2012 volume 2 issue 1 journal of international students (full version)

8/22/2019 2012 Volume 2 Issue 1 Journal of International Students (full version)

1/52

Journal of International Students

Arkansas State University

ISSN 2162-3104 Spring 2012 | Volume 2 | Issue 1Scan the bar for more informationwww.jistudents.org


2/52

Contact Address


PO BOX 1270 State University

AR, 72467 (USA) Phone: 870-680-4124

E-mail: [email protected]

Printed at

Arkansas State University

Printing Services, USA

Welcome

Spring 2012

Dear Colleagues,

Welcome to the Spring 2012 issue!

Journal of International Students (both online and print edition) contains scholarly articles

that come from various disciplines and are of general significance to international student

affairs and cross-cultural studies. In this volume, we have included three different types of

articles:

a) Study Abroad/Reflection- includes descriptions and perceptions from students and

scholars concerning another culture, language, people and society from an insider or out-

sider perspective. Reflections are the building blocks of research papers and offer original

points of view on the issues and concerns related to sojourns. In the current volume,

Young-Kyung describes her cross-cultural encounters with American and Korean students

in Contact Zone whereas Jonathan and Prathusha offer their cultural teaching and under-

standing of Yoga and Mindfulness methods with American high school students in the arti-

cle Multi-Cultural Expedition.

b)Peer-reviewed Article - includes manuscripts that focus on the interpretation, implica-

tion, or significance of research work related to international students and scholars from

various disciplines. The current volume includes the perceptions of American and interna-

tional students concerning conflict resolution (Scorzelli), accent assessment of internation-

al students (McDaniel and colleagues), Chinese international students online communities

for cultural assimilation (Zhu), linguistic and cultural challenges of international students

in adjustment (Tanauraksaku), and teacher authority in cross-cultural contexts (Li).

c) Book Review - includes reviews and critiques of the written work of scholars from a

number of disciplines related to international students. The current volume includes six

book reviews related to international students overseas preparation (Bhandari), mobility

(Fletcher), trends (Bista), history (LeBeau), cultural adaptation (Espinoza Herold) and

classroom participation (Foster).

This Journal is a non-profit publication and has been operating through the voluntary serv-

ices of editors, copy editors, reviewers and guest editors. All positions in the Journal are

unpaid. No fees are charged to authors or readers. Any donation made by an organization

or individual directly pays the printing cost of the Journal. The Journal Team welcomesyour help, comments, and suggestions.

Finally, we appreciate the interest and support received from the reviewers, copy editors

and editors of this volume. Both print and online copies of the Journal are FREE, and

please consider sharing the journal with your friends, family members, teachers and col-

leagues.

For further information, please visit our website http://jistudents.org/ or contact the editor

at [email protected].

Happy reading!

Krishna Bista

Editor-in-Chief

DisclaimerFacts and opinions published in the

JIS express solely the opinions of the

respective authors. Authors are

responsible for their citing of sources

and the accuracy of their references

and bibliographies. The editors can-

not be held responsible for any over-

sights or possible violations of third

parties rights.

Copyright 2012Unless otherwise noted, copyrights for the texts

which comprise all issues of Journal of

International Students (JIS) are held by the

Journal. The compilation as a whole is

Copyright by JIS, all rights reserved. Items

published by JIS may be freely shared among

individuals, but they may not be republished in

any medium without express written consent

from the author(s) and advance notification of

the JIS editorial board.

On the Cover: Began Sunrise, Myanmar (Burma).Reprinted with permission of Kenneth Parker(kennethparker.com).


3/52

Spriing 2012 | Volume 2 | Issue 1

Study Abroad/ Reflections

1. Contact Zone in TESOL: East and West Immersion...................................83

Young-Kyung Min, PhD, University of Washington at Bothell (USA)2. Multi-Cultural Expedition into Mindfulness among

High School Students...................................................................................85Jonathan Owen & Prathyusha Kalavala (USA)

Peer-Reviewed Articles

3. University Students Perceptions of Conflict Resolution ............................87James F. Scorzelli, PhD, Northeastern University (USA)

4. Accent Assessment: A Preliminary Study of Scaling Validity.....................93D. Mike McDaniel, PhD; Richard A. Neeley, PhD;

Julie J. Isaacson, MSN; G. Daniel Howard, PhD

Arkansas State University (USA)

5. A Place We Call Home: International Students inVirtual Context......................................................................................... .. 99

Zheng Zhu, Doctoral Student, Washington State University (USA)

6. Non-native English Students Linguistic and Cultural Challenges inAustralia ................................................................................................. ..107

Noparat Tananuraksaku, PhD, South-East Asia University (Thailand)

7. Comparison of American and Chinese College StudentsPerception of Instructor Authority..............................................................116Ting Li, Doctoral Student, Miami University, (USA)

Book Reviews

8. Who Goes Where and Why: An Overview and Analysis ofGlobal Educational Mobility ..................................................................... 123Reviewed by Krishna Bista, Arkansas State University (USA)

9. Second Language Learning: Cultural Adaptation Processes inInternational Graduate Students in U.S. Universities ...............................124

Reviewed byMariella Espinoza Herold, PhDNorthern Arizona University (USA)

10.International Students in American Colleges and Universities:A History .........................................................................................126

Reviewed byLing Gao LeBeauIndiana University at Bloomington (USA)

11. Higher Education and International Student Mobility in the GlobalKnowledge Economy. ................................................................................128

Reviewed byDarla Fletcher, Arkansas State University (USA)12. Between Speaking and Silence: A Study of Quiet Students........................129

Reviewed by Charlotte Foster, Missouri Western State University (USA)13. Succeeding as an international student in the

United States and Canada.......................................................................... 130Reviewed byAmrita Bhandari, International Faith Theology (USA)

Call for Papers (Technology & International Students) on the webhttp://jistudents.org/

Contents



4/52

83 ISSN-2162-3104 http://jistudents.org/


Spring 2012 Vol. 2 Issue 1

Contact Zone in TESOL:East and West Immersion

Young-Kyung Min, PhD

Lecturer, Education ProgramUniversity of Washington at Bothell (USA)

I was invited to give a talk at the Gwangju InternationalCenter (GIC) in Korea in Summer 2011. The GIC wasestablished in 1999 by the Gwangju Citizens' Allianceto promote intercultural understanding and cooperationbetween foreign residents and local people in Gwangju,the capital of Chonnam Province, in Korea. Under thetitle of Images of Writing across Cultures, I gave my

talk about culturally embedded writing practices acrossnations and presented some practical strategies that theaudience could use in various writing contexts. Therewere about 60 people in the audience. Half of themwere Korean and the other half were expatriates, whichincluded high school students, teachers in private lan-guage institutes, K-12 schools, colleges and universi-ties, house wives, retired professors, and publishers. Iwas surprised to see that the majority of the Koreanaudience was high school students (it was easy to rec-ognize them because they all came in their high schooluniforms). I am not sure if they completely understood

my talk since I gave the talk in English, but I thoughttheir deep interest in the topic as they were constantlymaking notes and nodding during my talk. The highschool students reminded me of the groups of highschool students I saw at the American Embassy (I hadto go to the Embassy since my visa recently changedfrom F1 student visa to H1 employment visa). I wassurprised that they were there for visa interviews with-out their parents. All of them seemed really excited andcheerful: there was no sign of anxiety or apprehensionon their faces.

I had an opportunity to learn more about the pas-sion the high school students had for studying abroadbecause of the daughter of my former colleague Dr.Kim. He e-mailed me several times about his 16-year-old daughter, Yuri, who was angry with her parents forthe past few months because they did not allow her togo to the United States for her high school education.Although Dr. Kim promised that he would take herwith him to the United States on his sabbatical in twoyears, she was determined that she should go to theUnited States alone this year. He asked me to meet with

him, his wife, and Yuri after my talk at the GIC. WhenI asked Yuri why she wanted to attend a United States

high school, she explained that most of her best friendswere already studying in the United States alone with-out being accompanied by their parents.

She emphasized that she was the only studentamong her circle of friends attending the same Englishlanguage institute who had not been to the UnitedStates as of yet (the institute is known for a strictEnglish-only policy, and all the courses are taught bynative English speakers).When I told her she shouldseriously think about the difficulties, she would faceliving alone in the United States, she said that she wasalready familiar with American culture and American

educational system because of her friends in the UnitedStates as well as the movies and TV dramas she hasseen. She reiterated that her parents should trust herand her ability to fulfill her education goals in theUnited States alone: she did not need to be accompa-nied by her parents. She was so emotional and desper-ate that she could not explain her reasons clearly, butinstead broke down into tears. After our meeting, herfather emailed me that she cried again when she camehome and went to school the next morning with redeyes.

