2013 Saudi Arabia Friday night talk This pdf is a high level summary of the talk on Youtube. It is not a complete transcription of the talk.

Introduction • We will undertake a chronological analysis. • However, I will stop to highlight and give some details on certain important groupings, players, alliances etc. • In understanding this topic it is key that one recognises the importance of:

- Understanding geography; - Competing political interests of different players.

Main historical players in this analysis • Ottoman Caliphate; • The house of Saud (Aal su’ud); • The family of Mohammad Ibn Abdul Wahhab (“Aal Ash Sheikh”); • Foreign powers (chiefly Britain and France, and later USA); • Sharifs of Makkah; • Rasheedis of Najd (Aal Rasheed); • Egyptian governors1

of Ottoman Caliphate (mainly Muhammad Ali Pasha and Ibrahim Pasha).

Main themes • Ottoman control of Hijaz for hundreds of years and relationship with sharifs; • Status of the interior of Arabia (Najd) and ensuing wars; • Union of Aal Su’ud and Aal Ash Sheikh; • Rise, fall, rise, fall, and rise of Aal Su’ud; • Foreign interests in Saudi Arabia; • Internal tensions and the future. Map of Saudi Arabia

^ Map of what is modern day Saudi Arabia from before the creation of the nation state. 1 Note: There was clear foreign influence acting on both, but that is beyond the remit of this talk, so we proceed on the basis that at least officially the said persons were governors of the Ottoman Caliphate in Egypt.

• Main areas to concentrate on: Hijaz, Najd, ‘Asir, Al Ahsa. • Hijaz: Makkah, Madina, Taif, Jeddah. Cosmopolitan, most connected to the rest of the Muslim world throughout

history due to status of holy cities. • Najd: Central area – mostly desert. Riyadh is in Najd • Al Ahsa: A town/area in what is today Sharqiyyah (Eastern) province. Commercially very important both

historically as a trade route port and also now as an area where the oil is found. World’s largest oasis and nominated as a world wonder.

• ‘Asir: Southern SA close to Yemen; not as important as the other three regions but figures in history. Saudi Arabia during Ottoman times • In the early 1500s, the Mamluks (Mamaaleek) ruled Egypt. By this time the Ottomans had gained in strength and

only fifty years earlier had taken Istanbul. They took control of Egypt, defeating the Mamluk Sultanate. • Hijaz had been a Mamluk province since 1350. • The Ottomans thus acquired the area called Hijaz in the year 1517. How they managed it, given the existence of

the figure of the “Sharif”, is our next discussion. • They also acquired Al Ahsa in the year 1550 under Sulaiman I – Sulaiman Al Qaynuni – the great Ottoman Caliph. • Najd – the Ottomans did not have full control at this early stage as such, but had control of surroundings and in

any case Najd was of itself politically irrelevant at the time. • Took the title of the Guardian of the Two Holy Mosques.

Hijaz: Shareefs of Makkah • “Sharif” = appellation given to a descendent of Rasool Allah (SAW) through his grandson Hasan. • First appointed as such by the Fatimiyyah when they conquered Egypt (Fatimids dominated Egypt for some

time). • Afterwards the Ayyubids (Salahuddin’s dynasty) overthrew the Fatimids in the year 1170/71. Upon doing so, they

were recognised as the “leaders” of Makkah and kept the office of the Sharifs, whom they recognised in return for their pledging allegiance to the Ayyubids.

• Their control and influence also included at times Madina and other areas of the Hijaz.

• They were seen as the leaders and given they were from the Prophet’s family, they had a sense of religious legitimacy and were respected (anyone from the Prophetic family usually is through different parts of the Muslim world).

• Their power was also recognised by the Ottomans upon their coming to power and taking control of Hijaz in 1517.

• Under the Ottomans, Hijaz became a province and in fact was called the Hejaz Vilayet. • Succession became subject to the “Sublime Porte”. The system of governance was such that the Sharif was

appointed by the Ottomans from the ashraf of Rasool Allah while there was also a wali appointed over Hijaz by the Ottomans.

Najd • Area of tribal factions and desert oases. • Was politically relatively irrelevant and economically irrelevant as well. • Never needed to be fully controlled by the Ottomans, though at times their influence extended well went into it

and they did for a time directly hold it, only to withdraw for various reasons, which is relevant to our present discussion.

