating the curd, draining off the whey, collecting and pressing the curd,

and in some cases ripening. Cheese can be made from whole, 2% low fat, 1 % low fat or

fat-free milk, or combinations of these milks. About one third of all milk produced each

year in the United States is used to make cheese. Cheese Components

There are four components that are used in making cheese:

1) Milk

a) Starter cultures (material containing microorganisms (as yeast) used to induce a desired fermentation)

b) Coagulants and rennet (materials used for separating the solids in the milk and gathering them together as a single mass)

c) Salt

Importance of Milk in Cheese Making

Milk is the most important ingredient of cheese and the type of milk determines the type

of cheese that can be produced. For example, milk containing high total solids (sheep)

increases cheese yields, and conversely, milk high in fat produces softer cheese, but

improves the mouth-feel of the product.

Process of making cheese

The process used is same for making many varieties of cheese. But, the type of milk used

and the ripening and maturation can greatly influence the resulting cheese. The figure

given below illustrates the primary stages of cheese production.

Storage of milk products 1) Fresh milk, cream, buttermilk, other fermented milk products and cheese must be kept refrigerated at all times. 2) Evaporated milk in large container will keep for a week or more after opening, if kept

covered and in a cool place. The sugar acts as a preservative. Stir before using, because

the sugar tends to settle to the bottom and sides. 3) Dried milk should be kept in a cool, dark place. It does not need refrigeration, although

you should store it well away from ovens and other heat sources. Keep the containers

tightly closed to prevent the milk from absorbing moisture from the air.

Fruits and Vegetables

Fruits

For the purpose of catering, fruit may be divided in to the following:

1) Soft fruits - Raspberries, strawberries, gooseberries, blackberries.

2) Hard fruits - Apple, Pears

3) Stone fruits - Cherries, damsons, plums, peaches, mangoes.

4) Citrus fruits - Oranges, lime, grape fruit, Mandarins, tangerines

5) Tropical & other fruits - Pine apple, banana, figs, grape, Melon etc.

Storage of fruits: 1)Hard fruits such as apples are best left in boxes and in a cool store. 2) Soft fruits, such as raspberries should be stored in pun nets or basket in a cold room. 3) Stone fruits are best placed in trays so that any damaged fruits can be replaced. 4) Peaches are best left in their delivery trays or boxes. 5) Bananas should be stored in room temperatures and never in a too cold room.

Preservation of fruits: Preservation of fruits is done through canning, bottling, candied, glace, crystallized, drying and quick freezing.

Vegetables Vegetables are the fundamental food for many people now a days, may be because of the

health factor. Even though meat eaters love non-vegetarian dishes, they do relish the

vegetables as an accompaniment. Can anyone imagine the world without vegetables? Classification of vegetables They may be classified in to various ways. For our understanding, let us simplify it as under: 1) Tubers and roots 2) Shoots and stalks 3) Grass & blade 4) Bulbous 5) Fruit 6) Nuts & kernels 7) Algae & fungus 8) Sea vegetables 9) Leaves & greens

10) Fresh & dry

Cuts of Vegetables: The size to which the vegetables are cut may vary according to their use. In Fig 4.6, cuts of vegetables are shown.

1) Dices : The pieces of potatoes and carrots which are cut length wise and then cut small, medium or large cubes.

2) Allumette : These are finger - like cuts usually obtained from potatoes .e.g. cut for French fries or finger chips

3) Julienne (strips) Cut the vegetables into 2 cm (1 inch) lengths. Cut the lengths into thin slices. Cut the slices into thin strips.

4) Brunoise (small dice) Cut the vegetables into convenient-sized lengths. Cut the lengths into 2 mm slices. . Cut the slices into 2 mm strips. . Cut the strips into 2 mm Squares. 5) Macedoine (1 cm dice) Cut the vegetables into convenient lengths.

Cut the slices into 2.5 cm (1 inch) strips. Cut the strips into1 cm squares. 6) Jardinire (batons) Cut the vegetables into 1 cm lengths. Cut the lengths into 3 mm slices. Cut the slices into batons (3mm X 3mm X 18 mm)

7)Paysanne There are at least four accepted methods of cutting paysanne. In order to cut

economically, the shape of the vegetables should decide which method to choose. All are

cut thinly. 1 cm sided triangles. 1 cm sided squares. 1 cm diameter rounds 1 cm diameter rough-sided rounds

Storage: 1) To keep vegetables fresh for a longer period in the fridge, line the bottom of the

vegetable tray with a small towel. Place another towel on top of the vegetables. The

towels will absorb all the excess moisture. 2) Remove the tops of root vegetables before storing in refrigerators. 3) Green Peas keep better in the refrigerator when stored with their pods. 4) Keep all vegetables in the fridge in separate polythene bags. Punch holes in polythene

(plastic) bags while storing vegetables in the fridge. Water does not form in the plastic

bags, and the vegetables remain fresh for many days. Some general guidelines: 1) Use vegetables as fresh as possible. If you grow your own vegetables, do not gather them until you actually need them.

2) Scrub root vegetables and scrape them or if tough skinned, peel thinly. Remove the

dark outer leaves of cabbage and use them shredded in soups or stews. They contain more

of the more of the vitamins and mineral salts than the more tender inner leaves. 3)Buy ginger at wholesale price and bury it in slightly moist ground or in an earthen pot which contains soft mud. It will stay fresh longer. 4) Slice root vegetables and shred green ones. Break cauliflower into springs. They cook more quickly this way. 5) Green leafy vegetables should be bought only when they are needed as they tend to decay and lose their freshness, if kept for long.

Handling lettuce, parsley, celery: 1) Never cut lettuce leaves. Tear them. 2) Wash spinach, lettuce, coriander and other greens as soon as you bring them home from the market. Dry and store in plastic bags. They stay fresh longer. 3) Lettuce and celery will keep fresh longer, if you store them in the refrigerator in paper

bags instead of cellophane ones. Do not remove outside leaves of either until ready to

use. 4) To make lettuce crisp, stand it in water overnight. 5) Parsley will keep fresh for at least 10 days if stored in a screw topped jar in the refrigerator. 6)Cut celery into 2- inch pieces, cut into thin horizontal strips. Leave in cold water, for half an hour they will then curl. Handling bananas, peaches and marrow: 1) Oil your palms before cutting raw bananas or jackfruit. 2) To remove stickiness caused while cutting vegetables like raw banana, first rub hands with curd and then soak. 3) Sprinkle salt on your hands and the knife before cutting raw bananas to avoid stained

skin. Adding salt to water in which the pieces are immersed will help to retain their

colour. Pulse Cookery

Pulses are a group of vegetable or legume seeds which is very high in protein and vitamin B

complex. In Indian preparations, pulses are combined with spices and coconut, and other

vegetables. In Western & Continental preparations, pulses are combined with bacon, celery,

parsley leeks etc. Some times, they are simply boiled or baked or steamed. If with skin, soak overnight in water so as to soften. e.g., one - eyed peas, Cow - peas, Horse -

gram. Care should the taken so as to wash them properly before soaking and they should be

cooked covered. Salt is usually added at last, so as to facilitate better cooking. Examples: Bengal

gram, cow peas, green gram, horse gram, kidney beans, Soya beans, field beans, lentil, etc.