On my way back to the United States, at the Tokyo

International Airport during my stopover to Seattle, Imet Savanah, a 15-year-old middle school girl fromOlympia, Washington. She was talking with other peo-ple but she immediately changed her seat to be next tome as soon as she found that I was Korean. Sheintroduced herself in Korean (My name is Sarin Kang). I was amazed by herfluent Korean since I have not met many westernteenagers who spoke Korean without little accent. Shewanted me to call her Sarin, her Korean name, andto speak to her in Korean. She explained that she adopt-ed a Korean name Sarin based on the pronunciationof her English name (Savanah) and the Korean lastname based on the pronunciation of her last name.I was surprised that she even adopted a Korean lastname. She was attending a middle school in Pusan andcame to Korea with her mother who was teachingEnglish in a language institute in October 2010. Shewas attending a regular middle school not an interna-tional school. She learned Korean in a community cen-ter in Pusan with other international residents. I wasamazed not only by her fluent Korean (despite her short

Study Abroad/Reflections


5/52

84Journal of International Students

stay in Korea just less than one year) but also by herenthusiasm to improve her understanding of theKorean culture. She was especially passionate aboutKorean popular music, which is known as K-Pop.She said that her favorite Korean music was Go-Away and wrote (I lovesinging rooms) in Korean in the little notebook I washolding. She wanted to continue her high school anduniversity education in Korea simply because of herlove for K-Pop.

Savanahs deep interest in K-Pop immediatelyreminded me of the sweeping Korean Wave (whichis also known as Hallyu) around the world. The K-pop, which has now made its way to the Bill BoardChart, has played the major role in spreading theKorean Wave around the world. The term, KoreanWave, was coined by Chinese journalists in China in

the late 1990s (Chua & Iwabuchi, 2008; Russell, 2008).Although many critics predicted that the Korean cul-ture booms would die out, the Korean culture exportshave continued to grow. The international popularity ofKorean dramas spread into other fields such as music,food, clothing, cosmetics, and computer games.

Savanahs passion for the Korean culture and lan-guage and her determination to continue her highschool and college education in Korea also remindedme of the recent Asian cultural movements in the US.Melik Kaylan (2011) discusses the phenomenon ofmany parents in the United sending their children to

Asia these days, since they want their children to expe-rience the strict Asian educational system in theNewsweek. As the economic powers of China, SouthKorea, and Taiwan are getting stronger, an increasingnumber of parents in America want their children toexperience the Asian educational system to raise theirchildren as the so-called global elite. The Americansever increasing interest in the Asian educational sys-tem, which the Newsweek calls the Far EastImmersion. This is clearly reflected in the popularityof Amy Chua (2011)s bookBattle Hymn of the TigerMother. As more parents become tiger moms and tiger

dads, the ages of student population who study broad inAsia are getting younger.

Implications for Our Educational Practices

My encounters with Yuri and Savanah led me to reflecton how we can embrace the phenomena such as thesweeping Far East Immersion and the KoreanWave in our educational practices. Although theywere teenagers, they clearly exhibited a strong sense of

global membership. They made me realize the impor-tance of embracing the multiple literacies, multipleidentities, and multiple discourses that such studentsbring to our classrooms and campuses. Yuri especiallyreminded me of the rapidly changing demographics inAmerican institutions of higher education because ofan increasing enrollment of international students and1.5 generation students who do not fit the traditionaldefinition of either mainstream students or internation-al students (Matsuda, 2006; Roberge, Siegal, &Harklau, 2009). She made it clear that the boundarybetween ESL (English as a second language) and EFL(English as a foreign language) is getting less clearthese days. Yuri grew up speaking both Japanese andEnglish (she was born in Japan when her father wasworking on his doctoral degree in Japan). Since shecame back to Korea, she has been polishing up on her

English in a private language institute known for hightuition fees as well as their courses which are taught byqualified native English speakers. She reminds me thatthe English language is no longer completely foreign tomany international students who pursue higher educa-tion in the United States. They grow up interacting withthe language through traveling, schooling, privatetutoring, and a variety of mass media. They have beenexposed to the English language at an early agebecause of the globalization and Internetization; thus,their literacy practices in English are different from theliteracy practices of the international students who

came to the America in the 1960s and 1970s.Their strong desires to experience new cultures and

languages (Yuri was desperate to study in the Americaand Savanah was desperate to study in Korea) made merealize that TESOL (Teaching English to the Speakersof Other Languages) is standing at the threshold of anew chapter. For a while, the profession of TESOL wasunderstood as a field that native speakers of Englishteach English, the lingua franca, to non-native Englishspeakers around the world. The power of the Englishlanguage is believed in every part of the world; how-ever, as Asia can now compete not only economically

but also academically and culturally, an increasingnumber of native English speakers are leaving theircountries to immerse themselves in learning Asian lan-guages and cultures. Both girls made me recognize thesignificance of fostering both curricular and extracur-ricular activities to help such students develop inter-cultural literacy which Guerra (1997) defines as theability to consciously and effectively move back andforth among as well as in and out of the discourse com-munities they belong to or will belong to (p. 259). My


6/52

85 ISSN-2162-3104



encounters with the teenagers during my trip to Koreamade me reflect on my responsibilities as an interna-tional faculty member who specializes in second lan-guage literacy. Working at an American universitywhere more than 80% of our international student pop-ulation is of Asian descent, they made me think moreseriously about how I can foster intercultural literacyenvironments that embrace both American students andmultilingual students in our classrooms and in campusactivities. During my return flight to Seattle, my handwas busy writing down all the thoughts percolatingthrough my mind in the pedagogy book that I alwayscarry when I travel. When the plane landed at theSeattle-Tacoma Airport, it not only brought me home,but also brought with me a sense of deeper awarenessof global curriculum that better fits the needs of thenew generation of global students. It was an awfully

special summer.References

Chua, A. (2011).Battle hymn of the tiger mother. NewYork: The Penguin Press.

Chua, B., & Iwabuchi, K. (2008).East Asian pop culture: Analyzing the Korean wave. Hong Kong:Hong Kong University Press.

Guerra, J. (1997). The place of intercultural literacy inthe writing classroom. In C. Severino, J.Guerra, and J. Butler (Eds), Writing in multicultural settings (pp. 234-244). New York, NY:

Modern Language Association of America.Kaylan, M. (2011, January 30). When strict means suc

cessful. The Newsweek. p. 17.Matsuda, P. (2006). The myth of linguistic homogene

ity in U.S. college composition. CollegeEnglish, 68(6), 637-651.

Roberge, M., Siegan, M., & Harklau, L. (2009).Generation 1.5 in college composition:

Teaching academic writing to US-educated

learners of ESL. New York, NY: Routledge.Russell, M. (2008). Pop goes Korea: Behind the revo

lution in movies, music, and Internet culture.Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press.

__________________________________About the Author:

Dr. Young-Kyung Min received her PhD in Curriculum and

Instruction with a specialization in writing studies from the

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Her areas of

interests include composition theory and pedagogy, second

language literacy and qualitative research methodology. Her

e-mail is [email protected].

Multi-Cultural Expedition

into Mindfulness among

High School Students

Jonathan Owen and Prathyusha Kalavala

Department of Psychology and CounselingArkansas State University (USA)

Many international college students know first-handthat striving for academic success can be stressful,especially far apart from the support and comfort ofhome. In todays fast paced world, hardly anyone isexempt from stress, and American high school studentsare no exception. A recent University of California atLos Angeles study discovered that, among 106 second-ary school students, the percentage reporting good orabove-average high school emotional well-beingdeclined from 55.3 percent in 2009 to 51.9 percent in2010 (Nauert, 2011). In an attempt to curb this trend,during the fall semester of 2011, a local high schoolpsychology teacher invited the authors of this article tospeak with her 4 psychology classes about stress andrelaxation as part of a continuing collaboration withArkansas State University professors of psychology.

The first author, an undergraduate psychology stu-dent involved with research on mindfulness and

biofeedback, explained mindfulness to each class assimply being attentive to ones thoughts and feelings,whereas biofeedback is the real-time measurement ofphysiological functions increasing individual aware-ness of internal processes through the use of EmWavetechnology. The emWave uses heart rhythm informa-tion to calclate coherence, or balance, between thesympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.Studies reveal that a likely connection between theheart and mind is instrumental for facilitating positiveemotions (McCraty & Rees, 2009).To illustratebiofeedback in action, we demonstrated how emWave

technology coaches participants into a mindful state,through self-observation of ones breathing and heartrhythms. Through bringing the awareness onto theseprocesses, mindfulness limits the stress related impactof negative rumination on the body, diverting the atten-tion away from distressing thoughts. Studentsexpressed their interest and excitement by frequentlyasking questions. Nearly everyone eagerly rushed tothe front of the class to try out the emWave. Theteacher was likewise happy to view the emWave firsthand.