• The greatest influence exerted over this area was by the tribe of Bani Khalid who ruled over Al Ahsa. Aal Su’ud: the rise • Named after Muhammad ibn Al Su’ud. • Founder of the “First Saudi state”. • Chief (Ameer) of an agricultural settlement (very small one) close to today’s Riyadh, called Diri’yyah. • Was not a tribal chief as such, and did not have strong tribal ties to any of the major tribes. • Belonged to offshoots of the ‘Anizzah tribe of Najd, a tribe from which other people found their roots (eg today’s

Al Khalifah rulers of Bahrain and Al Sabah of Kuwait, who are key in this historical analysis). • Dir’iyyah: small, relatively irrelevant agricultural settlement – can’t even really be called a town! Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab • Born in around 1702. • Born into the tribe of Banu Tamim (NOT nomadic, but sedentary) in ‘Uyaynah, which is 40 kilometres from this

Dir’iyyah. • Went and studied in parts of Iraq, in Medina, and in Makkah. • Controversial figure with controversial teachings that are hotly debated even to this day. However, his Islamic

knowledge is recognised by many. • Views shaped by what he saw and wanted a return to tawhid. • Upon his return to ‘Uyaynah, initially gained the favour of the ruler Uthman ibn Mu'ammar. Began to implement

some of his teachings, including for instance levelling grave of a companion, Zayd ibn al-Khattab, the brother of Umar. The grave was located just north of modern day Riyadh.

• Organised the stoning to death of those who committed adultery, including a woman who admitted to the same. Caused consternation among people on account of the propriety of procedure and his authority to order such punishment.

• Uthman ibn Mu'ammar’s power was only over his area – he was by no means extremely powerful. His power was rather guaranteed by Sulaiman ibn Muhammad ibn Ghurayr who ruled over Al Ahsa and Al Qateef. ibn Ghurayr was not happy with what he heard, so he ordered ibn Abdul Wahhab be killed. Uthman ibn Mu'ammar did not kill him, but expelled him.

• 1744: ibn Abdul Wahhab was accepted by Ibn Su’ud and they concluded a pact between essentially Aal Su’ud and Aal Ash Sheikh – the families of the two men – whereby Ibn Abdul Wahhab became the religious authority and Muhammad ibn Al Su’ud became the political authority of Dir’iyyah.

• This is referred to sometimes as “the first Saudi state”. First Saudi State: Dir’iyyah Emirate • Based in Diri’yyah and effectively started in 1744. In the first ten years it was confined to that region and

according to some estimations was not greater than 30 square kilometres. • At this stage it was confined to da’wah, and writing letters and sending people to various tribes in the area. • Even the leader of ‘Uyaynah – ibn Mu’ammar – did not challenge him. • Finally in 1757 the ‘Uyaynah amir challenged him and there was a battle in which Aal Su’ud were victorious.

• Relative lull for a few decades with skirmishes here and there, but not the major, aggressive expansion that was to come.

• Muhammad ibn Al Su’ud died and his son ‘Abdul ‘Aziz came to power, and in 1787 declared that the rule would remain in the family. Muhammad ibn Abdul Wahhab allegedly witnessed this and acknowledged it (though whether he did so is not, in the wider scheme, of itself determinative). While not necessarily officially, it also seems as though religious leadership was vested in Aal Sheikh, the family of the sheikh (and has been passed down almost hereditarily since2

• In 1792, Ibn Abdul Wahhab died and his son ‘Abdullah succeeded him as the leading scholarly figure. ).

Major expansion of the Dir’iyyah Emirate • 1780: Qateef taken. As a result of this, Qatar acknowledged the (first) Su’udi sovereignty in 1797, as did Bahrain.

Both started paying “Zakat” (more like a poll tax) to Dir’iyyah – that is, taking zakat instead of the actual amir of the ummah, the Ottoman Caliph.

