2222 288 x-content

Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol 2, No 7, 2011

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Perceived Readiness of Teachers for Online Instruction in

Nigerian Universities

Nwokike Obinna (Corresponding Author)

Information Resources Management, Babcock University, Ilishan Remo. Ogun State, Nigeria

Tel; +234-080-36738913, Email; [email protected]

Ihekeronye Promise

Educational Technology Department, University of Ibadan , Oyo State, Nigeria

Email; [email protected]

Received: October 1st, 2011

Accepted: October 11th, 2011

Published: October 30th, 2011

Abstract

The necessary skills and a good understanding of information and communication technologies is required for designing and implementing any appropriate policy for the use of online education in teaching, learning and research in the university. This study investigated the perception of teachers toward online instruction in faculty of Education, University of Ibadan. The findings revealed that teachers have a positive perception toward online instruction due to their perceived value of online instruction. Also factors found to affect the teachers’ perceived readiness include his facilitation skills, enthusiasm, confidence, manpower skills, perceived benefit/drawback, time constraint, obsession, ease of use and perceived usefulness while other factors such as social pressure, classroom culture and inadequate facilities had no significant effect on teachers’ perceived readiness. The study indicates that there is the need for appropriate review of information and communication policies, training programmes and infrastructural support our teachers in exploiting the use of online instruction in their faculty.

Keywords; perceived readiness, teachers, online instruction, Nigeria University

1. Introduction Among Nigerian-Universities the level of information and communication technologies acquisitions is

quite high as observed from massive empirical reports. But to dismay studies by Hopkins (1996) pointed out that in acquiring ICTs, universities exhibit blind faiths in technology, a sort of technological determinism seeming to suggest that merely installing a machine will lead to its efficient and rational use. This perception of technological determinism seems to prevail in the process of acquiring and providing access to ICTs in Nigeria universities. There have been reports of department and faculties that acquire computers before deciding what to do with them. Information and Communication equipment are purchased but never used and internet access have never been personally utilized by academic staff for a variety of reasons (Adagunodo & popoola, 2003 as cited in Ihekeronye 2010)

This paper seeks to investigate the teachers’ perceived readiness for online instruction in the faculty of Education University of Ibadan so as to enable the university authorities to formulate policies that will enhance the process of quick adoption and use of ICTs at their disposal for online instruction.

2. Review of Literature


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A survey of universities by Mbawonku (1987), in Ihekeronye (2010) investigated the determinants of use and non use of instructional media by lecturers in two selected Nigeria universities and found a significance relationship between discipline and use of instructional media (including computer assisted instruction CAI) and positive correlation between perception and use of media. She, however, found no significant relationship between academic status and use of media.

In another study Klowu (1997) examined the use of computerized information system in Nigerian university and research institute libraries. Results from the study revealed that librarians were highly positive in their attitudes towards the use of computers. The gender, age, length of service and type of library were not significantly related to the attitudes of librarians towards computers. Frequency of use of computer and previous training experience in the use of computers were however significantly related to positive attitudes towards computers. In addition, frequency of use of computers has no significant relationship with place of training as librarians, type of library where they worked, and subject background of the librarians. (Ihekeronye 2010)

A similar study by Jumba (2000) found no relationship between attitudes towards online education by Scientists in six Nigerian agricultural research institutions and the value they derives from ICTs use. They also found no significant relationship between accessibility to ICTs and research productivity of the Scientists. However, there was a significant association between the value derived from frequency of ICTs use and research experience of respondents in his study.

A University of Ibadan-based study investigated prevalence and correlation of computer anxiety, phobia, obsession and work stress among students and staff of the University of Ibadan. Among their findings, they reported an inverse correlation of computing experience with information anxiety, computer phobia and obsessive computing, they also found that discipline, occupation and self-esteem were significant factor for explaining computer experience while age, locus of control and personality types was not (Tiamiyu, Ajayi and Olatokun, 2002).

Ehikhamenor, (2001) investigated the use and non-use of internet facilities by scientists in ten Nigerian Universities and found 4.4% of the scientists had computers at their disposal while 50.4% had access to, and were using the internet. His study attributed non-use of the internet to problems of accessibility, ease of use and cost. He also reported that the university in which a scientist worked might have had the greatest effect among the background factors that influenced the data in his study. In addition, he found significant different in internet use by scientists in different age groups, academic ranks, and disciplines. (Ihekeronye, 2010)

In another university of Ibadan-based study, Sangowusi (2003) investigated the impact of information and communication technologies on scholarly publications of scientists of university of Ibadan. He found that even through 76% of the lecturers were computer literate and 33.5% have been using ICTs for over five years, only 32.8% owned a personal computer. He also found that ICTs had made very little impact on the productivity of scientist, especially those in the rank of professor. He concluded that professors in his study seemed to be overwhelmed by teaching and administrative chores which allowed them very little time for research (and by implication, for using ICT). (Ihekeronye, 2010)

In an international study sponsored by the United Nations, Adeya and Oyeyinka (2002) compared internet use by academics in four Nigerians and six Kenyan Universities with a view to understanding the dynamics of ICT use in academic research, teaching and information dissemination. They found that 87.7% of the Nigerian respondents in their study used computers while the figure for the Kenyan respondents was 98.2%. In addition, they found that computer use among Nigerian University academics had only become rampant in the last five years while most respondents from Kenyan Universities had been using computers for between five and ten years. Also, more Kenyan (96.9%) than Nigerians (55.9%) received formal training in the use of computers and the internet.

Among the two study groups, word-processing was more widely used computer application followed by e-mail. Kenyan University academics also used computers for a wider variety of tasks than their Nigerian counterparts, use of, and access to the internet also differed among the two groups. Kenyans tended to


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access the internet more from their offices while Nigerians accessed the internet more from either other access points within their universities or from cyber cafés. In addition, unlike the Nigerians, none of the Kenyans respondents accessed the internet from their homes or from friends/colleagues’ places. The study concluded that even though academics in the two universities had access to the cluster of technologies that make up the internet, there were differences in the speed, ease and quality of access to the internet. Constraints to internet use also varies, Cost was the highest constraints to the Nigerians while availability of affordable internet connection was the highest constraints to the Kenyans.

Due to the focus and comparative nature of Adeya and Oyeyinka (2002) study, only four Nigerian universities, all from the south-western part of the countries were sampled; this creates a knowledge gap as to what obtains among academics in universities in other parts of Nigeria. Their research also did not investigate perception (as an attitude) as a factor that can affect adoption and use of ICT by academics.

Other existing studies of ICT use in Nigerian Universities are not detailed enough to enable one make general conclusions about factors that significantly influence ICT adoption and use by individuals. For example, a study by Agbonlahor (2005) revealed that (Ogunleye, 1997; Ojo-Igbinoba, 1997; Ehikhamenor, 1993; Idowu Mabawonku, 1999; Oduwole, 2000) the use of ICTs in Nigerian University libraries explores the potentials of ICTs for the development of Nigerian universities and their libraries. Even though these studies found the level of ICTs use to be quite low, there were no attempt at finding out individual-level factors that could account for the level of ICT use and rate of adoption in the University libraries.

2.1 Distance Education and Online Education:

With the advent of the information communication revolution fuelled by advances in computer, networking technologies and World Wide Web, the world is witnessing an expansion in distance education. As seen in the provision of a broad range of options for its implementation.

Information revolution, brought about by the convergence of telecommunication and computer technologies has enabled academics institution in several parts of the world to provide a flexible and open learning environment for students, via online distance learning. It has given rise to concepts such as Electronic University and Virtual University, which are emerging at a fast space. This indicates that distance learning as a means of providing higher education will continue to grow. In view of this trend, online education via the web (e-learning) as a means of approaching distance learning in Nigeria must not be overlooked, since it is a cost –effective and quick method of communication between learners and the teachers. (Ahmed, 2006).

Online training was classified as an all encompassing term that refers to training done with a computer over a network, including an Organization’s intranet, local area network and the internet (Autzen, 2007). He mentioned that online training is also known as net-based training. Moron & Kim (2001) argued that online learning constitutes just one part of online instruction/education and describes learning via internet, intranet and extranet. They added that levels of sophistication in online learning vary. It can extend from a basic online learning program that includes text and graphics of the course, exercises, testing and record keeping, such as test scores and book marks to a sophisticated online learning program. Sophistication would include animations, simulations, audio and video sequences peer and expert discussion groups, online mentoring, links to materials on corporate intranet or the web, and communications with corporate education records. Like Hubona & Geitz, (1997), Autzen (2007) purported that online learning is any technology-based learning and added that this usually implies linkage to a computer.

Given the broad definition of online instruction, it would seem safe to assume that web-based training is online instruction. Hall (1997) defined web-based training as instruction that is delivered over the internet or over a company’s intranet. Accessibility of this training, related Hall is through the use of a web-browser such as Netscape Navigator. Hall and Snider (2008) define e-learning as the process of learning via computers over the internet and intranets. Hall and Snider extended that e-leaning is also referred to as web-based training, online training, distributed learning or technology for learning. Distance learning, was not included in the e-learning definitions and was defined as its own entity as a learning


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process meeting three criteria: a geographical distance separates communication between the trainer and participant; the communication is two way and interactive and some form of technology is used to facilitates the learning process. Hall (2000) contends that e-learning will take the form of complete courses, access to content for just-in-time” learning, access to components and services, and the separation of “courses” to acquire and test knowledge Vs. content as an immediate, applicable resource to resolve an immediate, perhaps, one time only problem. Learning is and will continue to be a lifelong process, that could be accessed anywhere at any time to meet a specific need or want. Hall added that more links to real time data and research would become readily available.

Thus, web-based training, online learning, e-learning, online instruction, distributed learning, interest-based learning and net-based learning all speak of the same thing (Hall and Snider, 2000; Urban and Weggen, 2000). Similar also to e-learning and it related terms are technology-based learning (Urban and Weggen 2000). Urban and Weggen shared that e-learning covers a wide set of applications and processes, including computer-based learning, web-based leaning, virtual classrooms, digital collaborations. For the purpose of their report, they further customized their definition to the delivery of content via all electronic media, including the internet, intranet, extranets, satellite broadcast, audio/video tape, interactive TV and CD-ROM. They warned, however, that e-learning is defined more narrowly than distance learning, which would including text-based learning and courses conducted via written correspondence. Like Hall and Snider 2000), Urban and Weggen (2000) have set apart distance learning and e-learning in their glossaries, making in their glossaries however, online education inclusive and synonymous to all computer-related applications, tools and processes that have been strategically aligned to value-added learning and teaching processes.

Berge (1998) explained the difference between distance education and distance learning. Distance education was seen as the formal process of distance learning, with information being broad in scope for example, college courses. While, distance learning was seen as the acquisition of knowledge and skills through mediated information and instruction, encompassing all technologies and other forms of learning at a distance. This may be why most educational institutions used the term distance education.

Institutional definition of distance education which the main tenets: training offered to learners who are in a different location than the source or provider of instruction. Berge (1998) went on to say that the technologies used in distance learning, the structure of a course or program, and the degree of supervision for a distance learning course can be varied to meet a particular’s group’s needs or interests.

Reverting to Halls (2000) online education in all-inclusive form, distance learning planned interactive courses, as the acquisition of knowledge and skills at a distance through various technological mediums would seem to be one of online education possible disguises. Interestingly Urban and Weggen (2000) saw e-learning as a subset of online learning.

With this review of terms, ‘Subset’ does not appear to be the most likely word to describe the relationship among the words and their forms. The definitions show a great depth of interdependence among themselves. While one scholar narrowly defines a term, another could give it the all encompassing power. This communicates that e-learning, if given the all encompassing form, can be the larger circle of which all other terms would be overlapping at different times and extents given their used intention. Another rationale is that “just-in-time” learning is a major advantage of e-learning but not of distance learning. Distance learning purports planned courses or planned experiences. E-learning does not only value planned learning but also recognizes the value of the unplanned and the self directedness of the learner to maximize incidental learning to improve performance.

Online instruction is a continuum from basic use of technology in or around the conventional physical classroom (e.g. use of a course management system to distribute materials and track grades) to wholly online delivery. Online instruction is the art of using internet; computer and other technologies to enhance teaching process or learning process. Online technologies such as computer and the internet can be used creatively for collaborative learning at anytime and anywhere. It enables sharing of knowledge, lesson plan, research project and notes. Apart from teachers and students, it also involves parents, field experts, international students, teachers and society via the internet, anytime and anywhere. New technologies


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associated with e-learning have created opportunities and threats to the institutional structure of higher education, the learning patterns of individual and learning certification systems. E-learning or online instruction is offering the potential for more accessible, flexible and cost-efficient (and even superior) higher education.

Online instruction is viewed by some as central to fashioning higher education systems that are fit-for-purpose in the 21st century. A negative view (e-learning as threat) pictures e-learning as unproven, disrupting legitimate public control of higher education (e.g. enabling students in one country to take provision from another and undermining national quality assurance) and is incapable of replicating the disciplinary breath and socialization of “traditional” Higher Education. Apart from these threats, there are others affecting online instruction. Factors investigated in this study included inadequate facilities, classroom-culture, social pressure manpower skill, confidence, perceived ease of use, time constraint, obsession, perceived usefulness and enthusiasm.

2.2 Limitation;

This study did not explore actual online teaching and learning practices. Responses were related to recent issues that may or may not be sustainable. In addition, we did not survey students for their perceptions of online learning trends and possibilities.

3.0 Method

This study adopted an ex-post-facto survey design covering a cross-section of teachers in all the departments of faculty of Education, University of Ibadan.

Data collected were subjected to factor analysis; which is a statistical approach that can be used to analyze interrelationship among a large number of variables and to explain these variables in term of their common underlying dimension (factors).

4.0 Results

4.1 Research Question One What perceived values are associated with teachers’ use of online Instruction?

Table: Teachers Perceived Values for Use of online instruction

S/N Statement SD D SLDA SLA A SA Mean Std.D

1. I believe the computer can be useful tool for teaching & learning

7 - - - 9 76

(7.6) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (9.8) (82.6) 4.52 1.34

2. I don’t think there is need for me to explore any concept through computer and internet

60 32 - - - -

(62.5) (34.8) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) 0.35 0.48


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Table shows that the lecturers strongly agree that they believe the computer can be useful tool for teaching and learning (X =4.53). They also strongly disagree that they do not think there is need for them to explore any concept through the computer and internet (X = 0.35).

From these, it can be inferred that the teachers perceived values are:

(i) computers are useful tools for teaching and learning, (ii) There is need for them to explore concepts through computer and internet.

4.2 Research Question Two

What is the influence of prior computer use experience on teacher in the current online instruction usage?

Table: Summary of T-test Statistics shows Differences between those with prior knowledge in computer and those that do not have prior knowledge in Computer compare to their level of computer usage.

Variable (Computer usage)

N Mean Standard Deviation

T Degree of Freedom

Sig/P Remark

Those without Not Significant

Prior knowledge of computer

7 21.0 4.8.6 -1.662 89 .100

Those with prior

Knowledge of computer 84 26.3 8.27

Table shows that there is no significant difference between lecturers with prior knowledge and those without computer experience in their level of computer usage. (t=-1.662); df = 89; p > 0.05. This implies that prior knowledge has no significant influence on the computer usage of lecturers or prior computer experience of teachers has no significant influence on their online instruction usage.

4.3 Research Question Three

What is the perceived influence of Organizational culture toward online instruction usage?

Table: Perceived influence of Organizational culture towards Online Instruction Usage.


1. Educational culture in the faculty is ready for online instruction

10 13 10 5 46 8

(10.6) (14.1) (10.7) (5.4) (50.0) (8.7) 2.96 1.59

2. Online instruction can be easily implemented in my department

- 9 - 16 35 22

(0.0) (9.8) (0.0) (17.4) (38.0) (23.9) 3.55 1.24

3. The University Authority - 7 - 29 41 15


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plays an important role in support of the use of online instruction

(0.0) (7.6) (0.0) (31.5) (44.6) (16.3) 3.62 1.01

4. There are no technical supports for teacher to use online instruction in the faculty

14 7 6 9 33 23

(15.2) (7.6) (6.5) (9.8) (35.9) (25.0) 3.18 1.76

Table shows that the lecturers slightly agreed that the culture in the faculty is ready for online instruction (X =2.96); they also agreed that the online instruction can be easily implemented in the department. (X

=3.35); they agreed that the University Authority plays an important role in support of the use of online instruction. (X =3.62) and slightly agreed that there are no technical supports for teacher to use online instruction in the Faculty (X = 3.18). This shows that (i) Online instruction is welcomed in the departments (ii) adequate support of the University Authority for online instruction (iv) Availability of Technical supports for teacher to use online instruction.

4.4 Research Question four

What is the perceived benefit/drawback of using online instruction for teaching/ learning and research among teachers?

4.4.1 Table: The Perceived Benefit of Using Online Instruction


1. Online instruction has potential of practicing team work and sharing knowledge

- 7 - - 61 24

(0.0) (7.6) (6.0) (0.0) (66.3) (26.1) 4.03 0.98

2. Online instruction is able to promote the acquisition of skills (e.g. communication skills, computer skill, problem solving skill etc)

7 - - - 54 31

(7.6) (0.0) (0.0) (0.0) (58.7) (33.7) 4.03 1.25

Table shows that the lecturers agreed that online instruction has potential of practicing team work and sharing knowledge (X = 4.03); they also agreed that online instruction is able to promote the acquisition of skills ( X = 4.03). This implies that the perceived benefits are: (i) The potentials of practicing teamwork and sharing knowledge (ii) promoting the acquisition of skill (e.g. communication skills, computer skill and problem solving skills).

4.4.2 Table: The Perceived drawbacks of using online instruction for teaching & learning.

S/N Statement SD D SLDA SLA A SA Mean SLD

1. There are insufficient number of computers in my department for teaching and learning

5 3 7 12 42 23

(5.4) (3.3) (7.6) (13.0) (45.7) (25.0) 3.65 1.32

2. There is insufficient internet access in my department for teaching and learning

7 - - 3 36 46

(7.6) (0.0) (0.0) (3.3) (39.1) (50.0) 41.6 1.32


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Table shows that the lecturers agreed that there are insufficient number of computer in their departments for teaching and learning (X = 3.65). They also agreed that there is insufficient internet access in their departments for teaching and learning. This implies that the perceived drawbacks for using online instruction in Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan are: (i) insufficient number of computer for teaching and learning in the departments (ii) Insufficient internet access in the department.

4.5 Research Question five

Which of the following factors affect the perceived readiness of teachers for online instruction? enthusiasm, classroom culture, social pressure perceived usefulness, confidence, time constraints obsession, ease of use, inadequate facilities and manpower skills.

Table: Factors affecting perceived readiness of teachers for online instructions. Coefficients

Model Non-standardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

Beta

T Position Sign.

Β Std.error

Constants -2.958 .620 - -4.769 .000

Enthusiasm 1.236 .120 .352 10.316 3rd .000 Significant

Classroom culture

-6.22E-02 .164 -0.052 -0.380 8th .705

Social pressure -0.122 0.104 -0.32 -1.182 9th .241

Perceived usefulness

.168 .068 .072 2.458 5th .016 Significant

Confidence -338 .084 -.206 -4.034 4th .000 Significant

Time constraint

.227 .106 .067 2.152 6th .034 Significant

Obsession -.162 .065 -.062 -2.478 7th .015 Significant

Ease of use 1.623 .306 .414 5.299 2nd .000 Significant

Inadequate facilities

-4.34E.02 .069 -.020 -.628 10th .532

Manpower skills

772 .149 .573 5.185 1st .000 Significant

The table above shows that manpower skills, has the highest significant contribution (β=0.573; t = 5.185; p <0.05); followed by ease of use (β=0.414; t=5.299; p <0.05); followed by enthusiasm (β=0.352; t = 10.316; p <0.05); followed by confidence (β= -0.206; t = -4.034; p <0.05); followed by perceived usefulness (β=0.072; t = 2.458; p <0.05); followed by obsession (β=-0.062; t=-2.478; p<0.05). Other i.e., classroom culture, social pressure and inadequate facilities have no significant contribution.

5.0 Findings;


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The findings show that the following factors affects the perceived readiness of teachers for online instruction: Enthusiasm, Manpower skills, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use obsession, confidence, time constraint, classroom culture social pressure, inadequate facilities.

It also shows factors affecting teachers perceived readiness and have significant contribution as; manpower skill, confidence, perceived ease of use, time constraint, obsession, perceived usefulness and enthusiasm while those factors with no significant contribution are; inadequate facilities, classroom-culture and social pressure. 5.1 Implication of the Findings; The findings from this study bring a number of issues to light.

• There is an obvious need for Universities to adopt a proactive approach to the issue of integrating online instruction into the job functions of our Nigeria University lecturers. The current technological deterministic approach is obviously flawed as this study has shown that by simply providing computers or internet access does not ensure that the equipment will either be used at all or used effectively by these lecturers.

• Organizational facilitation especially towards the use of online instruction by lecturers is important. Their needs have to be catered for in the University especially the need to provide functional resource centers where lecturers who have problems (with information and communication equipment or software) can go and receive prompt attention whenever they run into problems with using online instruction.

• Another implication of this is the need to ensure that academics are equipped with the skills to effectively, search, retrieve and evaluate materials from the internet and they can also serve as role models of effective internet use and help train peers, aside from formal training programmes that might be organized by the University.