7/52


The second author, a graduate student hailing fromIndia, the homeland of yoga and mindfulness, followedthe former presentation with a brief explanation ofyogas origination and development within a spiritualand cultural Indian context. Prathyusha commented,The students asked many questions about cultural andreligious diversity in India, as well as our educationalsystem. It was a cultural experience for the children atParagould High School, in Northern Arkansas, to inter-act with someone from India, which many confessedthey had never done. She continued, It was con-versely a multi-cultural experience for me to visit anAmerican public school. The classroom was arrangedmuch differently from back home. In my part of India,every grade is together, but at Paragould High School,everything is very structured and organized, makingyoga demonstration possible.

As Prathyusha demonstrated the basic posturescomprising Surya Namaskara, translated SunSalutation in English, nearly everyone was eagerlyengaged. Some students stood in attempt to followalong with each movement. Others sat watching atten-tively. Surya Namaskara is performed facing the direc-tion of the rising sun. Each asana, or body position, issynchronized with the breath, while movements aresequenced to alternately stretch the spine forward andbackward. I thereafter demonstrated some basicbreathing exercises, Pranayama, which the studentsemulated from their desks.

Prathyusha continued, Yoga is like second-natureto me. In contrast to ancient Indian societal values,American culture has until recently offered very fewconstructive outlets for dealing with the stresses andanxieties of day to day life. I began to study yoga as achild, she related. My mother teaches yoga in India,and it is also widely practiced in our schools. Studiesintroducing yogic practices into various Americanschools have shown promising results. One school inSan Lorenzo California reports that the introduction ofyoga into its curriculum has resulted in higher testscores and 60 percent less suspensions (CBS News,

2011). Practicing yoga, Prathyusha reported, hashelped me to overcome academic stresses in my ownlife. My own yoga practice, and the emotional balanceit has provided me, encourages me to share these tech-niques with young people who likely experience simi-lar challenges in American High School.

After performing yoga exercises for about 15 min-utes, we engaged each class in a brief drumming circlebased on the "Mindfulness: HealthRHYTHMSDrumming to Relax" protocol, which is part of therelaxation and biofeedback research we presented.

Drumming has been shown to reduce stress andincrease feelings of connectedness among participantsand has been used effectively in therapeutic settings(Bensimon, Amir, & Wolf, 2008). The vast majority ofstudents showed interest, smiling as they drummedaway their stress. Several confessed they enjoyed thedrumming most of all. Jonathan related, Drumming isa good way for students to connect with each other. Aseach person drums their individual rhythm, a cohesivetune seems to converge and whatever drama the stu-dents may have with each other falls away, at least forthat moment. At the end of the day, everyone washappy and smiling, including the two of us.

We were thrilled to receive dozens of thank-youletters from the students to whom we presented. Eachletter was filled with references to how the mindfulnessand yoga techniques we presented have begun to help

them relieve stress. One student wrote, Ive been try-ing the yoga techniques you showed us and they havebeen helping a lot for lowering my stress. Anotherwrote, I plan to attend Arkansas State University nextfall, and I hope to get involved in your research onmindfulness and biofeedback. It is inspiring to readthat our presentations are making a difference. Itencourages us both to continue sharing these jewels,which originated from Indian culture. We are happy toshare the immeasurable gifts of yoga and mindfulness.

References

Bensimon, M., Amir, D., & Wolf, Y. (2008). Drummingthrough trauma: Music therapy with post-traumatic soldiers. The Arts in Psychotherapy,35(1), 34-48.

CBS News. (2011). Yoga in school showing results, officials say [Video file]. Retrievedfrom http://www.cbsnews.com/video/watch/

McCraty, R., & Rees, R. A. (2009). The central role ofthe heart in generating and sustainingpositive emotions. In S.J. Lopez & C.R.Snyder (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positivepsychology (pp. 527-536). New York, NY:

Oxford University Press.Nauert, R. (2011). Meditation may help ease school

stress.Psych Central. Retrieved fromhttp://psychcentral.com/news/meditation

________________________________About the Authors

Jonathan Owen (undergraduate psychology

student) and Prathyusha Kalavala (international

graduate student) work in the mindfulness and

biofeedback project at Arkansas State University. For

contact, email to [email protected].


8/52




International migration to the United States has reachedunprecedented levels, and has resulted in increasedscholarly interest in acculturation (Schwartz, Unger,Zanbiabga, & Szaoicznik, 2010). In research on cul-

tures, it is important to compare a group of individualsfrom one culture with a group of individuals fromanother on an influential variable (Cohen, 2009). Withthis in mind, the purpose of this study was a two-fold:first to compare the perceptions of American studentswith those of international students on conflict resolu-tion, and then to determine if they were willing to par-ticipate in conflict resolution. Conflict resolution isdefined as a method and process of eliminating discordor promoting a peaceful ending of a social conflict(Weeks, 1992).

In reviewing the literature on optimism and con-flict resolution, most of the studies pertain to Americanyouth, and there is little information on the views ofyoung people from other countries (Bulthuis, 1986;Cole, 1966; Pikeo, 2003; Saucier & Ambert, 1982;Singhal, 1978; Wolfgang, 1973). Wolfgang comparedthree groups of high school students at different stagesof cultural transition from Italy to Canada with respectto their time perspective and optimism towards thefuture. His results indicated that the Italo-Canadianswere more optimistic towards the future then the native

Italians. Lastly, in an early study, Singhal (1978) foundthat Indian and mixed foreign undergraduates had high-er levels of anxiety than American students. He statedthat the variation in the level of anxiety was due to their

differences in socialization, knowledge and economiccontext of their culture. In the following section, areview of those studies which describe the methods ofconflict resolution will be discussed.

It was felt that because this study would use inter-national students, and to avoid personal biases due toculture, focus would be placed on resolving interna-tional conflicts. In discussing international conflicts,Baker (1996) stated that such conflicts destroy not onlythe peace and prosperity of those involved, but also thestability of their neighbors and the public confidence inorganizations that seek to prevent such conflicts. Thereare many ways in which international conflicts can beresolved, and have included such things as interactiveproblem solving; creating common goals and values;building of trust among parties in dispute; direct par-ticipation of the conflicting parties in joint efforts toshape a solution; and identifying the truth about a coun-try's conflictual past so as to aid negotiation and medi-ation (Beardsley, Quinn, Biswas, & Wilkenfeld, 2006;Berry, 2005; Cushner, 2005; Davidheiser, 2005;Deutsch, Coleman, & Marcus, 2006; Gibson, 2006;

Peer-Reviewed Articles

University Students Perceptions of Conflict Resolution

James F. Scorzelli, PhD

Professor, Department of Counseling andApplied Educational PsychologyNortheastern University (USA)

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare the perceptions of American and international students on conflict res-

olution, and to determine if the students were willing to participate in conflict resolution. A survey was given to

226 students at an eastern university that asked them to identify a major international conflict and whether they

felt that the conflict could be resolve. Among this group, 122 (54%) were international students and 104 (46%)

were Americans. The results indicated that most of the students felt that the conflict could be resolved. However,

the foreign students were more optimistic than the American students about resolving these conflicts. The conflictsidentified were consistent with the current status of the world, and reflected the knowledge of the respondents about

world affairs. A follow-up survey was conducted to determine if the students were willing to participate in con-

flict resolution. Of the 211 who responded, both groups indicated that they were willing to participate in conflict

resolution.

Key Words: conflict resolution, international students, American students, world affairs


9/52


Kelman, 1999; Kriesberg, 1992; Marsella, 2005;Smith, 2005; Worchel, 2005). One approach that hasbeen discussed is interactive problem solving (Kelman,1999). Interactive problem solving is an unofficial,third-party approach which brings together politicallyinfluential representatives of conflicting parties fordirect interaction in problem solving workshops. Theprocess of this approach involves the identification andanalysis of the problem, joint shaping of ideas for solu-tion, influencing the other side, and creating a support-ive political environment. With respect to negotiatingor mediation, Kelman (2005) felt that it was importantto build trust among the disputing parties. He felt thatparties cannot enter into a peace process without somedegree of mutual trust.