• 1792: Riyadh, Kharj, Qasim were taken. • Each town taken over received judges appointed by the Aal Sheikh (ie: “Wahhabi sheikhs”) • The inevitable advance in the western direction (towards Hijaz) came, and in spite of strong resistance by the

Hijazis, Ta’if was taken in the year 1802, Mecca in 1803 and Medina in 1804. • The Su’udis did not at this stage proclaim themselves kings of Hijaz. Instead, they affirmed the Sharif of the time

(Sharif Ghalib) as a vassal. • Further expanded into ‘Asir, but were not able to fully conquer it. • 1801: Iraqi campaigns, with the sacking of Karbala. Campaign continued till 1812 but was not held because of the

tyranny of distance. In part driven by hatred of the Shi’a and in part by economic interests. Ottoman response • Ottomans were naturally not pleased with these developments. It was the first challenge to their authority over

the Hejaz and the holy cities for 300 years. • Ordered their man Muhammad Ali Pasha (the wali of Egypt) into Hijaz to respond to the Su’udi takeovers. • Campaigns were led by Ibrahim Pasha, his son. • 1807: Ottoman Caliph ordered troops sent, with local tribes who had suffered due to the Su’udi conquests

switching allegiance and assisting the Ottoman-Egyptian army. • 1811: holy cities retaken. • Persuaded tribe after tribe to switch allegiance, took town after town, and penetrated deep into Najd. Eventually

in April 1818 came to the capital Dir’iyyah. • Besieged it until September, when the Su’udis surrendered. Razed it to the ground. Ruler of the Su’udis at that

point was: ‘Abdullah ibn Su’ud ibn ‘Abdul ‘Aziz ibn Muhammad al Saud (ie: 4th ruler). He was arrested, taken to Constantinople, and executed. His head was thrown in the Bosphorus River.

• Sulayman ibn ‘Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn Abdul wahhab (ie grandson of Al Sheikh) was also executed. Second Saudi State: Emirate of Najd • Su’udi reconquest of Riyadh from Egyptian forces in 1824 (start of the “second state”). • End: 1891, when Rasheedis defeated the Su’udis at Qaasim. • Expansion in this period was not aggressive, or fast. • Period saw a lot of internal conflict between the Su’udis over leadership issues. • Abdul Rahman bin Faisal Al Saud was the last ruler, and once defeated at Qaasim he sought refuge in Kuwait with

the Al Sabah family after first having resided in the Empty Quarter and then in Bahrain with the Al Khalifahs. Rashidi Emirate in Ha’il (1836-1921) • Established in 1836. • Coexisted with the Najdi Su’udis to start with. Emirate was known as the Jabal Shammar Emirate. • Were to the north of the Su’udis, and were based in Haa’il. • Unlike the Su’udis, derived legitimacy and support from the powerful Shammar tribe, with the Aal Rashid clan

being the impetus for this particular emirate. • Sought favour – and received it – from the Ottoman Empire in the late 1800s; but with the Ottoman demise this

led to the weakening of the Aal Rashid and they were no match for the Su’udis upon their third coming. 2 All the “muftis” and most prominent national sheikhs have been from the Aal Sheikh, barring one.

• At one stage – 1869-97 – became quite large, extending from Aleppo and Damascus to Basrah, and down to Oman and ‘Asir.

• Despite efforts to unite Arabian tribes against the Su’ud, they eventually started to lose ground to the Aal Su’ud, especially after Su’udis came under British patronage.

Third Saudi State: the return • Began with the 1902 recapture of Riyadh by the son of the last leader of the 2nd Su’udi state, being the most

famous and important of all Su’udi kings, ‘Abdul ‘Aziz, more famously known as “ibn Su’ud”. • Important point about status quo at this stage: The Eastern Coastal territories had begun signing protection

treaties with Britain, which was now having a massive influence on the region. Ottoman Caliphate was also on its last legs.

• Battle of Riyadh: Ibn Saud gathered 40 men, surprised the Rashidi garrison and killed the Aal Rasheed representative in Riyadh. Then captured small city after small city, with Qasim becoming the battle ground between the Su’udis and the Rashidis.

• The Ottomans actually acknowledged at one stage the control of ibn Su’ud over parts of Najd. This was even after ibn Su’ud launched an attack on Hofuf where 1200 Ottoman troops were stationed. This eventually led to the signing of the 1912 Ottoman-Saudi Pact, where they agreed that he would rule Najd, almost as an Ottoman vassal of sorts, with rule going to his sons. However, importantly, the pact said that he was forbidden from entering into treaties with any foreign powers.