Over all, the findings indicates the need for a review of existing policies, training programmes and infrastructural support, to help lecturers fully exploit online instruction in teaching, learning and research.

6.0 Conclusions;

It can be concluded from this study that the teachers have the right perception for online instruction as they are aware of the perceived benefits and usefulness of online instruction in the educational system. Time constraints, perceived usefulness, poor confidence, perceived ease of use, and low enthusiasm are a relatively common phenomenon among lecturers in the faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Therefore awareness, seminar and workshop should be provided to encourage the use of online instruction among lecturers in Nigeria Universities.

References

Adeya, C. N. and Oyelearan-Oyeyinka, B. 2002. The Internet in African Universities: Case studies from Kenya and Nigeria. Study carried out for the Institute of New Technologies (INTECH), United Nations University, Maastricht, The Netherlands: UNN / INTECH 100 – 109p.

Agbonlahor, R. O. 2005. Utilization levels and Attitudes towards Information Technology among University lecturers. (Doctor of Philosophy) Africa Regional Centre for Information Science, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Thesis 102 – 181p.

Ahmed, H. 2006 “The impact of erectness on e-Government in Developing Nations – case study of Egypt” proceedings of the 17th Information Resources Management Association International Conference on Emerging Trends and Challenges in Information Technology Management. Washington DC, USA, 21 – 24 May 2006.


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Ajayi, A., Olatokun, W. M. and Tiamiyu, M. A. 2001. Computer anxiety, phobia, obsession and Work stress at the University of Ibadan: part 1 – prevalence and correlates. African Journal of Libraries, Archives and Information Science, 11 (2), 167 – 183p.

Auzten, B 2007. Quality of usage as a neglected aspect of information technology acceptance. Retrieved May 30, 2010 from http://wifol.bwl.uni-mannheim.de/fileadmin/files/publications/working paper 2007 Quality of usage.pdf

Berge, Z. L. 1998. Conceptual frame works in Distance Training and Education. In Schreiber, D. A. and Berge, Z. L. (eds.), Distance Training: How innovative Organizations are using technology to maximize learning and meet business objectives. (Pp.13 -36). San Francisco: Jossey – Bass.

Hall, B. (2000). New Study seeks to bench-mark enterprises with world-class e-learning in place. E-learning 1(1)18-29.

Hall, B., and Snider, A. (2000). Glossary: The hottest buzz words in the industry.

Hopkins, J. D. (1996). Information Technology and the Information Society in Europe: expectations and barriers to the Implementation of New Media in Higher Education and Research Sector. Deploy project summary Report, August 1996. Prepared for the Confederation of European Union Reactor’s Conference. Retrieved January 4, 2000 from http://www.uta.fl/FAST/JH/iteurope.html

Ihekeronye. C.P. (2010), factors affecting teachers readiness for online instruction, A case study of faculty of Education, University Ibadan. M.ED Thesis. Unpublished.

Moron, J.W. and Kim, Y.G 2001. Extending the TAM for a world-wide context. Information and Management. 38, 217 – 230.

Urban, T. A. and Weggen, Z. 2000. Corporate e-learning: Exploring a New Frontier Webber, C. G. et al. Journal of Software, Vol. 2 No. 1. Retrieved on 18th August, 2010 from http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/51877042809004601.on.


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Relevance of Competency Based Training in Polytechnic Education for National Development

Emmanuel Amankwah

Email: trustee7a@ yahoo.com

Received: October 2nd, 2011



Abstract

The educational system in Ghana has undergone various forms of transformation over the last few decades. These transformations aim at improving the educational system to produce the right caliber of graduates for national development. The Ministry of Education in 1987 introduced new educational system which gradually replaced the British-based G.C.E Ordinary and Advanced level systems. In September 2007, the country gave birth to another educational reform which emphasized on Science, Mathematics, Technology, and Technical & Vocational Educational Training (TVET). This is to provide employable skills for graduates and help reduce the high rate of unemployment in the country. Over the years, TVET has been limited to the apprenticeship, vocational and technical institutions. Learning at the tertiary level has always been the acquisition of theoretical knowledge with very little hands on training. Industries have no other alternative than to give their employees many weeks of “on the job training”. Introduction of Competency Based Training (CBT) at the polytechnics which aims at providing graduates with the employable skills is therefore welcoming news and must be cherished and sustained by all. CBT is the acquisition of appropriate knowledge, attitudes, personal traits and skills to efficiently perform work place roles in industry, commerce, management and administration. This paper highlights the need for polytechnics to run their programmes on the principles of CBT. It outlines the importance of CBT in polytechnic education, gives overview of the structure of the CBT curriculum, its development and implementation in agricultural engineering, assessment criteria and challenges. It was concluded with some recommendations.

Keywords: competency based training, curriculum development, polytechnic education, competency and skills

1.0 Introduction

The growing need of Technical and Vocational Educational Training for national development has brought series of educational reforms over the last few decades. In 1987 the Ministry of Education introduced a new educational system which gradually replaced the British-based ‘O’ and ‘A’ level system. After 20 years of it existence, it has become necessary to introduce another reforms which could address pertinent national and international challenges. The current reform which was introduced in September 2007 focuses on the role of science, mathematics, technology, technical and vocational training and ICT. The goal is to impart graduates with essential skills needed for personal growth, community development and exploitation of economic opportunities.

The herald of Competency Based Training (CBT) into the polytechnic educational system will provide the necessary skills and competencies in graduates for sustainable development (Gasper, 2005). The Polytechnics have been mandated to train graduates for industry, commerce, business and administration. This is indeed a challenge to our educational system. The concept and principle of CBT in the educational paradigm could be connected to the 3Rs: learn what is relevant; learn far more rapidly; and learn for redistribution. This statement emphasizes on the acquisition of basic skills and knowledge to produce the


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desired outcome. Competency Based Training has been found to be an appropriate training instrument for industry and business (Delker, 1990).

1.1 Definitions

Competency: A competency is a combination of knowledge, skills, personality traits and attitude for proper functioning of a professional situation.

Skill: A task or group of tasks performed to a specific level of competency or proficiency through the use of instrument, equipment and other tools.

Competency Based Training is therefore a way of approaching (vocational) training that places primary emphasis on what a person can do as a result of training (the product), and as such represents a shift away from the emphasis on the process involved in training (the inputs). It is concerned with training to industry specific standards rather than an individual's achievement relative to others in the group (Wolny, 1999). A practical example of competency is that “when medical doctor is to persuade an overwrought and headstrong patient to rest fully and take the proper medicine, the doctor will need the following to manage the situation:

Knowledge: must be able to identify or diagnose the symptoms leading to overwrought (e.g. stress and sleeplessness) and also prescribe the right medicine for the patient.

Skills: must be able to handle basic equipment such as stethoscope and communicate effectively. For instance, he must be able to communicate unpleasant news to the family of a patient in a reassuring way to make them accept the news with ease.

Personality traits: everybody has an innate trait which might be essential to the profession. The doctor needs patience, exactitude, honesty and other characteristics to enable him persuade and convince his patients that he is a good doctor.

Attitudes: every profession has standards, ethics and values. The doctor must work within these principles and exhibit the right attitudes towards the profession.

Also a mechanical engineer must acquire all the above competencies in addressing a problem in somebody’s vehicle. He must be able to diagnose a fault in an engine and fix that fault without difficulty (Grit et al. 2006)

In summary, CBT= Do It Yourself (DIY) = Knowledge + Skills + Attitudes + Personality Traits

1.2 Principles of Competency Based Training

Student Centred The student is the active player. The student generates the learning goals and is responsible for his or her

own learning activities in terms of time and rate. The lecturer as a coach guides the student to develop these competencies.

Task Based Learning activities are directed towards performing the professional task. This ensures active learning

instead of passive learning.

Competence Oriented Learning tasks are formulated to develop competencies that are needed to perform the professional tasks of

the student’s future working environment.

1.3 Diagrammatic representation of the development of CBT curriculum of Agricultural Engineering

The development of Competency Based Training curriculum was quite strenuous and very expensive. Below is a flow chart which represents the development of CBT.


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Professional task Personal Development Plan

Task Analysis Who am I

What are my capabilities?

What do I want to become/achieve

Where do I fit in there?

Learning Task How do I get there?

Readers

Assessment

Lessons Practical Routines Demonstrations Trainings Individual

studies

Figure 1: Flow chart of CBT curriculum development

1.4 Methodology and Expansion of the various items in the curriculum development of CBT

Professional Task: the Professional tasks are basically the modules of each course and was developed using the results of job market survey undertaken by staff of the Agricultural Engineering Department of Bolgatanga, Ho, Tamale and Wa Polytechnics. The staff was divided into 7 groups of 3 participants each. They visited various industries, irrigation schemes, organizations and civil services in Tema, Ho, Accra and the surrounding communities to find out the roles of agricultural engineers. The results were grouped and similar jobs were combined and others were critically analysed. The professional tasks were then formulated from the outcome of the job market surveyed.


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Learning task: the learning tasks were generated from the Professional tasks after a critical task analysis had been carried out. The learning tasks were all geared towards the realization of the professional assignment. Lesson plans (lectures), practical lessons, demonstrations and routines were prepared for the students to enhance their acquisition of theoretical knowledge and practical skills. Time is also allocated for their individual studies. The learning task is concrete, authentic and whole task experience. They are organized in a simple to complex sequence of task classes. This implies that the learning tasks increase in difficulty as the student progresses. It also enjoys high level of support at the initial stages and the support disappears at the end of the task class. This process is referred to as scaffolding (Merrienboer et al. 2002).

Readers: readers are reference materials prepared for the students to facilitate their learning processes. They contain all relevant information required to accomplish the professional task. References to specific books, journals, magazines and reports are also given to the students to enhance their studies at the library.

Assessment: students are then assessed in theory and practical including industrial attachment. The students must pass both the theory and practical assessment before they can progress to the next stage of their studies.

Personal development plan is also prepared for the students and run concurrently with the professional task. This is all about students’ goals, ambitions, and aims and how to realize them in relation to the professional task and future career. Students are guided to develop their work on their development plan by asking certain questions about their personality. This is to help shape their attitudes and personal traits. They ask questions such as:

• Who am l? • What are my capabilities? • What do I want to become / achieve? • Where do I fit? • How do I get there?

Students will continue to manage and review their personal development plans until they complete their programme of study.

2.0 Structure of Competency Based Training Curriculum

The structure of CBT involves the development of formats for the professional task, learning task which comes with the various items as depicted in figure 1. The sample formats where were designed and developed by the lecturers of the four polytechnics are presented at the annex. The curriculum also comes with teaching guide which contains all the materials and information needed by the lecturer (coach) to facilitate the learning process of the student and

learning guide, which also contains all materials and information required by the student to perform the professional task.

3.0 Assessment in Competency Based Training

Students are assessed on knowledge, skills and attitudes but emphasis is on the acquisition of skills. Assessment involves both internal and external assessors. During the assessment, a person from the industry or any other organization with an in depth knowledge in the topic is invited to take part in the assessment. Examinations are conducted to test students knowledge acquisition but do not form the basis for progression. Assignments are based on the formulation of real life situation and the use of simulations. A combination of ORCER (Observe, Record, Classify, Evaluate and Report) and LSD (Listening,


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Summarising and Deepening) methods are also used during the assessment of students in practical examination sessions to assess the competencies of the students. List of generic competencies and their descriptions are presented in the annex.

3.1 Rubrics

To avoid or reduce the temptation of awarding marks based on the lecturer’s opinion and judgment, Rubric is used in assessing the students as well as the assessment criteria. Rubric is a set of criteria and standards linked to the learning objectives. It makes grading simpler and more transparent. Sample of the rubric form is presented in the annex.

3.2 Industrial Attachment

Industrial attachment forms an important component of CBT curriculum. It forms 16 credits of the total credit hours. Various job profiles have been identified where students are expected to have their attachment and possible placement after graduation. It is designed to help students to learn and familiarize themselves with real life situation at the industries. It also helps students to network and make contacts so as to get job easily after graduation. It also guides students to make appropriate choices in terms of career development. Sample industrial attachment assessment form is presented in the annex.

4.0 Uniqueness of CBT in Polytechnic Education

While the new educational reform emphasises on science, mathematics and technology as well as technical and vocational education and training to position the country for accelerated development, polytechnics are to structure all their programmes to conform to the principles of CBT. Polytechnics unlike the universities are mandated to provide tertiary education in the field of manufacturing, commerce, science, technology, applied science and arts. The polytechnics therefore have a herculean task of training graduates to fill the middle level man power needed for industry, commerce, business and administration. Competency Based Training however, seeks to address the above challenges through the principle of “do it yourself”. Nonetheless, CBT programme should be executed in an environment that duplicates or simulates the work place (Norton, 1987).

Unlike the traditional method of teaching which results only in passive learning, CBT ensures that students engage in active learning because the unit of progression is mastery of specific knowledge and skills. The traditional system is associated with information or memory overload, inadequate time for real learning process but rather memorization, lecturer directed and time bound; even though the traditional system also has some advantages such as large students’ enrolment, large amount of information delivered per lecture and the lecturer having command over the learning process.

Among the things which make CBT more relevant to polytechnic education are:

• The student requires less training on the job and acquires working experience more rapidly • Industrial attachment forms a major component of the programme thus graduates fit more easily

into the job market after graduation. • The students develop their own learning goals and time frame and learning experiences are

oriented by continuous feedback. • The student develops competencies and skills relevant for the job market • Learning is flexible but challenging, and does not require traditional examinations to determine the

progress of the students. • Learning guide, practical manuals and readers (reference materials) are made available to students. • CBL does not require detailed study of subjects that are irrelevant to the performance of the

Professional tasks. • It makes teachers prepare thoroughly and in advance and respect the choice of the students. • The curriculum is flexible in terms of study time per student. This means that students progress at

their own pace and not at the pace of the teacher.

4.1 Challenges


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CBT is very expensive and comes with its own challenges both in curriculum development and implementation (Agodzo & Songsore, 2005). Already, there are plans to convert most of the polytechnic programmes into CBT. The challenges outlined below and many others are to be considered seriously before new CBT programmes are introduced by all polytechnics. The National Accreditation Board (NAB), National Commission for Tertiary Education (NCTE) and National Board for Professional and Technical Examination (NABPTEX) should therefore work together to address some of the pertinent challenges to ensure the successful transition of polytechnic programmes into CBT. These challenges are likely to impede the successful implementation of CBT programmes:

• Commitment of polytechnics to provide adequate resources, training materials and consumables for CBT.

• Too much work load on lecturers thus they work beyond the recommended teaching load. • Conflict of CBT time tabling and the traditional time table • Difficulty in getting industrial attachment places for CBT students • Lack of adequate equipment for CBT programmes • Cost of photocopies of readers (reference materials) put too much financial stress on CBT students

5.0 Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusion

The CBT emphasises on the product students demonstrate after their training period and focuses on practical training in ensuring that students acquire the necessary competencies and skills. It begins with a clear identification of competencies and skills students need to master and state clearly the criteria and conditions by which performance are assessed which are made available to the students in advance (Norton, 1987)

Competency based system may be new to most of the polytechnics but the concept and approach have been accepted worldwide in industries and many training organizations. Industrialists, scholars and opinion leaders are all emphasising on technical and vocational training thus the polytechnics are challenged to come out with new modalities and teaching methodologies that address the training needs of the nation.

Competency Based Training has therefore come at an appropriate time to ensure that graduates acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, attitudes and personal traits to efficiently perform professional roles. This is in line with the old Chinese proverb: “I hear and I forget; I see and I remember; I do and I understand.”

5.2 Recommendations

To ensure the success and sustainability of CBT, the following are recommended:

• There should be enough funding necessary for CBT training and purchase of equipment • Stronger links and collaboration with industry and private sector for industrial attachment • Commitment and support from all stakeholders in polytechnic education is necessary for

sustainability of CBT • Trainers/lecturers should be motivated so as not to slip back to the traditional system of teaching • Training materials and consumables should be made available by the polytechnics

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank the facilitators of the NUFFIC-NPT project which resulted in the replacement of the traditional curriculum of the Agricultural Engineering programme into CBT. I want to also thank the various Rectors of the four polytechnics (Bolgatanga, Ho, Tamale and Wa) for the leadership role they played during the design, development and implementation of the CBT programme. I would like say bravo to all my colleagues for the team work and the commitment exhibited to get the work done. I wish to also thank the various authors whose works were used as references. Thank you all.


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References:

Afeti, G., Kantey R.A., Ibrahimah, M.Z. & Agodzo, S.K. (2006), Proposal for a new curriculum in Agricultural Engineering at the polytechnics in Ghana based on Competency Based Learning. Unpublished

Agodzo, S.K. & Songsore, J. (2005). Competency Based Learning; the Case of Wa Polytechnic of Ghana. Proceedings of the Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics in Africa (CAPA) Seminar on the Role of Technical Education in Africa in the Post Secondary Millennium Era)’ Qualitype Limited, Accra.

Delker P.V. (1990), Basic Skills Education in Business and Industry: Factors for Success or Failure. Contractor Report, Office of Technology Assessment, United States Congress.

Gasper, O.A. (2005), Competency Based Science, Technology and Engineering Curriculum for Human Capital Development in Nigeria. Proceedings of the Commonwealth Association of Polytechnics in Africa (CAPA) Seminar on the Role of Technical Education in Africa in the Post Secondary Millennium Era)’ Qualitype Limited, Accra.

Grit, R., Guit, R & Sijde N.V. (2006), Managing Your Competencies; Personal Development Plan. Wolters-Noordhoff Groningen / Houten. Netherlands

Merrienboer, J.J.G., Clark, R.E. & Croock, B.M. (2002), Blueprints for Complex Learning: The 4C / ID-Model. Vol. 50, No. 2

Norton R. E. (1987), Competency-Based Education and Training: A Humanistic and Realistic Approach to Technical and Vocational Instruction. Paper presented at the Regional Workshop on Technical/Vocational Teacher Training in Chiba City, Japan. ERIC: ED 279910.

NUFFIC CBT workshops (2005-2008), Curriculum design, development and implementation. Bolgatanga, Ho, Tamale and Wa Polytechnics.

Wolny, M. (1999), Competency Based Training in the Aviation Environment.

Appendix

Structure of Competency Based Training Curriculum

Professional Task format: Course AE 141: Irrigation Water Management

Short Description

Time

LT 1

LT 2

LT 3

LT 4

LT 5

LT 6

L.SOURCES

Supportive information


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Total Materials

General Competencies trained

Assessment

Learning Task Format: LT 131.1: Estimating the water requirement of the crop

Short Description

Supportive Info

JIT-info

Level of Support

Materials

Ex

Steps

Activities

Sup

port

ing

lear

ning

act

iviti

es

Attend Lecture

Individual Study

Group Work

Attend Demo

Do Practical

Acquire skills-routine

Participate in workshop

Train Competency

Hrs

Total

Lesson Plan Format: L 1.1 Introduction to water management in irrigation

Subject

Specific Objectives

Time

120min

Phase Resources

Remarks

20 min Orientation

50 min Exploration


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30 min Evaluation

20 min Transfer

Field Practical Format: P 141.1 Taking Field Data on the Soil

Student instruction

Practical subject

Time

Learning objectives

Context

Description of assignment

Instruction

Reflection

Lecturer instruction

Organization

Activities of lecturer

NUFFIC Workshop, 2007

Format of Competency Assessment

Assessment form task AE131 score

Assessment criteria Fail Pass Good Excellent

Has the student:

1. PLAN AND ORGANISE

Students organize work in an appropriate sequence

1. Clear statement of the objective. {level 2 No 1} 2. Written presentation of sequential arrangement of

things to be done. {level 2 No 2} 3. Good time plan with respect to the sequence of things

to be done. {level 2 No 3 4. Adequate organizational skills. {level 2 No 4}

2. TO GATHER INFORMATION

On appropriate materials, tools, and methods.

1. Has the student been using the right tools\equipment in getting the information? {level 2 No 1}

2. Has the student been using the right approach? {level 2 No 2}


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3. Is the information gathered relevant to the PT? {level 2 No 3}

4. Has sufficient information been gathered? {level 2 No 4}

Total Grade

Rubrics for competencies

Competency Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4

INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT ASSESMENT FORM

Please complete this confidential assessment form and give it to the student in a sealed envelope. Kindly sign across the envelope before giving to the student.