With respect to determining whether the studentswould be willing to participate in conflict resolution, It

is also felt that the parties in negotiation must be toler-ant or trusting of one another (Kelman, 2005; Kelman,2006; Malhotra, & Liyanage, 2005; Nadler, 2006). Interms of preventing conflicts, it has been argued thatsocial welfare policies, such as reducing economicinsecurity, inequality, poverty and religious-politicalextremism, may reduce international conflicts(Burgoon, 2006). Besides tolerance or an understand-ing of the other party in a dispute, it is felt that theremust also be an optimistic expectation in resolving theconflict (Beit-Hallahmi, 1972; Boulding, 2000;Dickinson, 2006; Gillham & Reivich, 2004; Sydney, et

al, 2005), as well as being a citizen of the United States(Goldrick-Jones, 2001; Held, 2002; Spitzer, 1947). Inresolving conflicts, it is also reported that self-efficacy(both global and social) among the negotiating mem-bers is important in resolving the conflict (Desivilya &Eizen, 2005). In the same manner, the attitudes of theparties are important (Haj-Yahia, 1998; Sagy, Orr, Bar-on, & Awwad, 2001).

As previously stated, there is a belief that optimismis an important component in conflict resolution(Braithwaite, 2004). With respect to this, there is acommon belief that optimism is often related to young

people (Eskilson, 1999; Fry, 1997; Gillham, 2004;Harrison-Hale, 2002; Klaczynski, & Fauth, 1996), andthat a young person's life satisfaction often relates tohis or her view of an optimistic future (Dienelt, 1984;Ek, Remes & Sovio, 2004; Leung, Moneta, &McBridge-Chang, 2005; Gillham, 2004; Pinquart,Sibereisen, & Juang, 2004). For instance, Saucier andAmbert (1982) found that French speaking adolescentsfrom intact homes were more optimistic about thefuture then those from homes in which a parent was

separated, divorced or deceased.However, in a study that examined the personal

perceptions and aspirations of 187 students at two uni-versities in Syracuse, New York, Braungart andBraungart (1996) indicated that although the subjectswere most optimistic about their own future and to alesser extent the future of Europe, they were more pes-simistic about the future prospects for the UnitedStates. Eskilson (1999) questioned 462 college stu-dents about their values and goals and found thatdespite their general optimism, their hopes for thefuture were not founded on present effort and accom-plishment.

Method

Participants

The sample consisted of 226 students who were attend-

ing a large private university in the eastern part of theUnited States. Of this group, 122 were internationalstudents, and 104 were Americans. For the follow-upsurvey, 215 students responded, of which 120 wereinternational students and 95 were Americans. All ofthe students were volunteers, and the sample wasobtained by making announcements about the study onthe web sites of student organizations at the university,from seven courses taught by the principal investigator,and from the university's International Student andScholar Center. It is important to note that the interna-tional students sampled in this study may not be fully

representative of their peers in the host countries. Thatis, those that choose to study abroad may be more opti-mistic (or less) than their peers who do not studyabroad.

The average age of the respondents was 27.6 years,and they ranged in age from 19 to 30 years of age.Most of the students were female (67.8%), andChristianity was the major religion (67.8%). One hun-dred and forty two of the students were undergraduates(68.9%), while 84 (31.1%) were graduate students. Ofthis group, 122 (54%) were foreign students while 104(46%) were Americans. The international students

were in the country for more than a year, and the aver-age length of time was 2.5 years. With respect tomajors, most of the undergraduates were in engineering(32.4%), and this was followed by business (28.2%),computer science (25.4%), psychology (9.8%), andchemistry (4.2%). Of the graduate students, 50% werein counseling psychology, 35.7% in school psychology,7.1% in business administration, 4.8% in engineering,and 2.4% in physics. The international students repre-sented 21 nations from Israel (12), India (12), England


10/52

89 ISSN-2162-3104



(10), Canada (10), Russia (10), Singapore (8), Japan(8), Kenya (8), Indonesia (6), Italy (6), Nigeria (6),Ecuador (4), France (4), Greece (4), Netherlands (4),Vietnam (2), Norway (2), Armenia (2), Venezuela (2),and Switzerland (2).

Measure

An initial survey form was pilot tested on ten studentsand five faculty persons from the university. The stu-dents were from Israel, India, France, Nigeria andVenezuela. All were undergraduate students Based ontheir responses, the final form was developed. All thequestions were open-ended, and the responses werecategorized based on the methods of conflict resolutionas identified in the literature review. As previouslystated, international conflicts were used so as to elimi-nate any personal biases among the participants which

may have been the result of cultural differences.Demographic information consisted of the student'sage, gender, country of origin, religious preferences,language spoken, major, and whether he or she was anundergraduate or graduate student.

The survey consisted of four questions, which wereas follows:1. What major international conflict is of most concernto you?2. Do you feel that the conflict you identified can beresolved?3. If yes, what are some of the ways that you feel it

could be resolved?4. If no, why not?The second survey asked two questions:1. Are you willing to participate in conflict resolution?2.If no, why not?

Results

Of this group, 66.9% (82) of the students felt that inter-national conflicts could be resolved. In contrast, only32.7% (34) of the American students thought that theycould be resolved. Based on the responses the conflictswere categorized (Table 1) so as to determine that both

groups of students were identifying the same interna-tional conflict. Using a Chi Square analysis, this dif-ference was significant. (X2=10.88,p=.001).

There were no significant differences foundbetween types of conflicts and whether the student wasan American or from another country, and betweengraduate and undergraduate students and whether theyfelt that a conflict could be resolved.

Table 1Conflicts identified by the respondentsType of Conflict Frequency

Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 60Racial Conflict 52Iraq War 34Darfur- Sudan 30Territorial Dispute 18Islamic Terror 14Religious Conflict 12Other 6

Of all the conflicts identified, the Israeli-Palestinian was most frequently mentioned. This wasfollowed by racial conflicts (i.e., African-Americans;and multi-racial cultures of Singapore and Indonesia),and the war in Iraq. Also, there was a relationship

between conflict and country of origin. With respect tothe methods that would resolve these conflicts, most ofthe respondents (42.6%) indicated that tolerance oracceptance of other's beliefs and values was required.This was followed by negotiation between disputingparties (22.3%). Only 42% of the respondentsresponded to the question concerning their reasons forfeeling that a conflict could not be resolved. These rea-sons involved the fact that it was a long standing dis-pute, lack of tolerance, understanding of the otherparty, and religious convictions. The reasons providedfor resolving the conflicts are included in Table 2.

Table 2Methods to Resolve ConflictMethod Frequency

Tolerance/Acceptance of Differences 40Communication/Negotiation 36Territorial Sovereignty 18Removal or Terrorist Group 14Other 8

To determine whether the students would participatein conflict resolution, a follow-up survey was conducted.

As stated, 11 students did not respond to the follow-upsurvey. This included two international students, inwhich one was from Israel and the other from India. Ofthis group, 84 or 70% of the international students saidthat they would participate in conflict resolution. Of the95 American students who responded, 50 or 52.7% stat-ed that they would participate in conflict resolution.There were no significant differences between thegroups of students.The reasons given by those studentswho said that they would not participate in conflict res-


11/52


olution involved the following: People cannot compro-mise, 51 (63 %); A conflict cannot be resolved,20(24.7%); the conflict concerned personal or privateissues, 6(7.4%); and other, 4(4.9%).

Discussion

The results the study indicated that the majority of theinternational students were more optimistic about con-flict resolution than the American students. However, itshould be pointed out that the international students mayhave been more idealistic or realistic than theAmerican students. Nevertheless, this finding seemsinconsistent with the view that Americans are more opti-mistic than persons from other countries, and could bereflective of the current state of American society withrespect to the countrys economic status. However, thisis only conjecture by the principal investigator and there

is no empirical evidence for this opinion.The conflicts identified seem consistent with thecurrent status of the world, and reflect the knowledgeof the participants about world affairs. There was alsoa relationship found between the type of conflict andthe country of origin of the respondent, i.e., Israeli stu-dents identifying the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.Further, based on the review of the literature on con-flict resolution, the methods of resolving the conflict asstated by the students were very consistent with thosemethods that are implemented. That is, the majority ofthe students felt that tolerance or understanding differ-

ences and negotiation were the best methods of resolv-ing conflicts. Similarly, most of the students felt that aconflict could not be resolved because it was longstanding or the parities were not tolerant. It is notknown why less than half of the respondents, who stat-ed that a conflict could not be resolved, did not providea reason for their negative response.

Although the international students were moreoptimistic than the American students about whetheran international conflict could be resolved, the majori-ty of both groups were willing to participate in conflictresolution. This has significant implications for stu-

dent behavior on campus and in residence life. Thereare minor and major disputes which occur on campusand in residential life on a regular basis during a stu-dents academic life. As a person matures, it is impor-tant that he or she is able to deal with conflicts that mayoccur in his or her life.

Furthermore, the willingness of international stu-dents to participate is encouraging. This is especiallyimportant since many international students have diffi-culty adjusting to campus life, and many experience a

cultural shock when attending an American universi-ty. The ability for these students to resolve conflicts ispart of the process of acculturation in any society. Thedifferences in international and American studentsperceptions of conflict resolution might also affectnational and international affairs. An example wouldpertain to the difficulty with the current Americanbudget deficit and the disagreement concerning howcosts should be cut, as well as the long unsettledIsraeli-Palestinian conflict.