• However, by 1915, Britain had concluded a deal with Ibn Su’ud just like the deals it had struck with Kuwait and Bahrain. This treaty was the Anglo-Su’udi treaty of 1915. It implied that Britain acknowledged the sovereignty of Ibn Su’ud over most of what is now Saudi Arabia (with the exception of Hijaz, at that stage), aggression towards which would ensure British weapons to Ibn Su’ud. On signing the treaty, he received 1000 rifles and 20,000 Pounds, as well as an annual subsidy.

• 1921: Ibn Su’ud captured (finally) the Rashidi capital of Ha’il with the continual assistance of Britain and its aid. He had 10,000 troops which was a big amount for that time.

• In 1918/1919 ibn Su’ud had once again began looking towards Hijaz (Mecca/Medina). The sharif at the time was Husayn ibn Ali (hence “Sharif Husayn”). The Hijazi army was comprehensively defeated by the Su’udis initially. Britain, however, at this time arbitrated as undermining Ottoman authority via the purchase of their Hijazi vassal (ie the Sharif of Mecca) was an important thing it wanted to achieve. Hence it arbitrated a 4 year agreed peace between the two.

• But Britain also allowed for the two sons of Sharif Husayn – Abdullah and Faysal – to be appointed kings of the newly formed entities (under the Sykes Picot agreement) of Transjordan and the so called “Arab Kingdom of Syria” (later to become Jordan and Iraq’s monarchs respectively).

• This antagonised Ibn Su’ud who did not trust Britain completely. He responded by capturing ‘Asir and being even more expansionist. Eventually, he decided to attack Hijaz in spite of Britain’s wishes to the contrary (or so it appeared on the apparent). The immediate trigger for this was the declaration on 5 March 1924 by Sharif Husayn ibn ‘Ali that he was the new Caliph of the Muslims, upon the dissolution of the Caliphate in Turkey earlier that day.

• In September 1924 he captured Ta’if. In December Makkah was taken. In December 1925 Jeddah was taken after a one year siege, and Madina had already fallen.

• Ibn Su’ud declared himself “King of Hijaz and Sultan of Najd”. Britain totally abandoned the Sharif of Mecca and gave their approval to the Su’udis. Basically this whole time Britain had played off (effectively) the Sharif against the Su’udis.

• But Britain also made sure the Su’udis signed agreements with respect to borders in their north with Jordan and Iraq, so as to safeguard King Faysal and King Abdullah of Greater Syria and Transjordan respectively.

Internal revolt: The Ikhwan rebellion • This annoyed the people on whose back the success of Aal Su’ud had so far been built in their early 20th century

rise to power: the ikhwan – a mounted force that made for a fierce fighting unit. They had been responsible for winning these territories for ibn Su’ud.

• Muawwa’a – religious police – had also been an important part of the whole matter. They were the religious police brought up in the “Wahhabi tradition” that provided the legal justification and implementation of the theology and jurisprudence of the Su’udis. Further, they enjoined on people the importance of following the walee al amr – the leader (ameer).

• They were trained by the “najdi” ulema – who had a very different tradition from that of the Hijazi ulema (who were madhabi and thus very different, often inclined to sufism) – they were very strict, and their teachings impressed on the mutawwa’a the importance of enjoining good and forbidding evil. They thus ordered the destruction of shrines, debated whether the telegraph was haram, etc.

• The ikhwan were the mounted fighting force and were led by Faysal al Duwaysh, a notable and brave fighter, and Ibn Bijad and Ibn Hithlayn. Al Duwaysh was very popular, used to be accompanied by a massive entourage of 150 armed men, and saw himself as somewhat an equal to ibn Su’ud. He had also been a tribal chief in his own right, and wanted to be the amir of Madina.

• In early 1927, Ikhwan held a conference in ‘Artawiyyah, criticising ibn Su’ud for: relationship with Britain, taxes, serial marriages and luxurious lifestyle.

• Ibn Su’ud responded: held a conference where the najdi ‘ulema confirmed that leadership over jihad was in his hands and he should call the shots. The ikhwan rejected the result of this conference and the verdicts of the Riyadh ‘ulema.