NAME OF STUDENT

INDEX NUMBER / YEAR OF STUDENT HND

PROGRAMME/COURSE

NAME & ADDRESS OF ORGANIZATION (name, addr, tel, mail)

DEPARTMENT ASSIGNED

DURATION OF ATTACHMENT

COMPETENCIES

0 = Void 1 = Weak 2 = Minimum 3 = Average

4 = Good 5 = Outstanding

0 1 2 3 4 5 COMMENTS

SPECIFIC TASKS

1 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 0 1 2 3 4 5

3 0 1 2 3 4 5

4 0 1 2 3 4 5

GENERAL EMPLOYMENT SKILLS

1 Ability to complete work on schedule 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 Ability to follow instructions carefully 0 1 2 3 4 5

3 Ability to take initiative 0 1 2 3 4 5

4 Ability to work with a little bit of supervision 0 1 2 3 4 5


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5 Ability to work with other staff 0 1 2 3 4 5

6 Adherence to organization’s rules & regulations 0 1 2 3 4 5

7 Adherence to safety and environmental rules 0 1 2 3 4 5

8 Resourcefulness 0 1 2 3 4 5

ATTITUDE TO WORK

1 Attendance to work 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 Punctuality 0 1 2 3 4 5

3 Desire to work 0 1 2 3 4 5

4 Willingness to accept new ideas and suggestions 0 1 2 3 4 5

HUMAN RELATIONS

1 Relationship with subordinates 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 Relationship with colleagues 0 1 2 3 4 5

3 Relationship with superiors 0 1 2 3 4 5

4 Ability to control emotions when provoked 0 1 2 3 4 5

Additional Comments

Total score Name of Supervisor:

………………………………………. General remarks

(TO BE COMPLETED BY HEAD OF DEPARTMENT) Signature and Stamp

………………………….. Number of credit hours

Recommended score / grade Place: Date:

……………………., ………………. Signature: Date:

Source: CBL – NUFFIC Workshop, 2007

List of generic competencies and their descriptions

.Generic Competencies Description

To Observe Observe and identify with respect to the task the signal, problems, trends, needs and opportunities in the performance of a whole job.

To Reflect Describe properly own behaviour and performance and make an analysis to detect points for change or improvement.

To Train Provide a participatory training using different teaching methods.

To Coach Coach and guide workers and learners.


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To Record/Report Prepare a report, arranging the topics / chapters oriented on specific target groups of readers.

To Work methodically Work in a methodical way using appropriate tools at the right moment, using adequate procedures.

To Gather information Gather information relevant for optimization of the analysis.

To Plan/Organize Derive a plan from the objectives to be achieved and plan / organize the work within the standard schedule for execution.

To Implement/Execute Implement by following strictly the supplied instructions.

To make Oral presentation Give an understandable presentation in very clear, orderly, logical well structured way.

To Optimize Optimize the performance of people, materials and other inputs by following instructions.

To Assess Assess the analysis following the standard instruction and map out standard strategies to provide solutions.

To cooperate Ability to work with others (peers, known people) without difficulties in the group. A requirement for associates with people, group work, listening ability, devotion and confidence in people.

To Control Control the quality and quantity of the materials and product, by comparing at recommended acceptable standard.

To Analyse Analyze the gathered information, by comparing the standard instruction and information.

Source: Afeti et al. Proposal for a new CBL curriculum in Agric. Eng., 2006.


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Parliamentary Committee System in Bangladesh: Functional

Analysis of different Parliamentary Committee. Md. Ruhul Amin (Corresponding Author)

Lecturer, Department of Public Administration, Comilla University. Bangladesh.

Cell: +8801712290298; E-mail: [email protected]

Mohammad Maksudur Rahman, MBA

Deputy Registrar, South East University, Dhaka, Bangladesh.


Mst. Saria Sultana

M.Phil (Researcher), Islamic University, Kushtia, Bangladesh.





Abstract:

“Parliamentary Committee System in Bangladesh: Functional Analysis of different Parliamentary Committee.” this article examines the patterns and performance of Parliamentary Committees in Bangladesh. Committees are ubiquitous. They are found in all types of parliamentary old or new, large or small, The Jatiya Sangsad, as the parliament is called in Bangladesh, is no exception. The evidence presented in this paper clearly shows that the committees set up by recent parliaments have fared far better than their predecessors in almost every function, including scrutinizing legislation and exercising oversight over executive departments. The creation of an elaborate committee system is necessary, but is not sufficient to ensure that it will work unless some other conditions are met. Comparative experience shows that the recommendations of Parliamentary Committees are generally honored. But Bangladesh appears to be a deviant case.

Keywords: Jatiya Sangsad (JS), Public Accounts Committee (PAC), Committee on Government Assurance (CGA), ad hoc.

1. Introduction:

Bangladesh is a small but resourceful country of South Asia. Despite years of military and autocratic rule, Bangladesh enjoyed a popular familiarity with parliament that was much deeper than in many other countries in the Third World. The parliament in Bangladesh is called Jatiya Sangsad (JS) and it is a unicameral parliament patterned after the Westminster model.

In modern democracies, parliament has numerous duties. As a key state organ it examines the legislative legislative proposals in the process of their passage and is entrusted with overseeing executive responsibilities and keeps an eye on government activities. Parliamentary committee system is the most vital structure that permits the legislators to divide up their labor and specialize in particular areas of activities. It is therefore the most significant legislative mechanism and is often referred to as “miniature legislatures” or “microcosms" of their parent bodies. Parliamentary committees in Bangladesh owe their origin to and gain legitimacy from two sources: the Constitution of the People’s Republic of


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Bangladesh, and the Rules of Procedure of Parliament (rules). The constitution makes it mandatory for parliament to set up a Public Accounts Committee (PAC) and a Privileges Committee, and empowers it to constitute as many standing committees as it considers necessary. Committee members enjoy immunity for whatever they say and/or the way they vote. Thus, parliamentary committees in Bangladesh formally enjoy important status and extensive powers.

The Jatiya Sangsad (JS) has traditionally setup three types of committees: standing committees, select committees, and special committees. The main difference between the different committees centre’s on their nature of appointment. Standing committees are relatively permanent; they are normally constituted for the duration of the parliament. Special and select committees are ad hoc bodies; they cease to exist when their job is completed. Standing committees are generally classified into a number of categories, the most important of which are DPCs. The other categories are scrutinizing committees, financial committees and house committees. 2. Objectives of the Study:

Focusing on the following issues this article attempts to assess the parliamentary committee system in Bangladesh: An Analysis of its working, Bangladesh Parliaments with necessary Example and illustrations.

1) Formal arrangements of the committee system including composition, structure and functions of the committees.

2) Institutional mechanism affecting the functioning of the committee system in Bangladesh.

3) Performance of the committees of the Jatiya Sangsad regarding the legislative and overseeing processes.

4) The parliamentary committees and the society nexus focusing on the role of the media and the civil society.

In today’s political systems, the legislative organ as the national representative body is considered indispensable for proper governance. In democratic framework the working of the parliament and parliamentary structures in establishing responsible government can hardly be overemphasized. It is therefore argued that of all political institutions, none is more vital to the process of linking governors and governed in relationships of authority, responsibility, and legitimacy, than the modern legislature.

3. Methodology of the study:

The methodology applied in this Article is a combination of qualitative & quantitative approaches. Adopting the above approaches present Article intends to identify the role of historical forces and factors in the evolution and development of parliamentary committee system in Bangladesh.

The Present Article analyzes working of the committees in the Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad (JS) by bringing together new information and data, most of which were unavailable in the existing literature. Data and information for this are collected from two sources: primary and secondary. The secondary source includes books, articles published in various journals, working papers and study reports which are found relevant for the study. Seminar papers and publications of different political parties are also taken into consideration. In addition to the secondary sources, information and data are also collected from the primary sources. Much of the analyses are based on the examination of the parliamentary proceedings, committee reports and Rules of Procedure of the JS. The socio-political characteristics of the committee members are calculated through parliamentary records. Information is also gathered from the discussion with prominent political leaders, civil servants and academia.

4. Literature Review:

The role of parliamentary committee system can be understood in the contexts of its emergence and working. Here, a review of the existing literature about various issues of the committee system will be discussed. In the age of parliament, Committees, however, are referred to as working horses of the parliament. Until 1950s, parliamentary committee system was not studied deeply and extensively by the


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scholars. A pioneering comparative research on committee system was carried out in 1979 by a group of scholars, titled Committees in Legislatures: A Comparative Analysis, edited by John D. Lees and Malcolm Shaw. The Journal of Legislative Studies published a special issue in 1998, with some of these papers and again appeared in a book in 1998 titled. The New Roles of Parliamentary Committees, edited by Lawrence D. Longley and Roger H. Davidson. In this book, scholarly works illustrate changing pattern of nine committee structures. They show that in many ways parliamentary committees have emerged as vibrant and nerve centre of democratic parliaments and have begun to define new and changing roles for themselves. Bangladesh Institute of Parliamentary Studies (BIPS) has taken a significant step in doing some research works on the Bangladesh parliament from different aspects. With the assistance of UNDP, BIPS has published nine monographs. This section reviews some of these monographs, particularly, which included parliamentary committees in their discussions. Riazur Rahman Chowdhury analyses the parliamentary duties of the CAG in ensuring public sector accountability in the monograph titled Parliamentary Duties of the Comptroller and Auditor-General in Bangladesh. This monograph examines the relationship between CAG and parliamentary committees (particularly PAC). In the monograph Women, Democracy and Parliament, author Barrister Rabia Bhuiyan analyses women representation in the parliament from historical aspects. The author also examines their position in different political parties. In this research, the author gives a detailed account about women participation in the committee proceedings. She noted that during the seventh parliament, although the opposition Members boycotted the parliament, they were regular in the committee sessions. As a result the Members in the committees exerted more power and control over the Executive than in the parliament. It is worth mentioning that during the seventh parliament women members have been included in all committees. The author also identifies barriers to women’s participation in legislative process. Al Masud Hasanuzzamn in his Role of Opposition in Bangladesh Politics exclusively studies opposition politics in Bangladesh from the first parliament to the seventh parliament. The writer in his research work shows that some of the important standing committees became moribund due to lack of legislative compromise between the Treasury Bench and the opposition both in the fifth and the seventh legislatures. After the election of the fifth JS, committees were given greater emphasis in making the parliament effective. From this aspect, this article analyzes the performance of the committees. Similarly Nizam Ahmed gives a detailed account of the committee structure and procedure in his article, “Parliamentary Committees and Parliamentary Government.” From this brief survey of the sources referred to above it is evident that partially they may shed Luster on some points or aspects of the research to be undertaken. They may come to use for the clarification of some ambiguities pertaining to the work. It is, therefore, reasonable to assume that this work will fit in the gap and ventilate or the materials relating to this work.

5. Parliamentary Structure in Bangladesh: A Historical Account:

Until the promulgation of martial law in 1958, there were two legislative assemblies constituted in the province of East Pakistan. The first Legislative Assembly was constituted in 1947 and continued until March 1954. The second Assembly was elected in March 1954 and was dissolved in October 1958, when the military took over the state power. The parliamentary procedure, devices and committee structure were inherited from the Bengal Legislative Assembly in accordance with the section 84(1) of the Government of India Act 1935. The Assembly first appointed a Rules Committee on October 2, 1956 to make a draft Rules of Procedure for the Assembly that appeared in 1958. But the Assembly was dissolved before its presentation to the House. Like the National Assembly, there were two types of committees: the standing committees and the ad hoc select committees. The select committees were either selected by the Speaker or elected by the House. The Select committees were elected in the Assembly on the spur of the moment to scrutinize a particular bill as referred to them by the plenary. Such committees were ad hoc in nature as their terms of reference were limited to examine and report on the referred bill. The Committee was constituted with not more than 17 members representing various parties and was chaired by the Minister in charge of the concerned department. At the committee stage, bills were discussed clause-by-clause. Experts and representatives of special interest groups were called for gathering or for gaining opinions. Most of the bills passed by the Assembly were not sent to select committee. These were mostly non-controversial in nature or ordinary amendment bills.


26

Among the standing committees the PAC was set up for each financial year with nine members including the Finance Minister as an ex-officio member. The committee members were elected by the assembly and the chairperson was elected from among its members. The committee composition was roughly proportional to the party strength in the Assembly. Its responsibilities were to scrutinize and report on appropriation of accounts of the provincial government by examining the report of the Auditor General. The experiences reveal that such a potential and powerful watchdog weapon could not work properly. The reasons that made the committees dysfunctional are as follows: firstly, the Auditor-General’s office did not submit audit report to the Assembly duly; and secondly, the PAC meetings were not called regularly. For example, between 1948 and 1953, committee did not call any meeting. Explaining the delay the Chief Minister accused the Auditor-General’s office for not submitting any appropriation statement since 1947. Despite all of these limitations, the PAC attempted to find out the irregularities in various government agencies and criticized some of them for lack of proper control of expenditure.61 Comparatively, PAC of the Second Assembly was far more active. It met more frequently and scrutinized more audit reports. From August to December 1957, the PAC met nine times and examined the audit reports up to the period from 1951-52. The House Committee was constituted with the Deputy Speaker as the chairperson and with six members. This committee looked after all the matters connected with the comfort of the members. The Accommodation Committee was added to the Second Assembly to deal with any matter affecting accommodation of the members in or out of the session. This committee consisted of six members with the Chief Minister as the chairperson. The committee members were elected on the basis of proportional representation of the party. The parliament and the committee structure that were transplanted in Pakistan did not function properly. The legislators failed to develop necessary skill to compromise as solutions to conflicts. The parliaments at the central and provincial level could not resolve a wide variety of conflicts and differences within the society. In fact, the political elites who were in the government did not try to accommodate the ideas of the opposition in the decision-making process. House was regulated by the old ROP and from July 22, 1974 onwards by the new ROP. According to the provisions of the old ROP (Rules 77 to 233A), the JS had set up seven standing committees and the new ROP provided for four more standing committees. The first parliament constituted eleven standing committees including three financial committees; two investigative committees (i.e. the Petitions Committee and the Government Assurance Committee) and six domestic committees. According to the ROP, the House appointed select committees only three times for the scrutiny of bills.65 It is observed that the first parliament could not ensure its supremacy over the executive due to overwhelming majority of the government party and their refusal to recognize the opposition party officially. Soon, the parliamentary form of government was replaced by one party presidential form of the government in 1975. In a sweeping change, Bangladesh was placed under military rule in August 1975 and remained under military dominated civilian regimes until December 1990. It is important to find out the nature of the military, which ruled over Bangladesh for such a long time. The political scientists observed that the process of politicization of armed forces in Bangladesh was linked with the tradition of colonial rule. During the colonial rule the British-Indian Army was not politically neutralized. They were trained with a view to promoting imperial interest. They were by nature anti-national, anti-political and anti-democratic and they kept themselves away from the mass peoples. After the independence in 1947, the Indian government did not follow the methods of training, recruitment and motivation applied by the colonial rulers. On the contrary, the structures and regulations of the Pakistan army in many ways developed a close resemblance to those of the British Indian Army. Hamza Alavi argued that the Pakistan army, which was the predecessor of the Bangladesh army, remained culturally and physically distanced from the civilian sector. This was reflected in their attitudes towards the political institutions. Regarding this aspect, the political scientists analyze that the ambition of the army to capture political power was one of the main reasons for the declaration of martial law in Pakistan in 1958. It is also argued that the Bangladesh army, which is the lineal descendant of the British-Indian and Pakistan Army, has inherited its orientation against civilian rule and its sensitivity to state power. Most of the military officers who led military coups since 1970s were recruited and trained under the shadow of Ayub Khan’s martial law regime. The Ayub regime


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had affected them in many ways: they became confident that the military could play important rule in the political system and they became sensitive to political power. Since the independence, the Bangladesh army was in state power directly and indirectly about 15 years. During these periods, three parliaments have been formed to civilianize the civil military government. It was expected that parliament would play a proper role in establishing parliamentary supremacy over the executive. But none of them had any real scope to minimize the executive dominance. In the real sense, the public did not have positive image of these parliaments. The legislative power of the parliament passed into the hands of the executive. The parliament was frequently used as a tool for endorsing policies and granting legitimacy to rulers who assumed power through unconstitutional means. The parliamentary image began to change after the fall of the military dominated civilian government in December 1990 by a mass upsurge. After the fall of authoritarian regime, the parliamentary system of government was reintroduced in 1991. From the beginning of the democratic set up, committee system has gained importance for strengthening parliamentary democracy in the country.

6. Parliamentary committee’s formal-legal frame work:

Parliamentary committees in Bangladesh owe their origin to and gain legitimacy from two sources: the Constitution of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh, and the Rules of Procedure of Parliament (Rules). The constitution makes it mandatory for parliament to set up a Public Accounts Committee (PAC) and a Privileges Committee, and empowers it to constitute as many standing committees as it consider s necessary. The Rules, on the other hand, specify the actual number of committee s to be set up and delineate their formal scope of operation. These also specify the composition of different committees and prescribe some other important matters, such as the way(s) decisions are to be taken, the procedures to be followed to convene meetings of a committee and the methods used for examining witness. A committee can sit while the parliament is in session. Normally, the sittings of a committee are held within the precincts of the House. However, if it becomes necessary to change the place of the sitting outside the House, it can be done with the permission of the Speaker. Committee meetings are held in private and are not open to the public. Except for committee members and staff, no outsider s may attend when a committee is deliberating. A committee can regulate its sittings and the way it conducts its business. It can obtain cooperation if deemed necessary. A committee may appoint as many subcommittee s as it considers necessary. Each subcommittee has the power of the main committee. The Rules, however, require that the order of reference to a sub-committee must clearly state the point(s) for investigation. A committee has the power to send for persons, papers and records. No document submitted to a committee can be withdrawn or altered without its knowledge. The constitution also authorizes parliament to confer on committee s powers for enforcing the attendance of witness and examining them on oath, as well as for compelling the production of documents. Paradoxically, parliament, rather than taking measures to give effect to these provisions, has empowered the government to decline to produce a document on the grounds that its disclosure would be prejudicial to the safety or interest of the state. Committee members enjoy immunity for whatever they say and/or the way they vote. Thus, parliamentary committee s in Bangladesh formally enjoys important status and extensive powers.

7. Working of different parliamentary committee system in Bangladesh: Parliamentary Committees formed exclusively of members of the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) (Parliament) for such purposes as to evaluate legislative proposals and scrutinize activities of the executive government. In effect, these committees in most democracies provide a means of keeping the parliamentarians busy and feeling useful and remaining watchful on the policy-management processes. The Constitution of Bangladesh provides provisions for establishing various parliamentary committees. The Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad (JS) is empowered through Article 76 of the Constitution to appoint a number of standing committees, including the Public Accounts Committee and the Committee of Privileges, for the purposes of examining legislative proposals, considering bills, inquiring or investigating into the performance of the ministries, and reviewing measures for enforcement of laws for proper governance. The rules of procedure framed by the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) itself guide and regulate functional details, overall operation and terms of reference of these committees. There are provisions also for the


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formation of sub-committees within the committees. The standing committees in Bangladesh are generally grouped into such categories as ministerial committees, finance and audit committees, and a number of other committees of standing nature. These however, exclude select or special committees. The members of the standing committees are either appointed by the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) itself or nominated by the Speaker. Members of the financial and ministerial committees, including those of the committees on privileges, government assurances, rules of procedure and private members' bills, are appointed by the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) while the members of the house committee and the business advisory committee, including the two committees on petitions and library, are nominated by the Speaker. The sittings of the committees and their hearings and deliberations are held in private. In order to have quorum for the sitting of a committee, the presence of one-third of the committee members is required. Agenda of the committees are addressed by a majority of the members present. The committee chair has a casting vote in case of a tie of votes. The committees prepare their respective reports that are subsequently placed before the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) in session. The standing committees involve themselves in activities of the day-to-day parliamentary business and in such other matters as facilities to be provided to the members of Jatiya Sangsad (JS), control of financial actions of the executive, examination of the functions of various ministries, and scrutinizing on matters of specific issues. The select committees are appointed on ad hoc basis to deal with the proposed bills. In order to examine and report on certain assigned subjects, special committees are also formed temporarily. The standing committees on ministries examine the activities of the executive government. They also review bills and other issues referred to them from time to time by the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) in session. They are supposed to meet at least once a month to review and examine various affairs of the administration. Finance and audit committees are considered as special mechanisms of the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) to perform its supervisory role over the government expenditures. Thus the Public Accounts Committee chaired by a member of the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) scrutinizes annual financial accounts and appropriations as approved, and pinpoints the irregularities of the government bodies with necessary recommendations and remedial measures. The Committee on Estimates examines estimates throughout the financial year and gives suggestions for ensuring economy and efficiency in governance process. Accounts and reports of public institutions are reviewed by the Public Undertaking Committee, which points out the gap between the affairs of the public offices and the on-going government policies. The functions which are discharged by other standing committees include: rights and immunities of the members of Jatiya Sangsad (JS), specific complaints made in the petitions, allocation of time for the stages of government bills, private members' bills, conduct of business in the house of Jatiya Sangsad and matters of procedure, enhancement of library facilities, and accommodation facilities and other services for the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) members. Through the parliamentary committee system attempts are made to demand transparency and accountability of the government. The meetings of the standing committees are attended by senior members of bureaucracy who explain their respective performance and, whenever necessary, submit information before the concerned committee. While scrutinizing administrative actions in the committees on ministries, the people's representatives keep themselves informed of the ongoing state business. In the process of examining accounts and public expenditure, the financial committees determine whether the government's financial powers are exercised properly and public money has been spent following the approved procedures. Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad (JS) has altogether organized its committee structure. The first Jatiya Sangsad (JS) had eleven committees. With the passage of time and increase of state business, the number of standing committees rose to 49 in the fifth Jatiya Sangsad (JS) and 46 in the seventh Jatiya Sangsad (JS). With this the number of sub-committees has also increased. Until the sitting of the seventh Jatiya Sangsad (JS) the ministers themselves headed the committees on ministries. In the fifth session of the seventh Jatiya Sangsad (JS) an amendment to the rules of procedure was adopted under which no minister but only a


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member of the Jatiya Sangsad (JS) was made chairman of each of these standing committees. This was done to give impetus to the committees for effectively demanding executive accountability. 7.1. Finance Committees in Bangladesh:

In order to examine draft bills and legislative proposals, to review the enforcement of laws and propose measures for such enforcement in relation to any matter referred to it by Parliament as a matter of public importance, investigate or enquire into the activities of administration of ministry and to perform any other function assigned to it by Parliament Article 76 of the Constitution of Bangladesh provides the scope for formation of standing committees of Parliament from among its members. These committees are:

A) A Public Accounts Committee;

B) A Committee of Privileges; and

C) Such other standing committees as the Rules of Procedures of Parliament require.