Conclusion

The results of this study indicated that internationaluniversity students appear more optimistic about reso-lution of international conflicts than U. S. Americanstudents. However, the majority of both groups indi-cated that they were willing to participate in conflict

resolution. The willingness to participate in conflictresolution has important implications in the campuslife of these students where they will face minor andmajor disputes during their academic life. A major lim-itation of this study was the lack of random sampling,and thus, the results lack external validity. In fact, fur-ther investigation of the differences between interna-tional and U. S. American students would be of inter-est and provide information about a wide range of per-ceptions, behaviors, and cultural variables.Specifically, more work could be done to investigatethe ramifications of these differences for voting behav-

ior, and other political behavior.

References

Baker, P. (1996). Conflict resolution versus democratic governance. In C. A. Crocker, F. O.Hampson, & P. Aall, Managing global chaos:Sources of and responses to international con

flict. Washington, D. C.: United States Instituteof Peace Press.

Beit-Hallahmi, B. U. (1972). Some psychosocial andcultural factors in the Arab-Israel conflict: Areview of the literature. Journal of ConflictResolution, 16(2), 269-280.

Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successful-ly in two cultures. International Journal ofIntercultural Relations, 29(6), 697-712.

Boulding, E. (2000). A new chance for human peaceableness? Peace and Conflict, 6(3), 193-215.

Braithwaite, J. (2004). Emancipation and hope. TheAnnals of the American Academy of Political

and Social Science, 592, 79-98.


12/52

91 ISSN-2162-3104



Braungart, R. G., & Braungart, M. M. (1996).Perceptions of self, the United States, andEurope: A study of Upstate New York university students. Youth and Society, 27(3), 259-290.

Bulthuis, J. D. (2005). The foreign student today: Aprofile. New Directions for Student Services,No. 36, 19-27.

Burgoon, B. (2006). On welfare and terror: Social welfare policies and political-economic roots ofterrorism. Journal of Conflict Resolution,50(2), 176-203.

Cohen, A. B. (2009). Many forms of culture. AmericanPsychologist, 64(3), 194-204.

Cushner, K. (2005). Conflict, negotiation, and mediation across cultures: Highlights from the fourthbiennial conference of the International

Academy for Intercultural Research.International Journal of InterculturalRelations, 29(6), 635-638.

Davidheiser, M. (2005). Culture and mediation: A contemporary processual analysis from southwestGambia.International Journal of InterculturalRelations, 29(6), 713-738.

Desivilya, H. S., & Eizen, D. (2005). Conflict management in work teams: The role of social self-efficacy and group identification. InternationalJournal of Conflict Management, 16(2), 183-208.

Deutsch, M., Coleman, P. T., & Marcus, E. C. (Eds.).(2006). Handbook of conflict resolution:Theory and Practice (2nd ed). San Francsco,CA: Jossey-Bass.

Dickinson, D. L. (2006). The chilling effect of optimism: The case of final-offer arbitration.Journal of Socio-Economics, 35(1), 17-30.

Dienelt, K. (1984). The quest for meaning amongtoday's youth. International Forum forLogotherapy, 7(2), 89-95

Dixon, H. (2006). Outsourcing in a global market:United States. The Comparative Law Yearbookof International Business, 28, 253-291.

Eskilson, A. (1999). Solving for the X: Aspirations andexpectations of college students.Journal ofYouth and Adolescence, 28(1), 51-70.

Ek, E., Remes, J., & Sovio, U. (2004). Social anddevelopmental predictors of optimism frominfancy to early adulthood. Social IndicatorsResearch, 69(2), 219-242.

Fry, D. P. (1997). Culture and conflict-resolutionmodels: Exploring alternatives to violence.

Cultural variation in conflict resolution:

Alternatives to violence. Hillsdale, N. J.:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Gibson, J. L. (2006). Overcoming apartheid: Can truthreconcile a divided nation? Annals of theAmerican Academy of Political and Social

Sciences, 603, 82-110.Giliham, J. (2004). Cultivating optimism in childhood

and adolescence. Annals of the AmericanAcademy of Political and Social Science, 591,146-163.

Giliham, J., & Reivich, K. (2004). Cultivating optimism in childhood and adolescence. Annals ofthe American Academy of Political and Social

Science, 591 (Special Issue), 146-163.Goldrick-Jones, A. (2001). Pessimism, paralysia, and

possibility: Crisis-points in profeminism. TheJournal of Mens Studies, 9, 323-339.

Harrison-Hale, A. O. (2002). Conflict resolution stylesamong African American children and youth.In H. P. McAdoo (Ed.),Black children: Social,educational and parental environments (2nd.ed.) (pp. 193-206). Thousand Oaks, CA: SagePublications, Inc.

Haj-Yahia, M. M. (1998). Predicting the use ofdifferent conflict tactics among Arab siblings inIsrael: A study based on social learning theory.Journal of Family Violence, 13(1), 81-103.

Held, B. S. (2002). The tyranny of the positive attitudein America: Observation and speculation.

Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 965-992.Kelman, H. C. (2006). Interests, relationships, identi

ties: Three central issues for individuals andgroups in negotiating their social environment.Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 1-26.

Kelman, H. C. (2005). Building trust among enemies:The central challenge for international conflictresolution.International Journal ofIntercultural Relations, 29(6), 639-650.

Kelamn, H. C. (1999). Interactive problem solving as ametaphor for international conflict resolution:Lessons for the policy process. Peace and

Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 5(3),201-218.

Klaczynski, P. A., & Fauth, J. M. (1996). Intellectualability, rationality, and intuitiveness as predictors of warranted and unwarranted optimismfor future life events. Journal of Youth andAdolescence, 25(6), 755-773.

Kriesberg, L. (1992). International conflict resolution.New Haven, Ct.: Yale University Press.

Leung, B. W., Moneta, G. B., & McBride-Chang, C.(2005). Think positively and feel positively:


13/52


Optimism and life satisfaction. InternationalJournal of Aging and Human Development,

61(4), 335-365.Malhotra, D., & Liyanage, S. (2005). Long-term effects

of peace workshops in protracted conflicts.Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49(6), 908-924.

Marsella, A., J. (2005). Culture and conflict:Understanding, negotiating, and reconcilingconflicting constructions of reality.International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, 29(6), 651-673.Nadler, A. (2006). Intergroup reconciliation: Effects of

adversary's expressions of empathy, responsibility and recipient's trust. Personality andSocial Psychology Bulletin, 32(4), 459-470.

Pikeo, B. F. (2003). Depressive symptomatologyamong Hungarian youth: A risk and

protective factors approach.American Journalof Orthopsychiatry, 73(1), 44-54.Pinquart, M., Silbereisen, R.K., & Juang, L. P. (2004).

Moderating effects of adolescents' self-efficacybeliefs on psychological responses to socialchange. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(3),340-359.

Sagy, S. H., Orr, E., Bar-on, D., & Awwad, E. (2001).Individualism and collectivism in two conflicted societies: Comparing Israeli-Jewish andPalestinian-Arab high school students. Youthand Society, 33(1), 3-30.

Saucier, J. F., & Ambert, A. M. (1982). Parental marital status and adolescents' optimism about theirfuture.Journal of Youth and Adolescence,11(5), 345-354.

Schwartz, S. J., Unger, J. B., Zamoanga, B . L., &Szapocznik, J. (2010). Rethinking the conceptof acculturation.: Implications for theory andresearch. American Psychologist, 65(4), 237-251.

Singhal, S. (1978). Cultural variations in studentaffects. Indian Journal of Psychology,53(1),44-50.

Smith, T. (2005). Using disputants' metaphors in mediation. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 23(1),5-23.

Spitzer, H. M. (1947). Presenting America in Americanpropaganda. Public Opinion Quarterly, 11,213-221.

Weeks, D. (1992). The eight essential steps to conflictresolution. New York, NY: Tarcher/PutmanBooks.

Wolfgang, A. (1973). A cross-cultural comparison of

locus of control, optimism toward the futureand time horizon among Italian, Italo-Canadianand new Canadian youth. Proceedings of theAnnual Convention of the American

Psychological Association, 299-300.Worchel, S. (2005). Culture's role in conflict and con

flict management: Some suggestions, manyquestions. International Journal ofIntercultural Relations, 29(6), 739-757.

______________________________

About the author:

James F. Scorzelli received a Ph.D. from the University

of Wisconsin-Madison, and is the recipient of five

Fulbright awards and two World Health fellowships.

His research interests are in substance abuse and con-

flict resolution. He can be reached [email protected].