• Ibn Su’ud, in grand theatre, abdicated his leadership, with notables from all around coming to Riyadh. He gave an impassioned speech asking people and ‘ulema for clarification on all issues and to decide the issue once and for all. His leadership was confirmed by the ‘ulema, who also said that the ikhwan were usurpers and their elimination was legitimate.

• This was the start of the role of the najdi ‘ulema as apologists for Aal Su’ud, which has continued since. • The ikhwan rebellion became a reality as the three mentioned figures aspired to split ibn Su’ud’s territory among

themselves. With the backing of the Najdi ‘ulema, including the descendants of ibn Abdul Wahhab, ibn Su’ud assembled a fighting force consisting of men from various areas of Najd. At the battle of Sabila, in March 1929, ikhwan leadership were massacred by guns while they fought on camelback. 500 were killed in 2 days. Britain once again actively supported Al Su’ud, with the Royal Air Force bombing some of the positions of the Ikhwan. Eventually the leaders of the rebellion surrendered to Kuwait in 1930.

• Interesting point to note: the Najdi ‘ulema, earlier the mentors of the Ikhwan, who gave them their zeal, their vigour, were the ones who justified their oppression and killing.

• In 1932, Ibn Su’ud declared his realm: Al Mamlaka al-‘arabiyya al-su’udiyya. Arab revolt • Context: WW1, in which The Ottoman Empire had allied with the Germans, against both Britain and France. • So in 1916 Britain and France encouraged the Sharif of Mecca (Hussein) to lead a pan Arab revolt against the

Ottomans, and promised him that they would support a unitary state for him. • Aal Su’ud didn’t participate because they had their eyes on the bigger prize of an Arabian peninsula united under

their rule. So ironically they didn’t directly fight the Ottoman Caliphate directly before its downfall, but their actions in the preceding two centuries obviously had much to do with weakening the Caliphate.

• The British and French didn’t honour their promises to Hussein to support his pan-Arab project, with Britain shifting support to Aal Su’ud.

• The Revolt was a blow to the Ottomans and contributed to their downfall. America and oil • Post WW1 and with anti-colonialism ripe throughout the world, Britain was in decline. Meanwhile a new

superpower had emerged, though it would not be until WW2 that its true might would be on full display (USA). • Was a pioneer in science, technology and leading the world in various regards. • In 1932, ibn Su’ud signed a contract with the Standard Oil of California to look for oil. Commercial quantities

found in 1938. • In 1944: became ARAMCO. In 1974 Su’udis gained a 20% share and then finally in 1980 full control. • One quarter of world’s oil. Post 1971 realised that it is not sufficient by itself. • What Su’udi gets is security – a powerful ally against enemies both home and abroad, with massive favourable

defence contracts. • Power of oil seen during the Oil Crisis in 1973 during the Yom Kippur War. • American interests: in keeping oil prices stable, and for this political stability is needed; this is the cornerstone of

their relationship with Su’udiyyah. Further, Britian and America have since struggled against each other in proxy politics by backing various elements of the royal family.

Post independence issues: • Anti Nasserism and a harbour for the Ikhwan.

• Controversy of the Gulf War. • Afghanistan and the returning soldiers + the “sahwah”. Leadership issues in the future • Nothing new: At the time of Su’ud, massive tensions led to the abdication of Su’ud in favour of Faysal. • Every king has been a first generation son of ibn Su’ud. • Why so many sons? 22 wives – marriages were key and became THE way to consolidate his rule in the absence of

tribal loyalty in the traditional sense. • Most important are known as the “Sudairi Seven” – born from Hassa bint Ahmad Al Sudairi. Included Fahd, but

also Nayef and Sultan, who have died in recent years and were crown princes. • The second generation are getting old, and who out of the third generation will get the kingship is a HUGE issue. • In the mid 2000s a council was formed called the “Allegiance Council” which is meant to solve this issue, but it is

not easy for it solve this pricky issue. • Three issues for Saudi Arabia which contribute ultimately to its stability internally: 1) internal union 2) Oil and its

relationship with foreign powers 3) Aal Sheikh scholars.