From the functional point of view these committees may be classified as:

1) Finance Committees;

2) Other committees; and

3) Standing Committees on Ministries.

The following standing committees in respect of financial matters of the government form finance committees:

A) Public Accounts Committee (PAC);

B) Committee on Estimates (CE) and

C) Committee on Public Undertakings (CPU).

Financial management in the government is as needful as oxygen in human living. Hence D.D white (Introduction to the Study of Public Administration, 1955) stated, "Finance and administration cannot be divorced, every administrative act has financial implications as inseparable as a man and his shadow". It is believed that imprudent financial management alienates the people from the government, ultimately endangering latter's existence. Since the finance committees perform the functions of watchdogs to oversee financial management, these committees are of great importance. In order to make things transparent no minister is eligible to become member of these committees. If we go through the history of the parliamentary committee system in Bangladesh we can see that all these three committees were present from the 1st Parliament in 1973. Only in the 3rd Parliament (1986-87) these finance committees were absent.

7.1.1. Committee of Public Accounts (CPA):

The CPA is commonly known as Public Accounts Committee (PAC). It is responsible for examination of the annual audited accounts of the public expenditure. It consists of not more than 15 members of the Parliament other than ministers. The functions of the PAC are laid down in the Rules of Procedure rule No.233. The main functions of the Public Accounts Committee are to oversee:

A) that the moneys shown in the accounts as having been disbursed were legally available for, and applicable to, the service or purpose to which they have been applied or charged;

B) that the expenditure conforms to the authority which governs it; and

C) that every re-appropriation has been made in accordance with the provisions made in this behalf under rule framed by competent authority .

7.1.2. Committees on Estimates (CE):


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The Committee on Estimates is to examine the estimates presented before the Parliament as to whether they are prepared with maximum possible efficiency and economy. This committee is also composed of not more than ten Parliament members other than minister. Rule 235 has assigned the following functions to this Committee:

A) to report what economies, improvement in organization, efficiency or administrative reform, consistent with the policy underlying the estimates, may be effected;

B) to suggest alternative policies in order to bring about efficiency and economy in administration;

C) to suggest the form in which the estimates shall be presented to the House.

7.1.3. Committee on Public Undertakings (CPU):

The Committee on Public Undertakings constituted by the Parliament is meant for examination of the working of the public undertakings. It shall consist of not more than ten Parliament Members other than minister. The functions of the committee are specified in Rule 238 of the Rules of Procedure as follows:

a) to examine the reports and accounts of the public undertakings specified in the Schedule IV;

b) to examine the reports, if any, of the Comptroller and Auditor-General on the public undertakings;

c) to examine, in the context of the autonomy any deficiency of the public undertakings, whether the affairs of the public undertakings are being managed in accordance with sound business principles and prudent commercial practices; [the Committees shall report to Parliament on remedy of irregularities and lapses of the public undertaking and recommend measures to free the institution from corruption and, if considered necessary, a part of its report in this respect may be sent to the Government before the report is placed before Parliament; and

d) to exercise such other functions vested in the Committee on Public Accounts and the Committee on Estimates in relation to the public undertakings specified in the Schedule IV as are not covered by clauses (a), (b) and (c) above and as may be allotted to the Committee by the Speaker from time to time: provided that the Committee shall not examine and investigate any of the following, namely:

(i) matters of major Government policy as distinct from business or commercial functions of the public undertakings;

(ii) matters of day-to-day administration; and

(iii) matters for the consideration of which machinery is established by any special statute under which a particular public undertaking is established.

7.2. Ad hoc Committees:

The Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad (JS) traditionally sets up two types of ad hoc committees: the Select Committee on a Bill and Special Committees. The Rules of Procedure of the JS pledges in the Rule 266 that the Parliament may, by motion, appoint a Special Committee, which shall have such composition and function as may be specified in the motion. The Select Committee is traditionally established to examine a bill if the member-in-charge of the Bill referred it to such a committee rather than a standing committee.

7.3. Standing Committee on Ministry of Defense:

Amongst the ministerial standing committees, the Standing Committee on the Ministry of Defense (later Defense Committee) is the only committee of its kind that particularly scrutinizes the activities of the armed forces. Since the beginning of the fifth JS, the Defense committee took initiative for questioning the Defense purchases, budget, Defense policy, civil recruitment, pension and other facilities.

During the period of the seventh Jatiya Sangsad (JS), the Defense Committee first dealt with the frigate purchase from a Korean bank port company, for the Bangladesh Navy, in November 1999. The discussions in the committee and then decisions taken were projected in the front page of all the major daily newspapers followed by analyses by some Army officers and lawyers. Talking with the media, General Ibrahim marked


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this committee decision as “a landmark decision to establish human rights, civilian control over the Armed Forces and to strengthen democratic institutions”.

Although the Defense Committee was active in scrutinizing armed forces issues but most of the decisions and recommendations made by the committee were not properly implemented. In the words of the Defense Committee chairperson, “Even though the committees take decisions and make recommendations in presence of ministers, the recommendations are not implemented." The committee proceedings unveiled that the ministerial standing committees were confined to reviewing some of the routine findings of ministries and other agencies rather than in-depth investigation into budgetary and implementation performance.

The committee thus suggested setting up of a task force for each ministry to settle their old audit objections. Though a large number of old audit objections have been discussed and settled in the PAC meetings, it was not possible for them to implement on practical grounds.21 However, the PAC of the fifth parliament took an exemplary decision to set up an “Action Token” committee with seven members in its meeting on 17 November, 1992 to review the progress of the implementation of decisions taken in the PAC meetings.

The PUC dealt with the audit objections raised by the CAG to check the misappropriation of the public funds. Scrutinizing the audit reports on the DESA, the DESCO, the PDB and the REB, the PUC asked them to settle the pending audit objections within December 2005. The PUC in its meetings with the power sector organizations expressed its concern about the lack of power generation. “The committee asked the Power Division to fix a uniform model for privatization of the billing system immediately to check power pilferage and systems loss”.

7.4. Estimates Committee (EC):

Among the financial committees, the Estimates Committee (EC) has traditionally remained very inactive until 1990. However, theoretically, this committee has better potential than the other financial committees in ensuring financial discipline. It was observed that the EC of the first and the second parliaments did not make any important decision; they met in nine and five meetings respectively. The EC of the first parliament prepared a special report but could not place it to the House because of the resistance from within the ruling party. The Speaker first suggested showing of the report to the Chief Whip and the Law Minister. However, the Chief Whip gave his consent in favor of submission of the report but both the Speaker and the Law minister objected to it. The EC had issued a circular in June 1997, requiring different organizations to supply the copies of terms of reference of the consultants before they were appointed. It also asked for schedule of tender for undertaking public works and appointment of contractors for transport, purchase and sale before advertisement.

7.5. Committee on Government Assurance (CGA):

The Committee on Government Assurance (CGA) has been a new beginning in examining the performances of the ministries in implementing government assurances given on the floor since the seventh Jatiya Sangsad (JS). Comparatively speaking, the CGA of the fifth parliament was less active in the fifth JS. It met only in fourteen meetings, which means that the committee seriously failed to meet the mandatory meeting requirement in accordance with the Rules of Procedure. The CGA of the seventh and the eighth parliaments convened their meetings more frequently. In the seventh parliament, the CGA convened, on an average, 10.3 meetings per year which was increased to 10.6 meetings per year in the eighth parliament.

7.6. The Petitions Committee:

Among the Non-Ministerial Standing Committees, the Petitions Committee was traditionally inactive. From the discussion with the committee members and staff it was appeared that the citizens rarely come to the committee as they were not aware about the jurisdiction of the Petitions Committee. Though it was found more active in the fifth and the seventh JS compared to the eighth JS. The parliamentary records reveal that covering the period from May 2002 to October 2005 altogether 21 petitions were submitted to the committee of them 20 were rejected as these were not submitted properly according to the Rules of Procedure. Although under Rule232 of the Rules of Procedure the duty of the committee was to report on specific complaints made in the Petitions referred to the committee but the committee did not submit any report on


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the above petition. The Petition Committee of the fifth JS met in 27 meetings and submitted two reports. Among the petitions considered by the committee since 1991, one caught the attention of the media and the civil society.

7.7. Special Committees:

As discussed earlier the Bangladesh Parliament may form a special committee if necessary. Among the post-1990 parliament, the fifth Parliament formed five special committees and one was appointed by the seventh JS while the eighth JS did not set up such committee. Among the special committees set up in the fifth JS two committees dealt with legislative bills including the Indemnity Ordinance Bill, and the Local Government (Zilla Parishad) Amendment Bill 1993. One special committee was appointed to deal with the violence occurred in the educational institutions. These three special committees could not submit any report to the House. The fifth JS appointed one special committee to deal with five remuneration bills regarding the Prime Minister, the Speaker, the Deputy Speaker, the Ministers and the MPs. This committee submitted a report to the House and considering the committee report remuneration was increased. Another special committee was formed to investigate complains regarding the corruption of the Agriculture Minister. This special committee held 15 meetings and submitted a report to the House though the committee could not make any decision owing to the differences between the members belonging to the treasury and the opposition benches. The seventh JS in its first session appointed a special committee under Rule 266 to scrutinize every legislative bill. Thereby all the legislative proposals tabled in the House before appointing the standing committees were sent to the special committee for detailed scrutiny. As it is a mentioned earlier special committee in this parliament submitted reports scrutinizing the same number of bills. The eighth Parliament is an exception which did not appoint any special committee.

8. Implementation of the committee’s Report:

Government can play vital role for the smooth running of the committee system. Government should place factual reports and data before the committee for proper consideration and timely intervention. Government should pay due regard to the recommendations and observations made by the committees. Committee recommendations are strictly speaking not binding on government but they are undoubtedly entitled to great weight and consideration on the part of the government.

Among the three financial committees, the PUC is responsible to examine the reports and accounts of the public sector organizations specified in the Schedule IV of the Rules of Procedure. PUC can also examine any deficiency of the public undertakings, whether the affairs of the public undertakings are being managed in accordance with sound business principles and prudent commercial practices. The PAC closely scrutinizes the reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General and fortifies the Principal Accounting Officers against the temptation of financial irregularities. The PAC expresses its opinion thereon and records its findings and recommendations.

It should be mentioned here that the PUC is 84 not given authority to examine or investigate the following matters: major Government policy as distinct from business or commercial functions of public undertakings, and day-to-day administration. This committee cannot examine matters for the consideration of which any machinery is established by any special statute under which a particular public undertaking is established.

9. Women in the Jatiya Sangsad and the Committees:

To promote women’s participation in parliamentary politics, by constitutional provision 15 seats were reserved for women in the first JS in addition to the three hundred regular seats. It was increased to 30 in the Second JS and continued to be so until the seventh JS. The eighth JS increased reserved seats for women to 45 by the 14 constitutional amendments. It is observed that excluding the reserved seats no women were elected from the general seats in the first and the second JS. For the first time two women candidates were returned from the general seats in the third JS and their number increased to 9 in the Fourth JS. Between the fifth and the eighth JS the number of elected female MPs fluctuated from 5 to 7. Excluding the reserved seats number of women MPs elected from the general seats was low compared to their male colleagues. Most of them were elected from the general seats after the death of their husbands. The housewives who entered the political field with the patronization of their husbands or any other relative were mostly nominated for


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reserved women seats. They used their social links rather than personal political experience or activities. It has been observed that women contestants in electoral politics depended on men for money and support to get access to public political space.

The Bangladesh Constitution entrusts the law making power to the Jatiya Sangsad (JS). Article 65 (1) states: “there shall be a Parliament for Bangladesh in which subject to the provisions of this Constitution shall be vested the legislative power of the Republic.”

10. Recommendations:

Bangladesh started parliamentary democratic system in 1973 but the proclamation of martial law in 1975 and 1982 became a hurdle to the smooth development of the Parliamentary system in the country Though we started committee system in 1973 we are not able to perform satisfactorily. If we compare the committee system in India with ours, we can see how effectively they are working. Forming parliamentary committees alone will not ensure the democratic process. The committees need to function effectively and efficiently and government should provide proper support to these committees. The committee should work on a non-partisan attitude when it is in session. The decision of the committee should be unanimous for the healthy development of the parliamentary practices. All political parties should advise their representatives to work in the committees in a non-partisan manner. The present committees are suffering from different shortcomings. In order to make the committee system more effective following measures could be taken without further delay.

10.1. Status of Committee Chairpersons:

Committee chairpersons should be offered due status. Such status must be defined and specified. Without any status a Parliament Member as chairperson cannot influence any Minister.

10.2. Logistic Support:

The parliamentary committee should be given full logistic support in order to maintain the continuity and smooth operation of the committee system. At present the committee badly suffers from logistic support. Most of the committees have no proper accommodation as yet.

11. Conclusion:

Parliamentary committees are a constitutionally mandated system of facilitating law making and overseeing how the executive exercises its role according to the law. All political parties aspiring to be represented in the Parliaments must make a firm political pledge to make the Parliamentary Committee effective. They must be committed to the formation of all committees in first session, at least within three months thereof, the office of the Parliamentary ombudsman as provided in the constitution must be appointed without delay. MP who do not disclose and update their assets and liabilities, interests should be barred from becoming members of the parliamentary committees. Article 70 of the Constitution must be reviewed to ensure objectivity and integrity of the Parliamentary Practice. There should be a “Committee of committees” to undertake periodic evaluation of the performance of the Parliamentary Committees and their oversight functions. Most of the committees could not make any significant contribution in terms of investigation against corruption or other irregularities of different ministries under their Jurisdiction. In spite of many problems, Parliamentary Committee system is very significant of “Jatiya Sangsad (JS)”.

12. References:

1. Website Found, Banglapedia, National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh: Parliamentary Committee System.

2. Alam, Mohammed Shamsul, Samorik Shason O Rajnoitik Onnayaner Sonkot: Bangladesh Prosonga (Military and Crisis of Political Development: Bangladesh Perspective), Unpublished PhD thesis, Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh.

3. Yasmeen, Rakiba (2006), Sangsadiya Gonotrantra O Committee Babosata: 1972-2006

(Parliamentary Democracy and Committee System: 1972-2006), Dhaka: Mawla Brothers.


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4. Ahmed, Mostaq, Gonomadhomer Rajnoitik Orthonoti: Noya Totho Juge Pujibad ar Gonotrantra

(Political Economy of Mass Media: Capitalism and Democracy in New Information age), Dhaka: A H Development Publishing House, 2007.

5. Zafarullah H.; Akhter M.Y, (2000),"Non-Political Caretaker Administrations and Democratic

Elections in Bangladesh: An Assessment", Government and Opposition, Vol. 35, No.3, pp. 345-369.

6. K.M. Mahiuddin, Ph.D., The Parliamentary Committee System in Bangladesh An Analysis of its

Functioning, Department of Political Science, South Asia Institute, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, pp. 118.

7. Hassanuzaman , Al Masud and Hussain, Naseem A. (1998), “Women in the Legislature in Bangladesh”, Asian Studies , No.17, pp. 80.

8 Jahan, Rounaq (2005), “Dynastic Leadership of Political Parties, The Daily Star, 14th Anniversary Special, 21 Issue, January 14, 2005.

9. Webber, Robyn (2000), “Procedure Committee Reports on Community Involvement in Procedures and Practices of the House and its Committees”, The Table Vol. 68, pp. 37-39.

10. Khalequzzaman, M. (1999). ‘Committee system in Bangladesh Parliament’ in BJS, Parliamentary

Committee Systems, Parliament Secretariat, Dhaka. 11. The Government of Bangladesh (1998), the Constitution of the People Republic of Bangladesh, pp.

50.

12. Muylle, Koen J. (2003), “Improving the Effectiveness of Parliamentary Legislative Procedures”, Statute Law 1, Review, Vol. 24, No.3, pp.176.

13 Ulrich, Martin and Dobell, Peter C. (2002), “Building Better Relations: Parliamentary Committees and Government Departments”, Occasional Papers on Parliamentary Government 13, (May 2002): 1-13.

14. Tsebelis, George (1995), “Decision Making in Political Systems: Veto Players in Presidentialism,

Parliamentarism, Multicameralism and Multipartyism”, British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 25, pp. 289-325.

15. Sterling, Hon. and Norman W.(2000), “Recent Committee Reforms in Ontario”, Canadian

Parliamentary Review ,Vol. 23, No.2. 16. Ahmed, Syed Imtiaz (2006), “Civilian Supremacy in Democracies with ‘Fault Lines’: The Role of

the Parliamentary Standing Committee on Defense in Bangladesh”, Democratization , Vol. 13, No. 2, pp.291.

17. The Daily Star, 4 October 2000.

18. The Daily Star, March 2, 2005.

19. Schüttemeyer, Suzanne S. (2001), “Parliamentary Parties in the German Bundestag,” German Issues, Vol. 24.

20. Stroem, Kaare (1997), “Rules, Reasons and Routines: Legislative Roles in Parliamentary

Democracies”, Journal of Legislative Studies, Vol. 3, No.1 (Spring). 21. Nizam Ahmed, Parliamentary committees and parliamentary government in Bangladesh,


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Contemporary South Asia (2001), 10 (1), 11–36, Nizam Ahmed, Department of Public Administration, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, pp.102.

22. M. Mufazzalul Hoque, “Parliamentary Committees and Public Enterprise Accountability in Bangladesh (1973-75)”, Management Development, Vol. 20, 1991, pp. 43-44.

23. Ahmed Nizam (2001), “Parliamentary committees and parliamentary government in Bangladesh”, Contemporary South Asia, Vol.10 (1). pp. 104

24. K.M. Mahiuddin, Ph.D., The Parliamentary Committee System in Bangladesh An Analysis of its Functioning, Department of Political Science, South Asia Institute, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg, pp. 220.

25. Scully, Roger M. (1997): The European Parliament and the Co-Decision Procedure: A Reassessment. The Journal of Legislative Studies 3:3, pp. 58-73.

26. Ahmed, Emajuddin(1992), Bangaldesher Sangsadiya Gonotrantra: Prashongik Chinta- Bhabna ( parliamentary Democracy in Bnagladesh: Some Thaughts), Dhaka: karim Book Corporation. 27. BJ S (Bangladesh Jatiya Sangsad), Rules of Procedure of the Parliament of the People’s Republic

of Bangladesh (as corrected to September 1996) Dhaka: Parliament Secretariat 1997), pp 61-74

28. Mufazzalul Huq, ‘Parliamentary committees and public enterprise Accountability in Bangladesh’, Management Development, Vol. 20, 1991, pp. 40.

39. Huq, Abul Fazal (1988), Bangladesher Shasan Byabosthya O Rajniti (Political System of Bangladesh), Dhaka: Bangla Academy.

40. Khondakar Abdul Haque (1994), ‘Parliamentary committees in Bangladesh: structure and

functions’, Congressional Studies Journal, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 120.

41. Maniruzzaman Talukder (1992), ”The Fall of The Military dictator; Pacific Affairs, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp. 215.

42. Khan, M.M. (1995), ‘Legislatures in Bangladesh’, Asian Studies, Vol. 14, 1995.


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The Influence of Indian Epics on John Milton

H.L.Narayanrao, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan’s college, ( University of Mumbai)

Munshi Nagar, Andheri (w), Mumbai- 400058. India., [email protected]

Received: October 7th, 2011



Abstract

The study of Indian culture and traditions reveals that certainly there were people around the world who have inspired by the writings and ancient scripts of India. The epic is traditionally ascribed to Vyasa, who is also a major character in the epic. The first section of the Mahabharata states that it was Ganesha who, at the request of Vyasa, wrote down the text to Vyasa's dictation. Ganesha is said to have agreed to write it only on condition that Vyasa never pause in his recitation. Vyasa agreed, provided Ganesha took the time to understand what was said before writing it down as an Epic.

The Mahabharata (Sanskrit Mahābhārata, is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Ramayana. The epic is part of itihasa (history). Besides its epic narrative of the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kauravas and the Pandavas, the Mahabharata contains much philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four "goals of life" or purusharthas (12.161). The latter are enumerated asdharma (right action), artha (purpose), kama (pleasure), and moksha (liberation). Among the principal works and stories that are a part of the Mahabharata are the Bhagavad Gita.

Introduction

Similarly in English Literature, witness John Milton as an Epic writer. John Milton was born on 9 December 1608. He was passed away on 8 November 1674.He was an English poet, , and a civil servant for the Commonwealth of England. He is best known for his epic poem Paradise Lost and Paradise Regain.