14/52




Institutions of higher education in the United Statesrecognize the inherent value of recruiting the best andbrightest students from around the world (Institute ofInternational Education, 2011). The number of inter-national students enrolled in American universities isincreasing. A 2007 report on enrollment showed arecord 623,805 international students were enrolled in

U.S. colleges and universities (Association ofInternational Educators, 2009). Recent data reported inthe Chronicle of Higher Education (Fischer, 2009)indicated that for 2008-2009 there were 672,000 for-eign students enrolled in American universities. In2010/11, the number of international students enrolledin American universities had swelled to 723,000(Marklein, 2011). These international students facili-tate the preparation of American students for a global-ly connected marketplace by sharing their various cul-

tures, perspectives, and ways of thinking. However,the continuing influx of international students intoinstitutions of higher education in the United Statesposes verbal communication challenges for the institu-tions and the international students. English as a secondlanguage is often spoken by the majority of these inter-national students and their accents can jeopardize

effective communication. Even after gaining sufficientEnglish language literacy skills to successfully matric-ulate in academic programs in U.S. colleges and uni-versities,the intelligibility of conversational speechamong international students may be significantlycompromised in academic and social contexts by theiraccents. Accordingly, institutions of higher educationshould share some portion of the responsibility forassisting foreign students as they pursue opportunitiesto overcome accent-based communication barriers.

Accent Assessment: A Preliminary Study of Scaling Validity

D. Mike McDaniel, PhD

Professor of Communication DisordersArkansas State University (USA)

Richard A. Neeley, PhD

Professor and Chair, Department of Communication DisordersArkansas State University (USA)

Julie J. Isaacson, RN, MSN, CCRN

Associate Professor of NursingArkansas State University (USA)

G. Daniel Howard, PhD

Interim ChancellorArkansas State University (USA)

Abstract

Direct Magnitude Estimations (DME) and Equal Appearing Interval (EAI) scaling techniques were used to com-

pare listeners perceptions of the extent of accent from recorded speech samples of international students enrolled

in a United States university who spoke English as a second language. Twenty five international students served

as speakers by reading the same brief passage for recording purposes. Twenty five American-born students with

no formal training or experience with accents or accent reduction rated the extent of the accent on each of the spo-

ken samples using both scaling techniques. Statistical analysis of the listeners perceptions indicated no significant

differences between the DME or EAI scaling procedures and a scatterplot comparing the data sets for each tech-

nique produced a significant linear relationship between the data for the two techniques. Based on these findings

it would appear that either technique could be employed to obtain a valid assessment of the extent of accent in

international students. An EAI scaling technique would appear to be the technique of choice because of the ease

of administration. However, future study is needed to refine the technique into a clinical procedure for routine usein assessing the extent of perceived accent and gauging the success of accent reduction intervention.

Key Words: Accent Assessment, International Students, DME, EAI, India


15/52


The American Speech-Language-HearingAssociation (2009) defined accent as the unique waythat speech is pronounced by a group of people speak-ing the same language. Despite the number of indi-viduals presenting themselves for accent reduction,Shah (2007), in the development of a prototype accentassessment tool, reported that none of the 13 protocolsreviewed for assessment of foreign accent were evi-denced based, norm referenced, or standardized.Accent reduction, sometimes referred to as elocution oraccent modification, should begin with a systematic,valid and objective assessment of the accent prior toformal intervention. In short, a suitable instrument isneeded that can reliably quantify deviations in the indi-vidual's current accent from the target reference accentand from which progress in accent reduction can begauged. Before an accent assessment instrument can

be developed certain assumptions about the perceptionof accents in listeners need to be explored to ensurethat the accent assessment instrument is appropriate.Accent perception appears to encompass a combinationof elements based on quality (kind) and quantity(degree). Again, for an accent assessment instrument tobe valid it should reflect a methodology grounded inwhat is scientifically known about the perception ofaccent from a listeners perspective.

To determine if accent differences are a matter ofkind or a matter of magnitude, a theoretical conceptwas adapted from the field of psychophysical percep-

tion. Stevens (1974) reported works in which percep-tions were recorded using both scale and direct magni-tude estimation methods. He found that when thenature of perceptual comparisons pertained to differ-ences in magnitude or quantity, the perceptions residedin a prothetic (amount) continuum and were mosteffectively sampled using a direct magnitude estima-tion method. According to Stevens (1974), the correla-tion between direct magnitude estimations and equalappearing interval (EAI) scaling methods for the samestimuli, determined whether listener perceptions werefrom a prothetic or a metathetic continuum.

Specifically, he indicated that a linear relationshipbetween interval scaling judgments and direct magni-tude estimation judgments of the same stimuli wouldsuggest that either technique would be appropriate forjudging perceptions on a metathetic continuum. Froma practical standpoint, interval scaling judgments areeasier to accomplish because they do not require ananchor or standard reference for comparison judg-ments. Conversely, Stevens (1974) felt that if the rela-tionship between the two sets of judgments were non-

linear then the use of interval scaling was inappropriateand the dimension of the perception was prothetic.Previous investigations have compared DME and EAIscaling for other aspects of communication such asvowel roughness (Toner and Emanuel, 1989); stutter-ing (Schiavetti, Sacco, Metz, and Sitler, 1983; Berryand Silverman, 1972); hearing impairment (Schiavetti,Metz, and Sitler, 1981); dysarthria (Weismer andLaures, 2002); and nasality (Zraick and Liss, 2000).

The purpose of this study was to investigate thenature of perceived accent differences among interna-tional (viz., Indian) speakers by listeners unfamiliarwith the nature of accents and accent reduction. It washoped that findings from this study could serve toguide the development of a valid accent assessmenttechnique that would offer clinical utility in the meas-urement of accents among international students

attending U.S. colleges and universities. Reliable andvalid measurement techniques could then be used toplan interventions- for accent reduction and documentefficacy of treatment techniques.

Method

Participants

A convenience sample of 26 adult male speakers wasselected to provide recorded speech samples for thisinvestigation. Twenty-five of the speakers were fromIndia and spoke American English as a second lan-guage; and one speaker was a college student from the

mid-south region of the United States with no foreignaccent. All of the international speakers spoke with anaccent but had no personal experience with any formaltherapeutic accent reduction programs.

Twenty-five normal hearing North American-bornstudents for which English was their first languagewere selected to participate as listeners in this study.Listeners had no experience with accents or accentreduction and all reported no known hearing impair-ment. Twenty-two of the listeners were female andthree were male. Of the original 25 listeners, two (8%)were dismissed based on their inability to make appro-

priate judgments of the extent of the accents and werereplaced with listeners that could perform the tasks.

Materials and Procedure

A 72 word passage with a complexity equivalent to aneighth grade reading level was used as the stimulusmaterial to be recorded for this investigation. Allspeakers were allowed to familiarize themselves withthe passage and to practice reading it aloud. Speakerswere encouraged to relax and read the passage using


16/52

95 ISSN-2162-3104



their natural rate, rhythm, and inflection patterns. Eachspeakers reading of the passage was recorded individ-ually and privately to eliminate any potential effects onreading skill related to reading with an audience.Digital recordings were made of each speakers oralreading of the passage. An additional recording wasmade for one international speaker after he was askedto exaggerate his accent while reading the passage inhis native language. Twenty-seven recorded passageswere then transferred to a compact disc (CD).

Of the 27 recorded passages, 25 were test passagesand 2 were considered validity passages. The twovalidity passages were used to ensure that listenersresponses were accurately reflecting their perception ofthe speakers accent. Specifically, it was anticipatedthat for responses to be valid, listeners would provideresponses indicating minimal or no accent for the one

speaker with no foreign accent and responses indicat-ing an extremely noticeable accent from the one inter-national speaker exaggerating his accent while readingthe passage in his native language.

Procedure

An equal appearing interval (EAI) scale was used toobtain listener ratings of the perceived accent fromeach of the 27 recorded passages (25 test passages and2 validity passages). The EAI scale ranged from 0 (noperceived accent) to 10 (extremely noticeable accent).Listeners were encouraged to rate the accents accord-

ingly. If a listener felt that the speakers accent wasextremely noticeable they were instructed to rate theaccent as a 10. At the opposite end of the scale, if thelistener perceived the speaker to have no accent theywere instructed to rate the accent as 0. The EAI 10point scale allowed for subtle variations in scoringcommensurate with the listeners perceptions of thedegree of accent. Listeners were encouraged to use anynumber on the EAI scale to within a decimal of .5which they felt adequately reflected the extent of thespeakers accent.