John Milton was a scholarly man of letters, a writer, and an official serving under Oliver Cromwell. He wrote at a time of religious flux and political upheaval in England, and his poetry and prose reflect deep convictions and deal with contemporary issues, such as his treatise condemning licensing, Areopagitica. He wrote in Latin and Italian as well as in English, and had an international reputation during his lifetime. An epic poem in dactylic hexameters, traditionally attributed to Homer. The Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege, the earlier events, such as the gathering of warriors for the siege, the cause of the war and similar, tending to appear near the beginning, and the events prophesied for the future, such as Achilles' looming death and the sack of Troy, prefigured and alluded to more and more vividly approaching the end of the poem, making the poem tell a more or less complete tale of the Trojan War.

The Epic Paradise Lost


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John Milton’s magnum opus, the blank-verse epic poem Paradise Lost, was composed by the blindness and impoverished Milton from 1658 to 1664 through dictation given to a series of aides by his own daughters in writing the epic poems. It reflects his personal despair at the failure of the Revolution, yet affirms an ultimate optimism in human potential. Milton encoded many references to his unyielding support for the "Good Old Cause" by writing the reality of life. Like many Renaissance artists before him, Milton attempted to integrate Christian theology with classical modes. In his early poems, the poet narrator expresses a tension between vice and virtue, the latter invariably related to Protestantism. In Comus Milton may make ironic use of the Caroline court masque by elevating notions of purity and virtue over the conventions of court revelry and superstition.

John Milton called in the Aeropagitica for "the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties" (applied however, only to the conflicting Protestant sects, and not to atheists, Jews, Muslims or even Catholics). "Milton argued for disestablishment as the only effective way of achieving broad toleration. Rather than force a man's conscience, government should recognize the persuasive force of the gospel.

The Restoration of the Stuart monarchy in 1660 began a new phase in Milton's work. In Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes Milton mourns the end of the godly Commonwealth. The Garden of Eden may allegorically reflect Milton's view of England's recent Fall from Grace, while Samson's blindness and captivity – mirroring Milton's own lost sight – may be a metaphor for England's blind acceptance of Charles II as king. Illustrated by Paradise Lost is mortalism, the belief that the soul lies dormant after the body dies.

Despite the Restoration of the monarchy Milton did not lose his personal faith; Samson shows how the loss of national salvation did not necessarily preclude the salvation of the individual, while Paradise Regained expresses Milton's continuing belief in the promise of Christian salvation through Jesus Christ. Though he may have maintained his personal faith in spite of the defeats suffered by his cause, the Dictionary of National Biography recounts how he had been alienated from the Church of England by Archbishop William Laud, and then moved similarly from the Dissenters by their denunciation of religious tolerance in England. Milton had come to stand apart from all sects, though apparently finding the Quakers most congenial. He never went to any religious services in his later years. When a servant brought back accounts of sermons from nonconformist meetings, Milton became so sarcastic that the man at last gave up his place.

Johan Milton’s famous writings:

• 1631: L'Allegro; 1631: Il Penseroso; 1634: A Mask Presented at Ludlow Castle, 1634 commonly known as Comus (a masque); 1638: Lycidas; 1667: Paradise ;Lost; 1671: ParadiseRegained;1671: SamsonAgonistes; Adam, Eve, Cain, their first son, Abel, their second son,Adah, Cain's sister and wife

• Zillah, Abel's sister and wife, Lucifer, • Angel of the Lord.

Overview:

The play commences with Cain refusing to participate in his family's prayer of thanksgiving to God. Cain tells his father he has nothing to thank God for because he is fated to die. As Cain explains in an early soliloquy, he regards his mortality as an unjust punishment for Adam and Eve's transgression in the Garden of Eden, an event detailed in the Book of Genesis. Cain's anxiety over his mortality is heightened by the fact that he does not know what death is. At one point in Act I, he recalls keeping watch at night for the arrival of death, which he imagines to be an anthropomorphic entity. The character who supplies Cain with


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knowledge of death is Lucifer. In Act II, Lucifer leads Cain on a voyage to "The Abyss of Space" and shows him a catastrophic vision of the Earth's natural history, complete with spirits of extinct life forms like the mammoth. Cain returns to Earth in Act III, depressed by this vision of universal death. At the climax of the play, Cain murders Abel. The play concludes with Cain's banishment.

Impact of literary influences on John Milton:

Perhaps the most important literary influence on Cain was John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost, which tells of the creation and fall of mankind. For Byron as for many Romantic poets, the hero of Paradise Lost was Satan, and Cain is modeled in part on Milton's defiant protagonist. Furthermore, Cain's vision of the Earth's natural history in Act II is a parody of Adam's consolatory vision of the history of man (culminating in the coming and sacrifice of Christ) presented by the Archangel Michael In Books XI and XII of Milton's epic. In the "Preface" to Cain, Byron attempts to downplay the influence of poems "upon similar topics," but the way he refers to Paradise Lost suggests its formative influence: "Since I was twenty, I have never read Milton; but I had read him so frequently before, that this may make little difference."

The influence from the Mahabharata and the Ramayana can be seen vividly in the writings of the Renaissance period writers, a brother who becomes enemy of his own blood-brethren in order to gain the supremacy over other. The grudge between the brothers Pandavas and the Kauravas, Similarly in between the sons of Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel.

References: Badrinath, Chaturvedi. The Mahabharata : An Inquiry in the Human Condition, New Delhi, Orient Longman (2006). Pp.131-142. Bandyopadhyaya, Jayantanuja (2008). Class and Religion in Ancient India. Anthem Press.pp.33-48. Stephen Fallon, Milton Among the Philosophers (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991), p. 81. Blair Worden, Literature and Politics in Cromwellian England: John Milton, Andrew Marvell and Marchamont Nedham (2007), p. 154.


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Challenges in Elementary Education in India: Various Approaches

Ritimoni Bordoloi

School of Social Science, Krishna KatnaHandiqui State Open University

Pin 781006, Housefed Complex, Dispur

Mobile 9435748567 E-mail: [email protected]




Abstract

Education is a vital means for the potentialities of a human being to emerge in a positive direction so that a man can live in society with full of dignity and can mould the habits, tastes and character of individuals living in society by imparting knowledge and information. Therefore, in a democratic country like ours the government has felt the needs and importance of education and has an onerous responsibility to implement plans and programmes for democratization of education in the country. Now, education is constitutionally recognized as a birth right of the citizens of the country. So, to make education accessible to all has been a mission of the government and many targets like the Millennium Development Goal by 2015, India Vision by 2020, have been identified including that of Inclusive Growth by the government. It is appropriate for us now to assess and evaluate the progress and the prospect of the approaches which are being implemented for ensuring the universalization of elementary education in India.

Key words: Education, various approaches and its achievement

1. Introduction: Education is a life long process. Education makes people superior to other forms of living things. It develops the power for critical thinking and improves the power of rationality towards life. In fact, education makes people educated, acquaints them with some need- based skills and, finally, it develops in them certain level of efficiency in the performance of the work they do. Thus, education is a pre-requisite for the acquisition of knowledge, enhancing skills, developing attitudes and values etc. Therefore, as human beings, we need education because it provides us with knowledge and skills to lead a meaningful life. Actually, in today’s society there is an increasing demand for growing human capital and enhancement of manpower. Education creates the human capital for the benefit of the society or for the country as a whole. In this context, it is an urgent need to make education as accessible as possible to all the citizens of the country. By realizing the importance and value of education, the government of India has made education a fundamental right and it has become a birth right for every one living in the country. In a democratic country like ours, we have access to human rights guaranteed by the Constitution. Elementary education is a ladder, on the basis of which learners are able to attain secondary and higher education. Therefore, this stage of education is called a period of basic foundation for all other courses in life. In this unit, we are going to discuss why education is important, what the educational provisions in Indian Constitution are, and finally what are the challenges facing in the universalization of elementary education in India.

For an effective role of governance, the citizens or people, in particular, should be very conscious about their rights and duties constitutionally given to them. Education is a vital means to make people conscious of their duties and rights. To make the people educated and to promote the welfare of the society as a whole, it is imperative to make education available for all the people of the country.


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Objectives of the study: Keeping this picture in mind an attempt has been made:

• To study the relevance of education • To analyse the growth and applications of various approaches in ensuring the universalization of

elementary education • And finally, to examine or assess the progress and the various hurdles being faced in making

universalization of elementary education in India.

Methodology or Data Source: The paper is solely based on secondary information collected from different sources like books, journal articles, reports of various government organization and commission, articles published in national and local news papers etc.

2. Concept of Universalisation of Elementary Education:

Already it has been mentioned that primary or elementary education is the foundation of the entire educational system. Children normally enroll in elementary education at the age of six. It is this stage where the child starts going to a formal institution and thus the formal education starts. The education the child receives at the elementary stage lays down the foundation for his or her physical, mental, emotional, intellectual and social development. This stage of education should be linked with the functional literacy that makes the people literate with the application of practical knowledge, which is the basic requirement for economic development, modernization of social structure and effective functioning of democratic institutions. Therefore most of the educationally advanced countries of the world have made elementary education as one of the most important stages compared to other stages of education. It is imperative for our country in providing the free universal and compulsory elementary education to all the citizens without any kind of discriminations.

Education is considered the bedrock of all socio-economic developments of the country. In order to promote education to all children irrespective of caste, creed, religion, sex and others and also for realizing democratization of education as a birth right to all, the government of India has made several attempts from time to time to achieve the universalisation of education for all.

Universalisation of primary or elementary education basically involves three important things i.e. Universalisation of Provision, Universalisation of Enrolment and Universalisation of Retention. Universalisation of Provision means that school facilities should be provided to all the children between the age group of 6-14 years in the country. The school should be easily accessible within the walking distance of a child. Universalisation of Enrolment means that all children between the age group of 6 to 14 years must be enrolled. The provision has demanded to introduce the compulsory legislation act and under the legislation, parents can be finding for not sending their children to schools. Universalisation of Retention retains a child who joins the primary school where he or she should remain there till he or she completes all 8 classes.

In order to make education accessible to all, various provisions have been made under the Directive Principles and Fundamental Rights of the Constitution. While implementing provisions for the citizens, the responsibilities are shared by both the Centre and the State governments. India being a federal state, the relation between Union and States is of vital importance and both the Centre and the states are equally responsible for conducting a programme whether it is under the plan sector or non-plan sector in a state. Education is a subject where both the Centre and the States have the joint responsibility for running smoothly the education programmes in a state.

Whenever we are talking about the educational provisions in the Indian constitution, it has been seen that under the Directive Principles of State Policy in Article 45, states the following regarding the Free and Compulsory Primary Education: “The State shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.” It means that free and compulsory elementary education can be accessed by all children before they complete the age of fourteen, where the target period was only for 10 years.


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But after the Eighty Sixth the Amendment, 2002 (Article 21 A) of the Indian Constitution, education as a subject became one of the Fundamental Rights in PART III of the Indian Constitution from the Directive Principles of State Policy which is dealt with in PART IV of the Constitution. Thus education turns into a birth right for each and every citizen of the country. In our country the Right to Education Act came into the effect from 1st April 2010. The right to education is now a fundamental right for all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years. Thus, the government will be responsible for providing education to every child up to the eight standard, free of cost, irrespective of class and gender. It has paved the way for building a strong, literate and empowered youth of this country.

3. Various Approaches for Universalisation of Elementary Education

From the above discussion we have come to know about the constitutional provisions in “Article 45” and ‘Article 21 A’ and the subsequent legislative provisions made in India for expansion and improvement of elementary education in order to make education accessible to all, various approaches and schemes have been implemented by the Government. Let us discuss the measures adopted by the Government of India to provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14 years.

3.1 National Policy on Education In 1968

The Education Commission (1964 – 66) had recommended that the Government of India should issue a statement on the National Policy of education which should provide guidance to the State Governments and local authorities in preparing and implementing educational plans. Accordingly, the Government of India issued a Resolution on National Policy on Education in 1968. The NPE (1968) observes that “Strenuous efforts should be made for the early fulfillment of the Directive Principle under Article 45 of the Constitution seeking to provide free and compulsory education for all children up to the age of 14. Suitable programmes should be developed to reduce the prevailing wastage and stagnation in schools and to ensure that every child who is enrolled in schools successfully completes the prescribed course”

3.2 National Policy on Education In 1986

A variety of new challenges and social needs make it imperative for the Government of India to formulate and implement a new education policy for the country in 1986.The New Education Policy in 1986 emphasises on -

• Universal enrolment and universal retention of children up to 14 years of age.

• Substantial improvement in the quality of education.

• Systematic efforts to provide non-formal education to educate school dropouts, children from areas without school, working children who are unable to attend the school during daytime.

• Implementing “Operation Black Board” scheme to provide essential facilities in the school.

3.3 District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)

To evaluate the effectiveness of the New Education Policy 1986, a committee was appointed by the Government of India in 1990. A review of NPE, 1986 was conducted during 1990 – 1992. The Programme of Action, 1992 stressed the need of development of education in backward districts. Accordingly, the Government of India formulated the “District Primary Education Programe” (DPEP) scheme in 1993. DPEP is an effort to decentralise educational planning at the district level. It is planned in such a way that it suits the educational needs and demands of the district concerned. Initially district projects were prepared in 44 districts in eight states: Assam, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Gradually it was followed in 273 districts spreading over


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18 states. The objectives of DPEP were basically for:

• To provide access to all children of primary education (Class I to IV/V)

• To reduce dropout rates to less than 10 percent

• To increase learning achievement at primary level by 25 percent

• To reduce gender gaps and differences in Social group to less than 5 percent.

DPEP was different from earlier schemes in several ways:

• DPEP adopted a holistic approach with emphasis on convergence of existing programmes and resources.

• It adopted area specific approach with district as the unit for planning and implementation.

• Plans were prepared at the district level through a participatory process involving district and sub district functionaries, teachers, parents and community members.

• Equity was a major concern of DPEP.

• Capacity building through training extension and other means was given priority.

• DPEP resources were additional to the existing budgetary provision for education.

3.4 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Its Attempt

Education for children of the age group of 6-14 years has become a fundamental right after the 86th

Constitutional Amendment in 2002. The Sarva Siksha Abhiyan has been designed by the Government of India as a scheme to provide elementary education to all the children of the age group 6-14 years. Now after being acquainted with the concept of universalisation of elementary education, our attentions are going to focus on the Government’s efforts to achieve the universal retention. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is one of the comprehensive approaches or missions of the government which was introduced in India 2001. As a holistic and convergent approach, SSA covers all the States and Districts of our country, where the main attempt is to provide an opportunity to all the children in the age group of 6-14 irrespective of caste, creed, sex and religion by 2010, for improving their capabilities through the provision of community-owned quality education. The basic motto of SSA is to reduce dropout, capture all the students of the target group with the aim of providing improved scholastic and co-scholastic environment. SSA also aims at setting the umbrella for children for turning them into respectable citizens capable of constructive contribution towards a better society in the field of science, technology, literature, administration and so on. It has also some efforts to decentralize the whole process of curriculum development from the grass root level to the district and the State level. Child-centred and activity-based learning has been attempted. Learning by doing, learning by observation, work experience, art, music, sports and value education have been made an integral part of the learning process. Appropriate changes have been made in the evaluation system, where the performance of children has to be constantly monitored in consultation with parents. As a mission approach, the main objectives of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan include:

• All Children in School, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternative School, Back to School camp by 2003

• All children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007

• All children complete eight years of elementary schooling by 2010

• Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with emphasis on education for life.

• Bridge all gender and social category gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary level by 2010.

• Universal retention by 2010.

Today, like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), the Department of School Education and Literacy of the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), the Government of India has also made an attempt


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in the process of launching Rastriya Madhyamic Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) with an aim to achieve Universal Access and Quality Secondary Education.

3.5 National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level

It is being implemented in educationally backward blocks, where the percentage of enrolment of girls are comparatively poor than the national average and the gender gap is more than the national average. About 3286 educationally backward blocks are covered under the scheme in 25 states.

3.6 National Programme of Mid Day Meals in School

The programme provides a mid day meal of 450 calories and 12 grams of protein to children at the primary stage and later it is extended to the elementary level. During 2009-10, about 11 crore children were benefitted by the scheme.

3.7 Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya

It was launched in July 2004 for setting up residential school at upper level for girls belonging predominately to SC, ST, OBC and other minority communities.

3.8 Thrust for Female Literacy (Saakshar Bharat)

The National Literacy Mission has been launched recently as Saakshar Bharat in which at least 7crore non-literates will be made literate to achieve 80% literacy and to reduce gender disparity in literacy from 21% to 10%. 365 districts in the country, with adult female literacy rate of 50% or less, have been identified for the implementation of Saakshar Bharat.

4. Challenges taken into account:

After going through the various approaches of the Government in making universalization of elementary education let us have a look at the progress of the education system and also highlight on the various problems considering as hurdles in making the universalization of elementary education in India.

• In terms of literacy India has 74.4% literacy rate in Census 2011 whereas it was 18.33 in the Census Year of 1951.(Note 1)

• The Number of schools has significantly increased. In the year of 1950-51 the number of schools was 0.23 million which increased to 1.28 million in the year of 2005-06.

• The Gross Enrolment Ratio in elementary education increased to 96.62% in the year of 2005-06 whereas it was 32.1% in 1950-51.

• The gender gap in the literacy rate is slowly decreasing. In 1950-51, the Gender Parity Index at elementary level was 0.38 whereas it was 0.92 in the year of 2005-06.

• In India, 99% of the rural population had a primary school within 1km in 2009-10. • In 2007-08, Gross Enrolment Ratio in 6 -14 age group was 114.61 at primary level and77.50 at

elementary level. • The Pupil Teacher Ratio is 46:1 at primary level and 35:1 at elementary level and 10.22 lakh teachers

were recruited by December 2009. • 29.57 lakh children were identified as special children and from the among them 24.77 lakh children

enrolled in school by 2009-10. • 11.19 crore children were covered by the National Programme of Mid-day Meals in 2009-10 at

elementary level.

Although the target in accessing the elementary education to all is in progress yet the success rate is far from reaching the target. The objectives of Srava Shiksha Abhiyan regarding all children complete five years of primary schooling by 2007and eight years of elementary schooling by 2010 have not seen come


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into reality. Still there are a significant number of drop outs at the elementary level. The following factors are cited as responsible for hindering the desired success rate.

• The rate of drop out has been found at primary level was 24.93% whereas it was42.25% at elementary level in the year of 2008-09.

• Shortage of trained teachers will be one of the major challenges in implementing the Act. There are over 12.6 lakh vacancies of teachers a cross the country. Besides, 7.72 lakh untrained teachers constituted 40% of the total number of teachers in 1.29 million recognized elementary schools in the year 2010.

• 53% schools followed prescribed norms regarding the Pupil Teacher Ratio i.e.1:30 under the Act in the year 2010.

• Separate arrangement of toilets for the boys and the girls is an important component for motivating the children in the school. But still in India 46% schools do not have such facilities and as a result some parents are not willing to send their children to schools.

• National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) conducted a base line survey all over the country and published its report entitled ‘Learning Achievement of Class V Students: A Baseline Study’ in 2006. This study tried to measure learning achievement of the class 5 students across the country. Three subjects like Environmental Science (EVS), mathematics and language were chosen for the baseline study. In all India average, the mean percentage of the achievement of Class V Students in the three subjects i.e. EVS, mathematics and Language was 50.30, 46.51 and 58.57 respectively.

• Many other challenges also create hurdle in making the universalization of elementary education. Parents in the low income group have the willingness to send their children to work for adding to the family income rather than to school. Early marriages, migration of people for the sustenance, preferential attitude to the boys than the girls, taking care of the siblings at home, lack of infrastructure in schools, requirements of additional schools, single teacher school and finances are some other responsible factors for hindering the universalization of elementary education in India.

• Weak administrative policy is also responsible for wastage at the elementary level. In school the prescribed rules are not always strictly followed. Admission in school continues throughout the year. A large number of students leave schools in the middle of the session. Teachers remain absent from duty without prior information. The number of supervisors is inadequate and supervision work irregular and loose.

• Training is considered one of the most important interventions for smooth running of the education system and it can help realize the universalization of elementary education. The actual implementation in terms of training the teachers varies from state to state and region to region within the country. Even the recruitment procedure is also not uniform across the country.

Thus it is a right time for the government to take the action for removing these barriers in order to achieve the democratization of education. Besides we are heading towards the target year of Millennium Development Goals, where accessibility of education to all is a major concerned. But thing is that the education must be cater the needs of the learners that can produce the functional literate and enhance the life skills of the learners. The government is responsible for providing education to every child up to the eight standard, free of cost, irrespective of class and gender. It has paved the way for building a strong, literate and empowered youth of this country.

References:

Afridi,F.(2005),“Midday Meals in Two States”, Economic and Political Weekly, April 9 Vol XL No. 15

Choudhury, A.(2006),“Revisiting Dropouts, Old Issues, Fresh Perspective” Economic and Political Weekly, Dec.23 Vol.XLI No.51

Colcough, C.(1982),“The impact of Primary School on Economic Development, A review of Evidence”, World Development, 10(3), pp. 85-94

Das, A.(2007),“How Far Have we Come In SarvaShikshaAbhiyan”, Economic and Political Weekly, January 6. Vol. XLII, No.1


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Mehrotra,Santoshetal (2005),“Universalising Elementary Education in India: Uncaging the ‘Tiger’ Economy”, Oxford University Press, New Delhi

Majumdar, Manabi (1999),“Exclusion in Education: Indian States in Comparative Perspective”,in Barbara Harriss-White and S.Subramanian (eds), Illfare in India, Sage Publications. New Delhi

Mehrotra, Santosh (2004),“Reforming Public Spending in Education and Mobilising Resources, Lessons from International Experience”, Economic and Political Weekly, Feb. 28

Rani, P. Geetha (2006),“Challenges of Achieving and Financing Universal Elementary Education in India, the Case of SSA”, Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, Vol. XX No.4, October.

Ramachandran, Vimala (2003),“Getting Children Back to School, Case Studies in Primary Education”, Sage Publications, New Delhi

Singh,B.S.(2004),“Future of Midday Meal”, Economic and Political Weekly, Feb 28.

Singh,Raman P(2007),“Elementary Education and Literacy in India”, Yojana, September, Vol.51

Singh, Gurmeet (2010),“Progress of Human Development in the Changing Scenario”, Kurukshetra, A Journal of Rural Development, Vol 58, No 11

Tilak, JandhyalaBG (2004),“Education in the UPA government Common Minimum Programme”, Economic and Political Weekly, October 23

Report from the Centre:

Seventh All India School Education Survey, Schooling Facilities in Rural Area, 2007, NCERT Publications.

MHRD Report, Government of India

Note1: The following points illustrate the success so far achieved in universalization of elementary education in India.

1. The Following table shows the rate of literacy in India from the Census of 1951 to 2011.

Table 1: Percentage of literacy rate in India

Census Year Persons Males Females Male-Female literacy gap

1951 18.33 27.16 8.86 18.30

1961 28.30 40.40 15.35 25.05

1971 34.45 45.96 21.97 23.98

1981 43.57 56.38 29.76 26.62

1991 52.21 64.13 39.29 24.84

2001 65.38 75.85 54.16 21.70

2011 74.4 82.14 65.46 16.68

Source: Census of India 2011

From the table it has been seen that only 18 people out of 100 were literate in 1951. It has taken another 60 years for literacy to increase from a meager 18% to 74.4%. Female literacy has increased from a very low of 8.9% in 1951 to 65.46 in 2011 where the female literacy is increasing by eight times while male literacy is increased by three times from the Census of 1951 to 2011.


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Influence of High Impact Teaching Skills on the Teaching - Learning Process in Engineering Education

JAYAPRAKASH JALA

Academic Staff College, VIT University, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, Tel: +919600299184

Email: [email protected]

ADITHAN MUNIRATHNAM

Academic Staff College, VIT University,

Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India

Tel: +91-416-2202481 email id : [email protected]




Abstract Teaching in higher education institutions is becoming more and more critical and intricate with each new generation of students entering the portals of higher education. Academic Staff College at VIT University, from time to time, has been organizing a range of training programmes and faculty empowerment workshops for its faculty, newly recruited and faculty who are already serving. During the training sessions, it has been observed that there are some specific soft skills desired to be possessed by engineering teachers, in addition to their disciplinary knowledge and subject matter expertise. These skills are: creating a positive impression, simplifying complex information, use of analogies, communicating with greater impact, responding to difficult class room situations and inspiring peers and students to embrace change. In addition, generic communication skills such as use of appropriate body language and gestures, confidence, presentation of information in a logical and methodical manner, showing empathy and concern and listening skills are also required for engineering teachers. The authors have designed and implemented a model in a training environment to impart these soft skills and training in a comprehensive manner. The training methodology adopted, analysis of the observations made, the key learnings and the challenges that lie ahead for the successful development of soft skills amongst the engineering educators and teacher trainers are presented in this paper.

Keywords: engineering education, training, soft skills, communication skills, using analogies, class room situations, inspiring to embrace change.

1.0 Introduction

For engineering educators and teachers, there exists, just like technical skills or “hard” skills, a corresponding set of “soft” skills. These soft skills are a collection of methods and techniques by which an engineering teacher can influence the behaviour of his students in a way that enhances his enlightened self-interest. Soft skills enable the building of alliances with the learners with the appropriate amount of trust. Barry Blesser (2009) cites that soft skills reveal the degree to which points of discussion align or conflict. In management education, negotiation techniques are considered as soft skills. Similarly, in human resources management, conflict resolution is a soft skill. For supervisors and shop mangers motivating co-workers is a soft skill. Soft skills enable us to function at highest level when dealing with people and organizations. Effective leaders have a tool box of soft skills that induces others who want to follow them. With inadequate soft skills, hard skills (or) technical skills are rarely


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sufficient by themselves to produce professional success. The most productive professionals have an equal balance of hard and soft skills.

Engineering teachers are expected to interact with many people, students, faculty colleagues, doctoral guides, mentors, members of industry groups and society at large. Their interaction is primarily, in the initial stages of their career, with students groups, but to build professional competencies, to raise to higher level positions in the University environment, and for interactions with people in complex groups soft skills are a must. Generally it is found that engineers and engineering educators avoid situations requiring such soft skills.

2.0 Training Sessions and Modules:

Academic Staff College of VIT University organized many Faculty Empowerment Workshops titled “High Impact Teaching Skills”. About 250 faculty members from engineering disciplines have undergone the training programmes offered through several workshops. The training programme duration is 2 days (four half-day sessions; 16 hours of training) and the batch size is about 30. The participants were faculty members drawn from different schools of engineering of the University.

The Training Programme involves 5 modules with the titles: Creating a Positive Impression, Simplifying Complex Information, Communicating with Greater Impact, Responding to Difficult Classroom Situations, and Inspiring Peers and Students to Embrace Change.

The modules of High Impact Teaching Skills are essentially to improve the soft skills of the faculty rather than the hard skills of their disciplinary or technical skills. Often the performance of the participants is inter related with the motivation level of the individual and the extent of response of the listeners. It is not easy to measure the outcome of softskills training since it varies depending on many relevant factors.

An individual’s mastery or proficiency in a skill is critical to successful training transfer. . (Laker & Powell 2011) Because of many complexities, the hard-skill trainee is more likely to leave the training setting with a greater degree of proficiency or mastery than an individual who has received some soft-skill training. Hard skills and soft skills are not mutually exclusive but complement each other (Blesser 2009). In combination hard skills and soft skills are infinitely mere productive than either alone. Soft skills never become obsolete. People remain people.

Each training module is designed as a half-day small group presentation. Each faculty gives a presentation. The presentations were video graphed. Oral feedback was obtained from other faculty members from the peer group. Trainer has made his own observations on the Proforma developed (Appendix 1). The video was re-played and one-to-one feedback was given to the individual faculty. An analysis of the soft skills training programme we conducted is presented here. Certain parameters have been chosen to ensure that this training would enhance the stage/public presence of the teacher in the class room. The training sessions are explained as follows:

3.0 The Modules

3.1 Training Session 1: Creating a Positive Impression through Managing Oneself:

According to management expert Peter (Drucker 1999) we will have to learn to take responsibility for managing ourselves. Perhaps, this is probably a much bigger responsibility than managing any technological change, a change in the human condition. Nobody teaches it, neither in the school, nor in the college. We will have to learn where we belong, what our strengths are, what we have to know so that we get the full benefit from it, where our weaknesses are, what we are good at, where we do not belong, what our values are. We build on the strengths we are bestowed with. Social skills in addition to English speaking skill are important as engineers are becoming more and more global citizens in the context of economic globalization. (Hilmer 2007) has identified social skills in addition to soft skills as an important training concept in engineering education. Teachers have to play a positive role in the class room environment. We have to build our power and capacity to influence the students to learn. We have to energize ourself, create a positive impression in the class. Class room is one such place where our full potential is to be realized and brought out.

The emphasis of this session is on providing the faculty with different inputs to help him in the process of finding out his own potential and to enable him to create a positive impression about himself in the class amongst his


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learners. This positive impression needs to be created not just on the first day of the semester, but on everyday the faculty engages the class.

The objective of the module is to help faculty members to establish a positive first impression and carefully communicate towards claiming enhanced credibility as faculty members in playing multiple roles as teachers and role models (Appendix 2). Another objective is to help the faculty in developing a better rapport with the listeners while projecting professionalism and competencies.

An understanding begins in the mind of the listener as soon as the faculty begins the conversation/presentation. It is our approach towards the conversation and interaction, that leaves an impression on the mind of the listener and he would choose how to listen based on the understanding and impression he would receive from the speaker.

3.2 Training Session 2: Simplifying Complex Information

The objective of the module is to help faculty members to present complex information in a simple and effective manner. Innovation in thought process is required to put across complex information in a simple and understandable way. This module provides the teachers with an opportunity to express the complex engineering concepts and ideas using analogies in an effective manner. The faculty need to know how to simplify and communicate complex information in an interesting manner. Relating to audience at their level and following a logical progression of ideas are the essential elements of this module. Developing an emotional contact with the learners is also equally important in this context when complex engineering concepts are presented and discussed.

3.3 Training Session 3: Communicating with Greater Impact

Well known communication expert Paul Watzlawick once made the statement: “It is not possible, not to communicate” (Hillmer 2007) but, what is important is whether such communication is effective and does it make an impact on the listener. The 21st century is characterized by a very high pace in communication, through many technological developments and gadgets and almost unlimited possibilities in conveying the information. It is, therefore, important to ensure not only the acceptance but even more so the interpretation of ideas communicated. Some elements of public speech are introduced to the engineering teachers, viz. introduction of the idea followed by proper building up of the idea, with the right sequencing and offering tips on how to obtain a higher performance and greater impact in the class room instructions. We may mention here that engineering faculty are not that much good in public communication. But, they are required to communicate when they take up socially relevant projects and engage in activities related to service to society, which an university is expected to perform. Also, effectiveness of classroom instructions are very often dependent on the art of correct presentation.

The objective of this module is to help faculty members develop overall communication abilities through the use of facial expressions, body language, gestures and voice modulation. (Mehrabian 1972) has opined that 93% of communication happens through non-verbal communication. Demonstrating ownership of unfamiliar material and present a written material in a captivating manner to a varied set of audience as the situation demands is another skill which this module aims at. Faculty members have difficulty in presenting the materials written by others due to barriers in communication that restrict their flexibility. Usually faculty members don’t relish the idea of presenting or reading other’s written material, but certain academic situations and circumstances call for such a skill.

A faculty member’s ability to speak with modulation makes the difference in the way content is received by the learners. The faculty members need to stress certain words to articulate their voice and tone.

This module also helps the faculty members to develop and maintain professional composure under pressure or when they are stressed. It is often found that engineering educators tend to avoid facing conflicting and difficult class room situations.

The ability of a faculty member to communicate clear, concise and positive message is essential for an intellectual connect and personal bonding between the facilitator and the learner. Engage the audience with the ideas and the subject is the essence of this module. This session helps faculty to communicate with competence and confidence. This module also assists in enhancing faculty skills to handle stressful situations. Faculty trainers share some of their difficult and stressful class room situations and how they have responded to it instead of reacting to it.


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3.4 Training Session 4: Responding to Difficult classroom situations.

Difficult classroom situations which faculty members face should be considered as opportunities and these are to be dealt with in a constructive way. In this session, the faculty realizes his potential strengths and weaknesses in dealing with difficult classroom situations.

The objective of this module is to help faculty members develop and maintain professional composure under pressure or when they are stressed. It is often found that engineering educators tend to avoid facing conflicting and difficult class room situations.

The ability of a faculty member to communicate clear, concise and positive message is essential for an intellectual connect and personal bonding between the facilitator and the learner. Engage the audience with the ideas and the subject is the essence of this module. This session helps faculty to communicate with composure, competence and confidence. This module also assists in enhancing faculty skills to handle stressful situations. Faculty trainees share some of their difficult and stressful class room situations and how they have responded to it instead of reacting to it.

3.5 Training Session 5: Inspiring Peers and Students to Embrace Change.

In this session, the emphasis is on highlighting certain aspects of presentation so that the ideas are conveyed in a convincing way. Every teacher is confronted daily with communicative situations with his students, staff, colleagues, research guides and professors, but also friends and family members. The success of a teacher, especially, engineering teacher is therefore strongly linked to his communication abilities and how he inspires his friends, colleagues and students. The building blocks for effective communication in this context are active listening, use of appropriate verbal and non-verbal communication and ability to convince other people after listening to them and considering their views. At times, engineering educators are expected to manage difficult situations, maintaining composure and talk to concerned people inspiring them to adopt a change. This appeal needs to be both logical and emotional. They may also have to hear diverse viewpoints from others.

The objective of this module is to help faculty members develop the ability to logically and emotionally appeal to the audience. This module also stresses the need for presenting information in a logical structure so as to gain the confidence of the audience. There is a need for faculty to sound convincing while they strive to provide evidence to support their arguments for adopting a change.

4.0 The Role of the Trainer

In this kind of training, the trainer’s role is not limited to delivering the contents of the training sessions in an understandable manner. He has to show examples and demonstrate how to display these skills and at the same time be able to motivate the faculty enough towards consciously practicing these skills acquired in the training when they go back to work in a classroom set up.

During the training sessions relevant inputs and practical tips are provided by the trainers viz the authors, and the group feedback obtained first regarding positive aspects and, later on aspects for which there is scope for improvement. Video recording and playing of the video is done for each presentation by the faculty. After viewing the video, trainer first asks the faculty to give his own opinion/feedback and later offers his comments and aspects that needs to be improved. The proforma filled in at the time of presentation also serves as a basis; the trainer completes the evaluation while observing the video replay. Sample Proforma’s filled in is shown in Appendix 1.

High level of motivation is required on the part of the trainer as well so as to enthuse the faculty to strive for better performance in the class room. A significant reason why the impact does not get transferred is that the new methodology would take additional efforts when compared to their earlier practices. How one handles his communication with others has the influence of other factors like time of the day, psychological state of the faculty, his energy and interest levels and motivation of the learners. Sustained and conscious efforts by the


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faculty will enhance his effectiveness in the class room. In many aspects of daily work and life of the engineering teacher these soft skill components will generate positive results.

5.0 Key Learnings and Challenges

Key learnings and challenges in soft skills training are presented below:

Module Key Learnings Challenges

Module-1

Creating Positive First Impression

Establishing a positive impression

First Impression is the best impression

Establishes credibility and good rapport with the listeners

Is there excitement in the way of communication

Is the energy level sufficient

Module-2

Simplifying complex information

Appropriate use of Analogies and examples help in this task

Use of appropriate analogy to drive home the particular idea/ concept.

Developing a bank of analogies on different topics in the concerned subject

Module-3

Communicating with greater Impact

Emphasis on the change of voice, modulation, facial expressions and gestures matching the

contents, pace and delivery

Are facial expressions, gestures and voice modulation appropriate and congruent

Has the rapport with audience been established

Module-4

Responding to difficult classroom situations

Importance of active listening

Expressing disagreement in a non-emotional manner, maintaining composure and

confidence

Ability to maintain composure in difficult situations

Is confidence level sufficient

Module-5

Inspiring peers and students to embrace change

How to speak in a motivating and logical manner with inspiring tone and voice

modulation convincing audience to seek change

Is the argument logical and methodical

Is the appeal emotional enough to convince the audience, in addition to

being logical and methodical

6.0 Conclusion:

More than 250 faculty members have been benefitted through this training concept developed, implemented and reported here. The discussions with the engineering faculty, students, their feedback and also their end-semester course evaluations give a clear indication that the acceptance of these training methodologies is generally high.

For the present day engineering teachers soft skills were rarely taught in their college studies. Many faculty members appreciated the training concept, and the methodology adopted and recognized the holistic approach adopted in the training of faculty. They value the contribution of this concept as an important component in engineering education and in the training of engineering faculty and engineering educators. The faculty members also reported that they found these soft skills extremely useful in their personal and social life as well. Unlike hard skills soft skills are readily transferrable from one context to another.

References

Blesser Bary (2009), Soft skills Predict Professional Success, www.blesser.net (2009), pp 1 – 3.

Dennis R. Laker & Jimmy L. Powell (2011), The Difference between Hard and Soft skills and their relative impact on Training Transfer, HRD Quarterly Vol. 22, No.1, Spring 2011(wileyonlinelibrary.com) pp 111-122.

Drucker P.F (1999). Management Challenges for the 21st Century, HarperCollins, Publishers, Inc., U.S.A., pp 167.


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Hillmer G. (2007) Social and Soft Skills Training Concept in Engineering Education, International Conference on Engineering Education, ICEE, September 3–7, 2007, Coimbra, Portugal, pp 1-5.

Mehrabian A. (1972), Nonverbal Communication. Aldine-Atherton, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A.

Adithan M & Jayaprakash J. “Mission 10X: A New Path to Quality Academics, Tales of Transformation 1.0 Wipro Technologies, September 2010, pp 1.

Dale Carnegie Training, (2010) Mission 10X WIPRO, High Impact Teaching Skills, Participants Manual Hauppauge, NY, USA.

Appendix 1

High Impact Teaching Skills Evaluation Proforma

Name of the Faculty Trainee_______________________________________________ Designation___________________________School______________________________

S. No Average Above

Average

Good Very

Good

Excellent

Module- Creating Positive First Impression

1 Is the faculty member establishing eye-contact with

the audience

.

. . . .

2 Is there excitement in the way of communication? . . . . .

3 Is the energy level sufficient? (Audibility) . . . . .

4 Is he/she exhibiting confidence? . . . . .

5 Is the message being presented in an organized

manner with proper opening and closing? . . . . .

Module- Simplifying Complex Information

6 Are different thoughts well connected through

maintaining a flow? . . . . .

7 “Connecting the known to unknown” has this been

brought out well? . . . . .

8 Is the analogy effective and self interpretable to the

learner? . . . . .

9 Is the presentation methodical and followed a logical

sequence? . . . . .

10 Is he/she open to new ideas and flexible in thought? . . . . .

Module- III Communicating with greater impact?

11 Are the gestures matching with the message? . . . . .

12 Are the postures appropriate? . . . . .

13 Are the facial expressions appropriate? . . . . .

14 Is the voice modulation effective? . . . . .


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15 Is the language smooth and fluent? . . . . .

Module-IV Responding to difficult classroom situations?

16 Is the faculty member responding or reacting? . . . . .

17 Is the facial expression pleasant while at stress? . . . . .

18 Is the way of communication encouraging interaction? . . . . .

19 Are there sympathy, empathy and concern for others

in the approach? . . . . .

20 Has the difficult situation in the classroom explained

properly?

. . . . .

Module- Inspiring Peers and Students to Embrace Change

21 Is the faculty member clearly explaining the situation

which calls for a change?

. . . . .

22 Is the faculty member a good listener? . . . . .

23 How is the confidence level exhibited while seeking

support for a change?

. . . . .

24 Is the faculty member likely to win the trust and

argument convincingly? . . . . .

25 Is the appeal for change logical and emotional? . . . . .


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Euphoric Aura In ‘Under the Net’

A.S.Phani Kumari

PVP Siddhartha Institute of Technology Kanuru – Vijayawada– Andhra Pradesh, India

Email:[email protected]




Abstract

19th century is a remarkable century in the history of literary renaissance. Many philosophers have enlightened the people with their intellectual thoughts and by them many theories have been instigated. But women have taken a little part in this revival and the world has been waiting for the women philosophers. At that time a woman with her ‘contingent theory’ has entered the literary world silently and proved herself as a potent philosopher. The woman is Iris Murdoch who has given a great entry with her first novel “Under the Net”. This paper tells the narrative skill of Iris Murdoch and her contingent theory. Though the author has felt it is her immature novel, it is praised by many intellectuals. This paper elucidates the concept of ‘love’, and the difference between ‘truth’ and ‘real’

1. Introduction

A juvenile and immature novel, commented by its author Iris Murdoch, ‘Under the Net’ is a picaresque philosophical work bearing new moral concepts and principles. Through James Donaghue’s (also known as Jake) character Murdoch tries to describe her own identity which leads to a master theory ‘contingency’. Contingency is a not a new theory. It has been used by plenteous philosophers in different situations with different approaches. Contingency was applied in the form, plot and incidents of the novel and made it a great existential novel. “Indeed the whole novel may be taken as a gigantic image of concreteness and contingency” (Roxman, Contingency and he Image of the net 67). Contingency is set down in places of London. In Jake’s view he wants reason and he hates contingency. “There are some parts in London which are necessary and others are contingent. Everywhere West Earls Court is contingent, except for a few places long the river. I hate contingency. I want everything in my life to have a sufficient reason.” (26)

2. Portrayal of Characters and Theme

The Protagonist Jake reflects the views of Murdoch who has told the nature of reality which is always under the net. The title Under the Net replicates many aspects like truth, moral values, ideal thoughts, real situations, individual respect, hypocrisy, happiness etc. According to Cheryl K. Bove (1), Jake is a feckless, failed artist and picaresque hero with little bit laziness translates French novels especially Jean Pierre Breteuil’s novels into English.