In addition to the EAI scaling scores, direct magni-

tude estimations (DME) of the extent of the accentswere obtained for each of the same recorded passagesfrom the same listeners. During this phase, listenerswere instructed to estimate the extent of the accent rel-ative to a standard passage used as an anchor. The stan-dard passage anchor was selected from the originalpool of 25 test passages. This was accomplished byranking the results from the EAI scaling phase on thebasis of their median ratings and then selecting the pas-sage at the 50th percentile as the standard passage

anchor. Listeners were informed that the standard pas-sage anchor had been assigned a value of 100 and theirtask as listeners was to estimate the extent of the per-ceived accent from each of the test passages relative tothe extent of accent of the standard passage anchor. Toassist the listeners with their direct magnitude estima-tions a visual aid was employed with a standard-lineanchor with an arbitrary value of 100 used to comparethree separate lines of varying lengths. One line washalf as long as the standard-line anchor and listenerswere informed that a direct magnitude estimation of 50would be an appropriate perceptual comparison. Thesecond line was twice as long as the standard-lineanchor and it was suggested that an estimation of 200would be appropriate. Finally, a line with the exactsame length as the standard-line anchor was depictedwith the suggestion that an estimation of 100 would be

appropriate. For each comparison, the standard passageanchor was played prior to the presentation of the 25test passages and 2 validity passages. Additional valid-ity of the estimations was obtained by having the lis-teners estimate the extent of the accent from the stan-dard passage anchor when compared to itself.

Listeners were told that the investigation wasdesigned to study accent. At no time was the word intel-ligibility used with listeners and care was taken, both inwritten and oral instructions, to avoid using terms indi-cating more and less except for the word magni-tude during the magnitude estimation phase. All listen-

ing was performed in a modern amphitheater-type class-room equipped with a computer and high quality publicaddress system capable of playing the recorded passagesin any order. Care was taken to assure that the volume ofpassage was adequate and appropriate for comfortablelistening. Listening practice was performed until theinvestigators were certain that listeners were familiarwith the nature of the responses needed.

Data Analysis

In order to address the validity of the DME results, aone-sample t-test was performed between the standard

passage anchor (selected at the 50th percentile from thescaling phase and assigned a magnitude of 100) and thevalue of 100. Average values were computed from thelisteners scaled scores for each of the 25 test passagesfor the EAI scaling procedure. Likewise, average val-ues were computed for the DME phase for each of thespeakers. A scatterplot and Pearson Product Momentcoefficient of correlation was obtained between theaverage rating from each speaker and the averagedirect magnitude estimations from each speaker.


17/52


Results

As noted in the previous section, 2 (8%) of the original25 listeners that completed the EAI scaling and theDME portion of this investigation were dismissed fromthe study because of their inability to make appropriatejudgments on the extent of the accents. One listenerprovided a scale judgment for one of the validity testpassages indicating his/her scaled scores were not anaccurate choice for what he/she perceived. Likewise,one listener provided a DME for one speech samplesuggesting his/her inability to make the estimations.Both of these listeners were dismissed from the studyand replaced with listeners who demonstrated adequateability to complete the listening tasks.

In order to verify that listeners were making validEAI rating judgments, the average median rating scoreswere calculated from the 25 listeners for each of the 27

passages. Figure 1 is a bar graph depicting those results.Speaker 16 had no international accent. These resultsindicate that the listeners collectively rated his spokenpassage as if he had little, if any, discernable accent.Similarly, speaker 22 was the international speaker whoexaggerated his accent while reading the passage in hisnative language. It is clear from Figure 1 that the listen-ers judged his accent to be extremely noticeable andtherefore gave his recorded passage an average medianrating of 10. These results indicate that the listenersmade EAI scale ratings that reflected the extent of theaccent.

Average DME scores from the 25 listeners for eachof the 27 passages were calculated and Figure 2 is a bargraph depicting those results. Again, speaker 16 was thespeaker with no international accent and speaker 22 wasthe international speaker who exaggerated his accentwhile reading the passage in his native language. As withresults from the EAI scaling method, it is clear from

Figure 1 that the listeners made valid DMEs reflectingthe extent of the perceived accent.

For all subsequent statistical analyses, data forspeaker 16 and 22 were removed. To further explore thevalidity of the DMEs for the standard passage, a one-

sample t-test was performed on the average listenerDME results for the standard passage and score of 100(e.g. the standard passage anchor). The DME averagelistener score for the standard anchor passage was96.047. Results of the t-test indicated no significant dif-ference between the mean score for the standard passageanchor and 100 (t= -1.595, df=23, p>.124) indicatingthat the listeners judged the standard passage anchor tobe approximately 100. This finding suggests that it wasappropriate for comparison purposes to select the speak-er whose accent was judged to be the median as theanchor passage.Next a scatter plot was used to explore

the relationship between the scores from the EAI methodand the DME method. Results for the EAI scalingmethod were ranked from lowest to highest for the 25speakers passages. The DME results for the samespeakers were plotted as a function of the EAI scalingprocedure. An assessment indicates that average medianEAI scale results increased at a similar rate as DMEaverage scores.To further explore this relationship aPearson Product Moment correlation coefficient wascalculated between the pairs of average DME and EAIscores. The correlation was highly significant (r=.905,p>.000) indicating that the relationship was positive andthat a linear relationship existed between the two sets ofscores. Figure 3 also shows the square of the correlationwith a line of best fit added. Clearly, as the EAI scalescores increased there was a corresponding increase inthe DME scores. The relationship between the DME andthe EAI scaling was, therefore, linear.

Figure 1. A bar graph showing the average DME values for the 27 recorded passages.


18/52

97 ISSN-2162-3104



Discussion

The results from this study clearly indicated a linearrelationship between DME and EAI ratings for extentof perceived accents. Applying the logic described byStevens (1974) leads to the conclusion that either EAIor DME techniques would yield valid determinationsof the extent of perceived accent and thus could beused for assessing the perception of extent of accent.The results indicate that the metathetic nature of theperception of accents was somewhat unexpected giventhe number of perceptual dimensions relative to otheraspects of speech that had been shown to be prothetic(Berry & Silverman, 1972; Schiavetti et al., 1981;Toner & Emanuel, 1989).

As noted earlier, from a practical and clinicalstandpoint, ratings from an EAI scaling technique areeasier to accomplish for at least two reasons. First, EAI

scaling does not require a standard anchor or referencefrom which to base responses and second, EAI rating isa technique with which most listeners are familiar andcan readily relate. Although not conclusive or alarmingit should be noted that 1 (4%) of the original 25 listen-ers was unable to perform the EAI scaling techniquedespite explicit instructions and considerable practice.A possible explanation for this finding would be a sup-position questioning the listeners motivation and com-mitment to the technique. Although there was ampleevidence from this study to suggest EAI ratings repre-sent a valid way to assess the perception of accents,

there remains much to be learned about the reliabilityof the method. The experimental design of this studywas not selected to focus on reliability per se, but therewas nothing in the present findings to suggest the reli-ability of EAI ratings was suspect. Future research willbe needed to explore the reliability of EAI ratings asthey are applied to clinical assessment of the percep-tion of the extent of accents.

Equal appearing interval scaling represents a rela-tively simple and practical method for obtaining per-ceptual measurements and could be easily adapted forroutine clinical use in the study of accents. The proce-

dure and design used in this study, although sound,does need further research before it is melded into auseful clinical tool. Specifically, the manner in whichspeech samples are harvested needs further investiga-tion and refinement. Speakers in this study providedspeech samples by reading aloud a short, novel passagein an unfamiliar setting. Currently, no research is avail-able to indicate whether this method is the most appro-priate format for harvesting natural examples of accentin speech of international students who speak English

as a second language. Future studies may need toexplore the effects of oral reading in the non-native lan-guage on the speakers accent. As a result, a more nat-ural and less anxiety producing means to harvestspeech samples for the purpose of studying accent mayneed to be developed. Also, having a cadre of listenersmaking accent judgments for every speaker is not clin-ically practical and highlighted a limitation of thisstudy. It is not known, from this study, whether havinglisteners hear the same passage repeatedly for as manyas 25 times created familiarity with the passage materi-al and thereby influenced the perception of the extentof the accent. Future research might explore the valid-ity and reliability of accent judgments made by a singlelistener both with and without professional experiencewith accent reduction therapy. Once these issues havebeen thoroughly addressed, further research can focus

on determining the perceptual level of accent which isno longer perceived as a barrier to effective communi-cation, thus guiding the practice of reasonable accentmodification.

Summary

There is little doubt that accent reduction will be aservice increasingly in demand by international stu-dents enrolled in American universities. As the numberof international students continues to rise in Americanuniversities, there will be a need to complement theireducation with other support services. One such serv-

ice, when indicated and when called for, may be accentreduction.The foundation of accent reduction will be an

assessment instrument that is valid, reliable, evidencedbased, norm referenced, and standardized. It is clearfrom the results of this study that a valid option for doc-umenting the extent of an accent is equal appearinginterval scaling. Work is still needed to address the reli-ability of the technique as it is applied to accent.Additionally, future research should be directed at avariety of international accents as well as the standard-ization of a strong clinical protocol.

References

American Speech Language and Hearing Association(2009). What is an accent? Retrieved fromhttp://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/accent_mod.htm

Association of International Educators (2009).NAFSAs guide to international student

recruitment(2nd ed.), Washington, DC.:NAFSA: Association of InternationalEducators.


19/52


Berry, R.C., & Silverman, F. H. (1972). Equality ofintervals on the lewis-sherman scale of stuttering severity.Journal of Speech andHearing Research, 15, 185-188.

Fischer, K. (2009, November 16). Number of foreignstudents in U.S. hit a new high last year.Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article

Institute of International Education (2011).Publications and reports. Retrieved fromhttp://www.iie.org/en/Research-and-Publications/Publications-and-Reports

Marklein, M. B. (2011, November 14). More foreignstudents studying in USA. USA Today.Retrieved fromhttp://www.usatoday.com/news/education

Schiavetti, N., Metz, D. E., & Sitler, R.W. (1981).Construct validity of direct magnitude estima

tion and interval scaling: Evidence from astudy of the hearing impaired.Journal ofSpeech and Hearing Research, 24, 441-445.

Schiavetti, N., Sacco, P. R., Metz, D. E., & Sitler,R.W. (1983). Direct magnitude estimation andinterval scaling of stuttering severity.Journalof Speech and Hearing Research, 26, 568-573.

Shah, A. (2007). A comprehensive assessment of foreign-accented assessment speech: Test batteryand model for assessment, course #3825.Retrieved from http://speechpathology.com

Stevens, S. S. (1974). Perceptual magnitude and itsmeasurement. In E.C. Carterett & M.P.Friedman (Eds.),Handbook of perception(Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press.

Toner, M. A., & Emanuel, F.W. (1989). Direct magnitude estimation and equal appearing intervalscaling of vowel and roughness.Journal ofSpeech and Hearing Research, 32, 78-82.

Weismer, G., & Laures, J. S. (2002). Direct magnitude estimates of speech intelligibility indysarthria: Effects of chosen standard.Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing

Research, 45, 421-433.Zraick, R. I., & Liss, J. M. (2000). A comparison of

equal-appearing interval scaling and directmagnitude estimation of nasal voice quality.Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing

Research, 43, 979-988.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported, in part, by a grant fromthe Arkansas State University CommunicationDisorders Foundation Account. The authors would liketo thank Brandy Messer and Mary Hannah Pulliam fortheir assistance in preparing recordings and data col-lection.

________________________________________About the Authors:

Dr. Mike McDaniel is a Professor of Communication

Disorders in the Department of Communication

Disorders at Arkansas State University. He has direct-

ed 15 masters thesis over the past 23 years. His

research interests include auditory processing andspeech intelligibility. He can be reached at dmc-

[email protected].

Dr. Richard A. Neeley is a Professor and Chair,

Department of Communication Disorders at Arkansas

State University. His e-mail is [email protected].

Julie J. Isaacson is an Associate Professor of Nursing

at the School of Nursing and Health Professionals,

Arkansas State University. She can be reached at

[email protected].

Dr. G. Daniel Howard is Interim Chancellor of

Arkansas State University. His academic career spans

more than 35 years. Among other things, Dr. Howard

is an expert in globalizing institutions of higher educa-

tion. He holds two masters degrees with honors

and two doctoral degrees from Indiana University. He

may be reached at [email protected].


20/52




Ever since the Chinese government passed an opendoor policy in 1979, a large number of Chinese stu-dents have sought advanced education in the UnitedStates, and the number has increased yearly (Man &Lum, 1991; Hwang & He, 1999). In the 1980s, mostChinese students came to big cities like New York andSan Francisco. The places where they usually visitedand socialized with other Chinese students were mainlyChinatowns (Man & Lum, 1991). However, since theadvent of internet and the growing diversification of

geographical locations for Chinese students to studyand work, Chinatown has lost its popularity amongChinese students. Instead, they are finding new virtualspaces to connect with other Chinese international stu-dents in the United States (Arnold & Schneider, 2007).

Based on a nationwide survey conducted by Xie(2008), the majority of Chinese international studentsin America refer to this virtual space as CSSA, theacronym for Chinese Students and ScholarsAssociation. CSSA exists at universities where a cer-tain amount of Chinese students are enrolled and is thelargest Chinese student-run online community in the

United States (Xie, 2008). Using Bayms (2000) theo-retical foundations and practical implications of theprocess and effects of online group communication,and Mabrys (1997) critical approach to the construc-tion of virtual identity, I examined how Chinese inter-national students from a public land-grant universityused CSSA to construct their cultural and ethnic iden-tities. My research sheds light on how CSSA facilitatesChinese international students assimilation into thecultural environment of American university life.

I take a macro-view of analysis to envision how thegrowth of CSSA could lead to the transformation of itsmembers communicative actions in various socialinteractions and circumstances.

Theoretical Framework

Online Community

Baym (2000) argued that people hold contrasting atti-tudes toward the idea of online communication. Her

study demonstrates that people who have a favorableattitude toward online communication and constantlyparticipate in online activities are highly likely to forma close relationship with others from the same virtualgroup. Those who dislike participation are shown to beless interested and motivated in establishing any mean-ingful connections with other online members.

Most criticisms leveled against online communica-tion focus on the high rate of identity fraud and infor-mation theft (Wood & Smith, 2001). However, scholarspoint out that the improvement of internet security sys-tems and peoples growing awareness of self-protec-

tion in online communication suggest that the advan-tages of online communication outweigh the disadvan-tages (Connery, 1997; Ebben, 1993). In particular, theexpansion of online communication often leads to theformation of a virtual space where people can freelyshare and exchange thoughts without having to revealtheir actual identities (Baym, 2000; Connery, 1997;Ebben, 1993). In this sense, personal identity and pri-vate information are protected and available within anopen and freely interactive environment.

A Place We Call Home International Students in Virtual Context

Zheng Zhu, Doctoral Student

Edward R. Murrow College of Communication,Washington State University, WA (USA)

Abstract

This paper examines how Chinese international students from a public land-grant university used online commu-

nity to construct their cultural and ethnic identities. The author delves into the question of how online communi-

ty enables these students to gain successful cultural assimilation. Extending on Bayms (2000) theoretical frame-

work of online group communication and Mabrys (1997) critical discussion on constructing virtual identity, this

paper offers crucial implications for how online communication forums, such as Bulletin Board System (BBS),

evolve into cultural institutions as a result of affiliated members increasing reliance on virtual social networking.

The cyber communicative practice may deny participating members access to authentic human communication

and reinforce their negative self-labeling as an unassimilable or unfavorable other in a new cultural environ-

ment.

Keywords: International Students, CSSA, BBS, Identity, Online Community, Communication


21/52


Online communication provides its participants with asense of liberation (Connery, 1997) because people donot have to give their real identities, and names, ages,education and professions can all be fabricated. Onlinecommunication fulfills peoples fantasy of living in aspace where no social norms and ethical values wouldprohibit them from expressing their true feelings andemotions to group members (Ebben, 1993). Baymnoticed that online communication not only facilitatesthe establishment of virtual friendship, but it alsoproduces its own norms and rules as a community.

Development of Individual Identity

An online community requires the active and constantparticipation of members to reinforce its unity, stabilityand further expansion (Baym, 2000; Connery, 1997;Ebben, 1993). At the same time, an online community

constructs an individual identity. The most popular way ofestablishing identities through online communities isthrough message posting (Nguyen & Alexander, 1996).According to Mnookin (1996), those who rarely post mes-sages experience uncertainty in how to post, and shareconcerns about having nothing new to talk about. The fre-quent posters, largely due to their high investment, attainthe most unique, recognizable styles in constructing thedominant discourse of an online community.

Mabry (1997) observes that people are free to namethemselves anything they like in an online community.Most often, selected names represent some facet of

members personalities or physical characteristics.Through self-naming, individuals develop confidence,independence, and become comfortable in communicat-ing with others because of the safe anonymity and free-dom of self-expression. Over the course of time, onlinemembers simultaneously create meaning and socialstructure. Regular communicative practice establishesinteractive patterns that evolve into systematic and nor-mative controls that guide members actions.

Individual members usually identify themselveswithin the online community as if they are really fromthere (Stratton, 1997). The name they give themselves

for online communication becomes what they call a newidentity (Stratton, 1997). When they meet otherfriends or members in offline acti

2012 volume 2 issue 1 journal of international students (full version)

Documents