The novel starts with the protagonist Jake’s narration about his journey from France to England, about his distant cousin Peter O’Finney who is always called Finn. Finn, a modest and shy person, who always follows the commands of Jake, announces that they have to search for shelter because Jake’s girl friend Magdelen throws them out from her house. They have been living in her house for 18 months for free of rent. As she is going to marry Samuel Starfield (Sacred Sammy), the diamond book maker, she wants Jake’s fourth floor to give to her fiancé immediately. So Jake has left his radiogram and some of his belongings at her apartment and suggests Finn to go to his friend Dave Gellman’s flat. Then Jake goes to


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Mrs. Tinkham who has a newspaper shop in the neighborhood of Chorlette Street. She is a kind person and never tells the secrets of her customers to anyone. Even some customers are infuriated by her cryptic nature. One of her customers has once tried to get some information and gets irritated by her surreptitious behaviour, shouts “You are pathologically discreet”. (18)

The clear perception of ‘truth’ is evidently illustrated in the attitudes of Jake, Magdelen, Finn and Mrs. Tinkham. Take the attitude of Magde, she loves Jake and doesn’t want to marry Sammy. As Jake doesn’t pay any attention on her, she decides to marry Samy. Though Jake likes Magde, but doesn’t want to marry her and doesn’t want to leave her house either. Finn is a silent person, never reveals his true thoughts. According to Wittgenstein: "The aspects of things that are most important for us are hidden because of their simplicity and familiarity. (One is unable to notice something - because it is always before one's eyes) The real foundations of his enquiry do not strike a man at all. Unless THAT fact has at some time struck him. And this means: we fail to be struck by what, once seen, is most striking and most powerful." (Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann (Logical atomist) 1889-1951). Here I feel that Jake is unable to succeed in his relation with others and considers people unreal. But Murdoch opines that it is important for everyone to respect the contingency of other people. Jake cannot take decisions by his own and is provoked by others. Though he knows Magde well but cannot understand her mind or even doesn’t try to recognize the change in her appearance. His inattentiveness drives her to take an immediate action of marrying Sammy. Her engagement with Sammy neither gives happiness nor grievance to Jake. So her decision is not a betrayal but common human mentality and a natural consequence. The wavering mind and indecisiveness nature of Jake make him do picaresque events in his life and force him to go from one place to other place and meet people. Jake doesn’t know what decision he has to take even in complex and essential situations.

In Mrs. Tinkham’s shop he has checked all his manuscripts and he finds one script is missing. It is the translation of Jean-Pierre Breteuil’s mediocre novel Le Rossignol de Bois. From Tinkham’s shop, Jake goes to his philosopher friend Dave’s flat, where he observes a crowd of young men talking at once and drinking cups of tea. Dave invites him with a dignified manner but he doesn’t agree to share his flat with him. Finn again suggests him to take help from Anna Quentine, a singer to whom Jake once fell in love. While searching for Anna’s address, Jake recollects the memories of Anna, whom he adores very much. Generally Jake likes the qualities like “guileless, profound, confident and trustful” (31) in women which are described in the novels of James and Conrad. The women he has known are often inexperienced, inarticulate, credulous and simple and he calls them ‘deep’. Though he believes Anna is a ‘deep’, he loves her because of her mystifying and immeasurable nature. Here with her nature Anna also represents the hidden truth. In Jake’s opinion Anna is true and real and her sister Sadie is facetious and unreal.

Anna’s sister Sadie is a film artist with brilliant display and dazzling charm, works for Bounty Bellfounder Company. Jake hasn’t met Anna for many years. She lives in a small flat at Bayswater Road. He wants to marry Anna, but he knows that Anna never accepts his proposal. To Anna marriage is a communion of souls, but to Jake marriage is an idea of reason, a concept which may regulate but not constitute his life. So he drops his idea to marry her and he has parted away from her. Now he is searching for Anna for help. He has got her address at Riverside Miming Theatre, on Hammersmith Mall, and surprises when he spots her in a prop room. She has given up her singing and tells Jake that singing is not a pure art whereas mime is pure art and theatre is an unadulterated place. When Jake asks her about shelter, she directs him to her sister Sadie.

Jake meets Sadie at Mayfair hairdresser. Sadie is happy and delighted when she sees Jake after a long time and requests him to stay at her flat and save her from a mad lover Hugo Belfounder, a fireworks manufacturer and a film studio owner who forces her to love him and pesters her on telephone. Jake is surprised on listening to this weird news because he knows Hugo very well and he is his close former friend. Here the real plot comes with the introduction of Hugo Belfounder as Jake says, “As my acquaintance with Hugo is the central theme of this book, there was little point anticipating it” (60). Jake recollects the moments he has spent with Hugo and tells that his parents are Germans. Bellfounder is not their original name. His father has adopted ‘Bellfounder’ to their original names and started an armament business with a partner and has given the name Bellfounder-Baermann, Small-arms Ltd. to their company. When Hugo has become heir to this company, he has renovated the armament factory into a rocket factory


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and become successful and prosperous business man like his father. But he is always simple and works like a common labourer. His creativity and perspicacity incites him to blend different pyrotechnical styles in his fireworks business. In his opinion fire works are good methods of art which are just like symphony. “Fire works are sui generic. If you must compare them to another art, compare them to music” (61).

Jake has first met Hugo in a cold-cure establishment, a medical research hospital, where he has been forced to share his accommodation with Hugo. As Hugo hasn’t spoken with him for two days, Jake felt that his companion was mentally deficient which was proved a wrong notion. When Hugo has started the conversation, Jake instantly notices the high intelligence of him and is captivated by his ideas and analysis. They have exchanged their views on art, politics, literature, religion, history, science, society and sex. Many people call Hugo an ‘idealist’ but Jake opines that he is a theoretician of a peculiar kind because he has interest in everything, in every theory in an eccentric way. Completely enthralled by Hugo’s conversations and wants to spend more time with him, Jake enrolls for a second medical experiment and so does Hugo.

When Hugo knows that Jake is a translator, he has posed myriad questions about translation which once seems the simple thing in the world, turns out to be an act of complex and perplexed one with his doubts. Hugo believes that it is hard to explain the feelings of people exactly in words and questions, how can translators translate the writings of others accurately?

“There is something fishy about describing people’s feelings,” said Hugo. “All these descriptions are so dramatic.”

“What’s wrong with that?” I said.

“Only,” said Hugo, “that it means that things are falsified from the start. If I say afterwards that I felt such and such, say that I felt ‘apprehensive’ – well, this just isn’t true.”

“What do you mean?” I asked.

“I didn’t feel this,” said Hugo. “I didn’t feel anything of that kind at the time at all. This is just something I say afterwards.”

“But suppose I try hard to be accurate,” I said.

“One can’t be,” said Hugo. “The only hope is to avoid saying it. As soon as I start to describe, I’m done for. Try describing anything, our conversation for instance, and see how absolutely instinctively you ……”

“Touch it up?” I suggested.

“It’s deeper than that,” said Hugo. “The language just won’t let you present it as it really was.” (67)

So in Hugo’s opinion what a writer writes is not true. It is deceptive and it’s very intricate to verbalize the thoughts, feelings and views of human beings precisely and chastely. Influenced by Hugo’s ideas and ideals Jake starts recording their discussions and alters them, polishes them to look some more clear and begins to write a book “Silencer” in which Anandine and Tamarus the two characters which represent Hugo and him. “There remained the fact that Anandine was but a broken-down caricature of Hugo”. (92) But he never tells about his book to Hugo and feels guilty when he has published that book. So he cancels his rendezvous with Hugo and is departed from him. Dave Gellman, his philosopher friend is impressed by his book and wants to discuss many ideas. But when Jake tries to clarify the views of Hugo, they become dreary and immature. His book is a flop.

Now Jake is thinking about Hugo and doesn’t believe Sadie’s words that are Hugo is in love with her because Hugo is never very forward with women and Sadie is a notorious liar.. He thinks that may be Sadie is in love with Hugo and tells vice versa. He goes to Magde’s house to get back his remaining luggage, his radiogram and his manuscripts and typescripts of his writings. At Magde’s house he meets her fiancé Sacred Sammy who receives him in a friendly way and offers him money as he has sacrificed Magde to him. But Jake doesn’t take money instead asks him to put that money on a horse race betting. When they have won the race, Sammy promises to send his share to him later.

Next Jake goes to Sadie’s flat to join his job as a body guard and Sadie receives him with a warm welcome. When Sadie is out, he watches all the rooms and finds his book “The Silencer” in the book rack. He


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observes Anna’s name on the cover and assumes that it is Anna Quentine that Hugo is proposing not Sadie. But he is disturbed when he receives a call from Hugo asking Ms.Quentine and cuts his call when he introduces himself to Hugo. Then he notices that he is locked in that house intentionally by Sadie and takes help from Finn and Dave and comes out of the house. These three people next searches for Hugo’s house but cannot find him in any room, only hear high-pitched chattering sound of hundreds of birds in one of the rooms. They search all the rooms and finally notice a note which read simply “Gone to the pub”. (104)

In search of Hugo they go to neighbourhood pubs and in Skinner’s Arms pub they meet Lefty Todd, a leader of the New Independent Socialists, friend to Dave. Lefty and Jake start their chat and at once notice that they both have same ideas about labour party and both are socialists. Lefty encourages Jake to write a political drama about the principle and issues of labour union. The next morning Dave gives a letter to Jake which he has forgot to give him right away. The letter is from Anna and said “I want to see you urgently. Please come to the theatre”. (122) Jake rushes to the theatre straight away but Anna has gone already.

From Anna’s house Jake goes to Sadie’s flat to acquire his copy of Silencer, overhears the conversation between Sadie and Sammy about his recent translation of “Le Rossignol de Bois” which they want to use for their film without taking his authorization. They discuss that Hugo may compete with them for this film so they must approach the producer first and make money. Jake gets angry with their cunning plan and feels pity on Magde for selecting such a cunning person as her husband. He presumes that Magdelen might have given his typescript to Sammy or Sammy might have stolen his script from Magde. So he decides to get his script from Sammy by hook or by crook and goes to Sammy’s house at Chelsia with Finn. There he is unable to find his script, he wants to dognap Sammy’s film-star dog, an Alsatian named Mr. Mars which is locked in a cage. So he has dog napped Mars to blackmail Sammy for his script. But surprisingly Mars gets affection on Jake, accompanies him and saves him in his adventures.

Jake decides to warn Hugo about Sadie and Sammy’s double-crossing plot, goes to his Bounty Belfounder studio, in South London along with Mars. He finds Hugo on a huge set that looked like a Roman Amphitheatre with brick walls, arches, pillars and columns, listening to a scintillating political speech by Lefty Todd. Jake drags Hugo down and starts his story about Sadie, but the sudden arrival of the United Nationalists cause a riot and a huge police squad enter the studio and lead to a mayhem. In this pandemonium Jake is separated from Hugo and escapes from the riot and the police with the help of Mars. He reaches Dave’s flat where he is given letters from Sammy and Magde. Sammy has sent a cheque for 600 pounds as he has won in their afternoon of gambling in exchange of Magde. Two telegrams from Magd, one with a job offer in Paris and the other of 30 pounds for travel expenses. As Jake has already read a news item about Anna that she would go to Hollywood through Paris, he wants to go to Paris with that money. Before going to Paris Jake asks Dave to draft a blackmail letter to demand 100 pounds for Mars and keeps Mars with Dave and Finn.

Jake arrives Paris and is having his breakfast in a café, his attention falls on a huge crowd who are waiting for the announcement of the Prix Goncourt, the annual book-writing award. To his astonishment he finds that Jean-pierre Breteuil has won the prize for his latest novel “Nousles Vainqueurs”. In his opinion Jean-Pierre Breteuil is not a good writer. It is the mistake of Goncourt Jury “The Goncourt Jury, that constellation of glorious names, might sometimes errs, but they would never make a crass or fantastic mistake” (191). It is unbearable to Jake and he is envious about Breteuil. He doesn’t want to translate his new book instead he wants to write his own. “Why should I waste time transcribing his writings instead of producing my own? I would never translate Nous Les Vainqueurs. Never, never, never. (192)

He meets Magdelen in a hotel room and is struck by her grace and refined dress and sophisticated behaviour. Magde tells him about a chance to get three hundred pounds down and a hundred and fifty a month for an indefinite time. A shipping tycoon is ready to put his money in the Anglo-French film company and he is searching for talented people. He wants to picture Breteuil’s novels and Breteuil will be on the board of directors, so that Magde selects Jake as an employee in their project. She knows that Jake is in dire need of money and craving for money. But Jake rejects her offer, feels that the job is a “Sinecure” (197). When Jake asks how their company relates to Bounty Belfounder, she tells that their new company would smash and crash the Bellfounder’s. Sadie and Sammy also try to get the works of Jean Pierre but in vain. Jean Pierre has accepted to give film rights of all his novels to this new company. So Sammy and


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Sadie’s plan is failed and Sammy has failed in buying Mr. Mars from Phantasifilms without knowing his real age. It’s age is 14 and it won’t do adventurous feats anymore and will soon die. Magde again and again requests him to do the job but Jake rejects and is unable to explain why he has declined her offer.

Coming from Magde, Jake is wandering the city for many hours in a bewildered condition, notices that it is fourteenth of July, a Bastille Day on which “the city lets down its tumultuous hair, which the high summer anoints with warmth and perfume” (211). In the evening while he is watching fire works he has seen Anna in the opposite crowd, followed her but hindered by the heavy crowd. He has missed Anna for the second time also. So he comes back from Paris and stays at Dave’s flat for several days with Mr. Mars. Finn has taken his share of their betting on Lyrebird and is vanished. Jake searches for a job and has got a job as an orderly at a hospital in the Corelli ward specialized for head-injuries. He enjoys his work very much. At that time Hugo is admitted in that hospital, in the Corelli ward as he is wounded in a political party meeting with a brick by an unknown person. Jake tries to enquire about Hugo but the hospital staff don’t allow him to know about Hugo. So Jake enters the room at midnight and starts conversation with Hugo. When Hugo praises his book “The Silencer” and admires his clean ideas, Jake burst out that they are not his ideas but they are Hugo’s. Until now Jake presumes that Hugo would get angry if knows about his treachery of copying their conversation. Instead Hugo candidly appreciates for his brilliance in giving a form to their chat.

Next their tête-à-tête turns on Sadie and Anna. Hugo tells that he loves Sadie not Anna, but Anna loves him and Sadie loves Jake. Jake is in love with Anna. Hugo insists that Jake will help him to escape from the hospital. When Hugo and Jake are coming out from the hospital, they are identified by Stitch, a worker in the hospital and Jake understands that he will lose his job. After their escape Jake follows Hugo for some time but Hugo has vanished when they reach Gloucester walk and Jake has missed him again.

3. Conclusion

Jake walks through the London streets thinking about the things that Hugo has discussed with him. Now his memories about Anna are completely changed. Her picture in his mind is faded away, “I had no longer any picture of Anna. She faded like a sorcerer’s apparition: and yet somehow her presence remained to me, more substantial than ever before, It seemed as if, for the first time Anna really existed now as a separate being and not as a part of myself”(268). Hugo is a towering personality in his mind like a monolith. He goes to Hugo’s flat and finds that there are no birds only their white droppings. He rummages around the house and drawers and finds his book “The Silencer” on his desk, puts it in his pocket. He also notices some currency notes in the drawer and hesitates to keep them in his pocket. When Lefty is entering Hugo’s house, Jake understands that Hugo’s house is donated to Lefty’s society and he has come to confiscate the building. Jake takes the largest of the bundles of one-pound notes and pushes it inside his coat. He comes out of the building in another way. He receives a note from Finn telling Jake that he has gone back to Ireland. Jake keeps Mars with him by paying 700 pounds to Sammy and tells Tinkham that he will do a part time job and he won’t translate others’ books but write his own.

References

Murdoch, (2002). Iris. “ Under the Net”, Vintage

Byat, A. S., “Degrees of Freedom: The Novels of Iris Murdoch”. London: Chatto & Windus

Bove, Cheryl. (1993). Understanding Iris Murdoch. Columbia University of South Carolina Press

Bove, Cheryl.(1992) “New Directions in Iris Murdoch's Latest Women”, Critical Essays on Iris Murdoch. New York: GK Hall & Co., 188-198.

Frankova, M. (1995), Human Relationships in the Novels of Iris Murdoch. Brno: Masarykova Univerzita,.

Gordon, David J. (1995). “Iris Murdoch’s Fables of Unselfing”, Columbia: University of Missouri Press.

Roxman, Susanna. (1983) “Contingency and the image of the net in Iris Murdoch, novelist and philosopher”, Engelska. P.65-70


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Economical Evaluation of Sensation Seeking Among Different Levels Weight Lifters

Syed. Tariq Murtaza

Department of Physical Health and Sports Education,

Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202002, (U.P.), India.

E-mail: [email protected]

Mohd. Imran

(Corresponding Author)




Mohd. Arshad Bari




Farkhunda Jabin

Department of Hifzane Sehat Wa, Samaji Tibb, Faculty of Unani Medicine,






The authors would like to acknowledge the cooperation of UGC-SAP (DRS-I) Programme, Department of Physical Health and Sports Education, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

Abstract:

The purpose of the present study was to compare the sensation seeking trait on different levels of weight lifters. The total hundred (50 State level and 50 All- India intervarsity level weight lifters) males were selected for this study. The age of the subjects were ranged between 18 to 25 years. The data on sensation seeking of the subjects were obtained by using a questionnaire developed by Neary and Zuckerman (1976). The t test was used to determine the difference between the mean score of different levels of weight lifters. Results revealed that there was a significant difference between different levels of weight lifters at 0.05


59

level of significance with 98 degree of freedom. Study showed that All- India intervarsity level weight lifters have higher level of sensation seeking as compared to State level weight lifters.

Key words: weight lifters, Sensation seeking, Thrill and Adventure Seeking, Experience Seeking, Disinhibition, Boredom Susceptibility.

1. Introduction:

Greece in 6th century B.C. reportedly had strongmen, wrestlers, and boxers. In 624 B.C. it was related that the legendary Milo shouldered a young calf until it grew to its full size. Milo developed the theory of progressive resistance training. Some of the first Greek gyms were outdoor arenas, and the Greeks later built enclosed structures similar to today’s fitness centres. To further understand the history/development of body building it is important to know the basics and history of strength training. There were reports of strength training in India over 5,000 years ago (Stutley & Stutley, 1977). Some of the earlier training methods included people jumping up out of holds to develop their legs. Ancient athletes cut handles into stones, a concept that proved to be the forerunner of today’s dumbbells. Discus throwing was another type of brute strength event, and it remains as a popular training method even today. The Romans, who used exercise to become fierce warriors developed exercise circuit training. The fall of the Roman Empire sent strength training into dormancy for approximately 1400 years. In the 1800s the Germans rediscovered strength training and physical culture by opening up weight lifting clubs (Persis, 1999).

Marvin Zuckerman initially developed the theory of sensation seeking. Large number of studies have shown that people who engage in a range of high risk behaviours tend to be high sensation seekers, Zuckerman proposes that there are four sub-dimensions to the sensation seeking trait: (1.) “Thrill and Adventure Seeking” which relates to the willingness to take physical risks and participate in high risk sports, (2.) “Experience Seeking” which relates to the need for new and exciting experiences and is associated with all types of risk taking, (3.) “Disinhibition” which relates to a willingness to take social risks and engage in health risk behaviours (e.g. binge drinking or unprotected sex), and (4.) “Boredom Susceptibility” which relates to intolerance for monotony.

Sensation seeking is a much interesting personality trait that has its effect on several spheres of our lives. It affects what activities we prefer, what sports or occupations we choose. Personality traits are underlying characteristics of an individual that are relatively stable over time, and explain regularities in people's. When thinking about people we know well, we will naturally have noticed how we differ, and our everyday language is full of ways of describing and comparing people. People may be outgoing or unsociable, shy or confident, friendly or rude, and so on. People instinctively observe that persons react differently to the same situations, and these differences are caused by natural variations in personality traits. Many studies involving sensation seeking have been conducted across a variety of anti-social risk- taking behaviours, such as drug use and unsafe sexual practices, as well as more socially acceptable forms of risk-taking behaviours (Zerevski et al.,1998) such as engaging in extreme sports (Donohew, Zimmerman Cupp, Novak, Colon & Abell, 2000; Kerr, 1991; Zuckerman, 1994). The sensation- seeking scale (Zuckerman, 1978; 1994) was initially developed in 1960’s to help researchers identify the sensation-seeking personality type of trait.

Sensation seeking is conceptualized as the need for individuals to reach and maintain an optimal level of arousal. Sensation seekers seen characterized by a chronical under activation, and sight stimulations to increase their level of arousal to a point that is hedonically positive for them (Eysenck & Zuckerman, 1978). Some studies have shown that sensation seeking was a significant determinant of the choice of risky activities (Zalesky, 1984; Zuckerman, 1983) and of the adoption dangerous behaviours in these activities (Connolly, 1981; Rossi & Cereatti, 1992).

2. Methodology:

2.1 Subjects

A total of hundred (50 State level and 50 All- India intervarsity level weight lifters) male were randomly selected for this study. The age of the selected subjects were ranged between 18 to 25 years.


60

2.2 Instruments

Investigators used the Sensation Seeking Test (SST) developed by Neary and Zuckerman (1976), to obtain data on sensation seeking of the subjects.

2.3 Procedure

The data were collected from the various university players who had participated in State levels and All India Inter-University Weight Lifting, Power Lifting and Best Physique Championship. The tool consists of 15 statements regarding sensation seeking (SS). The scoring varies from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much) for each item (range=15 to 75). It is a Likert type 5 points scale.

2.4 Statistical Analysis

The t test was used to determine the differences between the means of different levels of weight lifters score. Further the level of significance was set at 0.05 level.

3. Results

Table 1: Indicating mean differences between different levels of Body Builders on their sensation seeking.

Mean SD Cal. t All- India intervarsity level of weight lifters 58.25 7.15 5.462* State level of weight lifters 53.72 4.63 *Significant at 0.05 level of significance Tab t = 1.980

When we go through table 1, it is documented that calculated t was higher than tabulated t which indicated that significant difference between different levels of weight lifters in their sensation seeking at 0.05 level of significance with 98 degree of freedom.

Figure 1: Showing graphical representation of mean difference between different levels of Weight Lifters.

All- India intervarsity

level of weight lifters

State level of weight

lifters

Sensation Seeking

58.25

53.72

Sensation Seeking

Sensation Seeking All- India intervarsity level of weight lifters

Sensation Seeking State level of weight lifters


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4. Discussion

The result of the study showed that there was a significant mean difference between the different levels of weight lifters in their sensation seeking behaviour. All India level weight lifters were found to have more sensation seeking behaviour in comparison to State level weight lifters. This could be due to the fact that All India level weight lifters have taken their sport as a career whereas State level weight lifters have somewhat amateur approach to their competitions. They can only ‘see through’ their competitors but cannot scale the amount of musculature required for overcoming the opponents at the national plane.

5. Conclusion

On the basis of obtained results, it is concluded that there was a statistical significant difference between different levels of weight lifters in their sensation seeking. And the state level weight lifters exhibited lesser sensation seeking behaviour as they can’t scale the amount of competition required at their level.

References

Connolly, P. M. (1981). An exploratory study of adults engaging in the high- risk sports of skiing. Master’s thesis, Rutgers University.

Donohew, L., Zimmerman, R., Cupp, P.S., Novak, S., Abell, R. (2000). Sensation Seeking, Impulsive Decision Making, and Risky Sex: Implication for Risk Taking and Design of Interventions. Personality and Individual Differences, 28(6), 1079-1091.

Eysenck, S. B. & Zuckerman, M. (1978). The relationship between sensation seeking and Eysenck’s dimensions of personality. British Journal of Psychology, 69, 483-487.

Kerr. J. H. (1991). Arousal Seeking in Risk Sports Participants. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(6), 613-616.

Neary., Zuckerman. M. (1976). Sensation Seeking, Trait and State Anxiety and the Electrodermal Orienting Response. Online Journal Psychophysiology, 13(3), 205-211.

Rossi, B. & Cereatti, L. (1993). The Sensation Seeking in mountain athletes as assessed by Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 24, 417-431.

Persis, M.J. (1999, August) The origins of bodybuilding. Natural Bodybuilding and Fitness, 12(3): 26

Stutley, M. and Stutley, S. (1977). A dictionary of Hinduism: Its Mythology, Folklore, Philosophy, Literature and History, New York: Harper & Row.

Zaleski, Z. (1984). Sensation Seeking and Risk Taking al Science. Personality and Individual Differences, 5: 607-608.

Zarevski, P., Marusic, I., Zolotic S., Bunjevac, T., Vukosav, Z. (1998). Contribution of Arnetts Inventory of Sensation Seeking and Zuckerman’s Sensation Seeking Scale. To The Differential of Athletes Engaged in High and Low Risk Sports. Personality and Individual Differences, 25(4), 763-768.

Zuckerman, M. (1983). Sensation Seeking and Sports. Personality and Individual Differences, 4:285–293.

Zuckerman, M. (1994). al Expressions and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zuckerman, M., Eysenck, S., Eysenck, H. J. (1978). Sensation Seeking in England and America: Cross-cultural, Age, And Sex Comparisons. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46(1), 139-149.


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Evaluating English for Academic Purposes in some Cameroonian Universities

Gilbert Tagne Safotso, Department of English,

Higher Teacher Training College, University of Maroua P.O. Box: 282 Dschang, Cameroon





Abstract

This paper evaluates the situation of EAP teaching in Cameroon State universities. The government language policy as well as some programmes and teaching methods were subjected to a needs analysis questionnaire of students’ expectations and opinions (N=600). Results show poor management of the subject and discrepancy between learners’ needs and the outcome of the programme followed. Finally, some suggestions for improvement are made.

Keywords: learners’ needs, specific language, programme design, teaching methods, EAP

1. Introduction

The success of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programmes is judged by the extent to which learners in such programmes are able to do what the course was intended to help them do. To ensure the success of such programmes, they need to be designed with great care; taking into account the exact needs of learners (Benesh 1996). Because of the more specialised nature of EAP, its methods of teaching therefore need to be distinct from the ones used in English for General Purposes (Dudley-Evans & St Johns 1998), since ESP/EAP are usually scheduled for a very limited period. In Cameroon State universities, apart from students who do bilingual studies (combined French-English degree), all Francophone students are compelled to do EAP, and all Anglophone students FAP (French for Academic Purposes) to be able to attend lectures which can be given either in English or in French. But the effectiveness of EAP/FAP has raised a number of questions regarding among others the management of the subject, the course content, the teaching methods and class size.

After a description of the government language policy in Cameroon, this paper presents a needs analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of EAP/FAP teaching in some Cameroon State universities with focus on programmes of studies, teaching methods, class size, teachers’ background and qualification, as well as students’ expectations and opinions on the programme. The findings are then discussed, and finally, some suggestions for improvement are made.

2. Background: The government’s language policy in Cameroonian schools

With its 237 local languages (Dieu et al. 1983) and two official languages (French and English), the linguistic landscape of Cameroon is among the most complex in Africa. Nevertheless, at primary and secondary school levels, the government has adopted an official language policy of making French and English the languages of instruction to all students with clear instructions, objectives, trained teachers and available textbooks.

In Cameroonian primary schools, from the reunification of West and East Cameroon (in 1961) to early 2000, English was not a compulsory subject in all classes of the Francophone subsystem of educationi. Only children who attended urban centre schools studied it in the last three years of their primary school


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education. In the Anglophone subsystem of education, French was taught/learnt in a similar way. It should be noted that for this order of education, the government has created numerous teacher training schools, and good course books were written and revised at regular intervals to suit the context of the country.

At secondary school level, the second objective for learning English in the French-speaking area of Cameroon is to contribute to the ‘’intellectual growth by the acquisition of language which is so significant in the field of literature, philosophy, science and technology’’ (Ministerial Circular n°31/D/55/IGP/MINEDUC of June 4, 1975: 41). Attention to the communicative aspects of language use was later emphasised in the two subsystems of education of the country to provide study skills and strategies to cope with an ever-changing world. From these decisions and instructions, it can be understood that the government acknowledges the importance of language in the school curriculum.

The situation of EAP in Cameroon State Universities

In 1962, the teaching of EAP (English for Academic Purposes)/FAP (French for Academic Purposes) began at the Federal University of Cameroon. The subject is now given a yearly quota of 45-56 hours, which are taught only for one semester, 4 hours a week (Echu 1999:1) to all students during the first three years of their university studies. This is done not only for national unity, but also because most courses at tertiary level in Cameroon are taught interchangeably in French and English depending on the linguistic background of the lecturer. But in most Cameroonian State universities, the efficiency of EAP/FAP remains a matter of concern. Njeck (1992) remarks that students attend EAP class simply because it is compulsory subject. Kouega (2006:7) reports that at the University of Yaoundé II Soa, during lectures given in English 26.47% of his Francophone respondents reported playing truant or following lectures without taking down notes. He also mentions that only 8.82 per cent of his subjects reported discussing in English about a lecture taught in English.

Because each university organises the programme in its own way, the Ministry of Higher Education organised in 1999 a Meeting of a Group Experts to assess all EAP programmes taught across the country as well as other subjects programmes, and to propose concrete solutions to the problem. In their report, the experts commented that none of the documents submitted constitutes a coherent programme for EAP. “Indeed, the courses do not seem to be viewed and treated as a necessary and indispensable component of university studies” (Experts Group Meeting Report, p.483). They also addressed a number of important issues such as the necessity to design a good and coherent programme of EAP for all Cameroon State universities, the reduction of number of students per tutorial group (not exceeding 25 students), the training of special teachers as well as the necessity for universities to acquire indispensable tools and materials for teaching (e.g. language laboratories, video equipment and tapes, course books, etc.) (p.484). Similar concerns were raised by Biloa (1999:54-55) in EAP: ‘‘...lack of up-to-date equipment, lack of qualified lecturers, cultural barriers, passive methods of teaching and lack of practice’’. In the light of this ambitious governmental programme with few resources, we undertook a needs analysis to examine some individual teachers’ and faculties’ current programmes and teaching methods to see how far these recommendations have been implemented.

3. Methodology

A questionnaire (see Appendix A) aimed at gathering informants’ needs, wants, expectations and opinions of their EAP programmes was administered to randomly selected first to third year Francophone students of the State universities of Yaounde I, Dschang and Maroua in two phases: 100 informants in 2007 from the universities of Yaounde I (N=50) and Dschang (N=50) in a pilot phase, then 500 informants in 2010 from the same universities (N=200 in each) and Maroua (N=100) in a control phase. The questionnaire was designed following Hutchinson’s and Waters’(1987) framework for analysing target needs. The syllabuses designed by individual teachers or faculties (see Appendix B) were gathered during the same period from the universities of Douala, Yaounde I, Dschang and Maroua. This was completed by a longitudinal observation of classroom practice in the three levels mentioned above from 2005 to 2010. Unstructured interviews with 15 colleagues involved in the programme were conducted in which the informants were asked to give their appraisal of their own teaching, the programmes, class size and teacher qualifications


64

and background. Ten subject-matter specialists from the departments of Physics, Earth Sciences, Mathematics and Geography of the universities of Yaounde I, Maroua and Dschang were also interviewed about their learners’ English needs and to give their appraisal of EAP teaching in their respective departments.

4. Results

4.1. The programmes

The present situation of EAP is similar to that prior to 1999 Report recommending integration of language into university studies. For examples guidelines at the Faculty of Science of the University of Dschang express the objective of the course not in terms of the skills learner should have, but in terms of norms( i.e. what lecturers should do), e.g. lectures (40 hours): grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary; tutorials (20 hours): reading comprehension, essay writing, translation. No mention is made of listening which is one of the four main skills. The programmes of the universities of Douala and Maroua (see Appendix B) are not very different from that of Dschang.

A look at some individual syllabuses currently followed by teachers in various departments at Yaounde I, Douala, Maroua and Dschang universities (see Appendix B) reveals that most teachers dwell more upon general elementary language and even literature (e.g. programmes n°s 2,4) rather than the specific academic English which students need in their various respective fields of study. Given that the majority of syllabuses generally consisted of sketchy list of items without mentioning any EAP reference book, it was not possible to use Hutchinson’s and Waters’(1987:99-104) checklist for material evaluation to do an accurate assessment. Teachers interviewed reported that there are many useless repetitions, without taking into consideration the previous programmes of learners.

A careful analysis of several programmes reveals the lack of relevance to the overall subject studied. Indeed, no one can reasonably imagine an EAP programme for Chemistry students (see programme n°1 in Appendix B) which makes no mention of Chemistry items, or one for Economic Sciences and Management students which makes no mention of Economy or Management vocabulary and structures (see programme n° 2 in Appendix B). It is also reported that in some classes of the University of Dschang (e.g. History Level Two, Economic Sciences and Management Level Three) the programme is devoted to phonetics and pronunciation. None of the subject-matter informants report having been consulted by English teachers about students’ needs and syllabus content despite this being a very important step in EAP/ESP teaching (Trimble 1985). This should be done to enable the experts to suggest and confirm students’ needs and discourse analyses hypotheses (Huckin and Olsen 1984).

In ESP, Hutchinson and Waters (1987:53) insist that the programme ‘‘should be based on an analysis of learners’ needs’’, an argument which accounts very well for EAP, since Geography students do not need the same vocabulary items and structures as Physics, Anthropology or Mathematics ones although some elements of the language are necessary to all of them (for example, correct conjugation of verbs, use of articles, adjectives, formal letters writing).For example, Tarone et al.(1981) acknowledge ‘the passive’ as a typical feature of English for science and technology. Johns (1991) quoted by Benesch (1996:723) gives an interesting reason why needs analysis should be done in EAP- since by identifying elements of students’ target English situations and using them as the basis of EAP/ESP instruction, teachers will be able to provide students with the specific language they need to succeed in their courses and future careers. Citing a number of studies(e.g. Tarone et al.1981, Huckin and Olsen 1984, Dudley-Evans and Henderson 1990, Daoud 1991), Johns and Dudley-Evans(1991:300-301) suggest analysing genuine discourse of various academic disciplines in developing ESP materials. Thus, given the enormous language difficulties Francophone Cameroonian students continue to have after three years of EAP, it would perhaps be important to involve them in the design of their various EAP programmes as they better know their immediate (and future) needs.

In designing those programmes, the major difficulty will be that of textbooks. Swales (1980:14) notes that the majority of ESP textbooks are written to suit the needs in a particular educational environment, where they are supposed to be most effective because they attempt to cater for the cultural, academic, and linguistic characteristic of the original student. Because they are developed in a particular educational


65

environment, it is ‘‘less reasonable to suppose that they will maintain their appropriateness on a global basis’’ (ibid). Even if they cannot suit all educational contexts, reference books and journal articles, e.g. Jordan (1997), Hyland (2006), etc. should be consulted in an attempt to design local textbooks.

4.2. Classroom practice

Besides the lack of relevance of programmes earlier described, teaching methods are aggravated by overcrowding of classes. Most classes range from 100 to 500 students (e.g. Geography I and II classes at the University of Dschang in the academic year 2007-2008 had respectively 150 students for the first year and 134 students for the second year). Many classes from various departments are also combined into large classes of EAP without regard for the study fields of learners. In various faculties of Economic Sciences and Management as well as those of Law and Political Science across the country, classes usually range from 500 to 1000 students for a single teacher. For example, at the University of Yaounde II Soa, in the academic year 2009-2010 the Second Year Economic Sciences and Management had about 2,500 students (see Appendix C).This exceedingly high number of students per class gives room for all sorts of deficiencies. In such an uncomfortable situation, teaching becomes more a formality of attendance - and entertainment than knowledge-sharing. Classroom observation shows that there is no teacher-student/student-student interaction and that noise is one of the major problems.

Because of large classes, classes tend to be teacher-centred, aggravated by the lack of physical facilities. The majority of teachers interviewed report that they hurry through classes to get away. Even if they attempt to write on the board, only students sitting at the front can see. Without microphones in classrooms, teachers complain that they are also usually exhausted at the end of their classes. Some teachers report the use of tutorials though many are unable because of timetable constraints, but despite that classes are still huge, with over 50 students per group where no effective language activities can take place. It is worth remarking that dividing classes into smaller groups for tutorials also has its reverse side, as students finally find themselves (individually) with a reduced quota of hours. Apart from the noise which is reduced, most tutorial classes very well resemble formal lectures.

4.3. Teacher background and qualifications

Teachers who teach the subject across the country have various backgrounds. They are selected from among (a) university lecturers of English/Bilingual Studies departments, (b) secondary and high school teachers from neighbouring schools, and(c) English language/literature postgraduate students from nearest faculties of arts and social sciences. Commenting on the background of teachers of EAP/FAP at Yaounde I University, Biloa (1999:59) points out that postgraduate students who are members of the teaching staff have no teaching skills and very often, a course gives them the possibility of teaching for the first time in their lives without having ever been prepared for that task .They are still very busy with their own studies. Even secondary and high school teachers who teach the subject together with postgraduate students have not been trained for EAP. They have either been trained to teach literature, or other related subjects such as ESL (English as a Second Language), and very few, to teach EFL (English as a Foreign Language). For example, in the academic year 2010-2011, of the eight lecturers teaching EAP at the University of Maroua, only one (12%) reported having some training in EAP. Of the 12 teachers teaching the subject in the faculty of science of the University of Dschang, none reported having received any training in the domain. No in-service training or seminar is organised to help them acquire the basic teaching skills on the subject. Yet, EAP/ESP teaching is so specific/technical that training in the field is an absolute necessity. Trimble (1985:1) remarks that, before they (with Larry Selinker) could adequately teach the English of science and technology to non- native undergraduate students at the University of Washington (Seattle) ,they “had to learn something about it”.

4. 4. Students’ needs, expectations and opinions on the programme

Students’ reasons for taking EAP courses and the various uses they will make of the language learnt are summarised in Table1 below.


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Table1: students’ reasons for taking EAP courses, and uses of language learnt

Number of students

N= 100, Year 2007 %

N= 500

Year 2010 %

Why do you need EAP? (Q1)

it is compulsory 100 100 500 100 for studies 92 92 485 97 for communication 64 64 360 72

How will you use the language acquired /learnt? (Q2)

in writing 100 100 500 100 in speaking 72 72 400 80 in reading notes/technical books 82 82 425 85 in following lectures 98 98 500 100

With whom will you use the language acquired/learnt? (Q4)

lecturers 34 34 210 42 Anglophone classmates 100 100 500 100 other speakers of English in the world

42 42 240 48

internet correspondents 25 25 130 26

Where will you use the language acquired/learnt? (Q5)

in lectures 52 52 260 52 in the library 86 86 460 92 in seminars 68 68 360 72 in personal research 54 54 310 62 in Cameroon 100 100 500 100 abroad 21 21 160 32

When will you use the language acquired /learnt?

(Q6)

during courses taught by Anglophone lecturers

100 100 500 100

frequently 81 81 430 86

seldom 12 12 40 08

It can be observed from the table that all the informants take EAP courses because it is a compulsory subject (100 %). Taking it for study purposes also has a very high percentage (92 % in 2007 and 97 % in 2010). It can also be observed that many students wish to use the language learnt in following lectures, with their Anglophone classmates, in the library, and as frequently as possible. The low percentage in the use of the language learnt with internet correspondents/people abroad/lecturers somewhat testifies to the poor quality of language learnt until then, as students doubt about their competence and performance in English.

As to the type of language students expect to learn in their various EAP courses (Q2 of Appendix A), all informants said that they expect English that is related to their various fields of study, and very little general English. This indicates that students are aware of the real nature of EAP courses. Table 2 below summarises their general expectations from EAP courses, i.e. the language skills and elements they need (Q7 of Appendix A).

Table 2: Students’ general expectations from EAP (Q7)

Number of students N=100, year 2007

% Number of students N=500, year 2010

%

(a) Ability to read textbooks in English

87 87 397 79,4

(b) Ability to listen to lectures and take notes in English

100 100 460 92

(c)Ability to read scientific books 87 87 390 78


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and journals in English

(d) Ability to write articles in English

54 54 370 74

(e) Ability to ask and answer questions in English in class

62 62 415 83

(f) Ability to take part in seminars in English

75 75 340 68

Despite the slight gap between the various percentages in 2007 and 2010, on the whole, Cameroonian students’ general expectations from EAP are very high. The low percentage in answer (d) in 2007 (54%) may be explained by the fact that then students never imagined that they could be required to write in English as they now do using internet.

Students’ opinions and grievances on their past programmes (Q8 of Appendix A) simply express their dissatisfaction. Following are some of the expressions they used to describe them: boring, noisy, inadequate, superficial, mediocre, insufficient, not beneficial, no follow up of students, revision of secondary school grammar, was not related to students’ fields of study, was not at university level, etc.

The consequence of irrelevant programmes, non-existent syllabus, unskilled teachers, poor teaching methods and large classes, is students’ output, which is far below expectation. Up to the third year, many Francophone students are still unable to adequately follow lectures in English. Most of the time, they ask questions on what is going on or copy notes from their Anglophone peers.

Although respondents could not be accurate as to what to do to improve the EAP classes (Q9 of Appendix A), some of their proposals were nonetheless quite sensible. Over 80 per cent of the subjects mainly insisted on the amelioration of programmes content, reduction of class size, more tutorials, and qualification of teachers; most of the lecturers should be bilingual (French and English) given that the vast majority of them speak only English. This at times might help explanations in the students’ own language. Following the same line of thinking, a lot can in fact be done to ameliorate that situation as discussed below.

5. Discussion and recommendations

In well structured and organised EAP programmes (e.g. Martin 1976, Jordan 1989 and 1997, etc.), elicitation and analysis of learners’ needs, teaching of specific and academic vocabulary, are essential. Our data quantifies students’ needs and expectations from the programme, and their appraisal of past programmes clearly expresses this dissatisfaction. The large size of classes, poor classroom equipment and poor teaching methods are some of the weaknesses of the programme as noted early by the recommendations of the Experts Group Meeting of 1999 and the findings of Biloa (1999) and Kouega (2006). Findings of all the aspects analysed in this study show a stagnant situation. Some suggestions and recommendations for improvement are made below. Although they have been largely ignored, some of the recommendations and proposals of the Experts Group Meeting deserve to be echoed here : (a) design a model national programme and propose it for adaptation and use by all Cameroon State universities: this may help avoid the confusion observed in the syllabuses currently in use in some universities, (b) make efforts for EAP tutorial groups not to exceed a manageable size( 25 per group), (c) train special teachers to ensure a good implementation of the proposed course programme, and get all universities to acquire the necessary tools and materials for effective teaching/learning of the subject (language laboratories, video equipment, course books etc.), and (d) encourage universities to solicit the assistance/participation of embassy cultural centres, public and private language institutes /centres (p. 484). This should be done because the present situation is similar to that


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prior to the Experts Group Meeting recommendations. In addition, some trained EAP lecturers should be recruited to teach and co-ordinate the teaching of the subject in various universities; teachers in charge of the subject should be encouraged to write local textbooks which take into account the exact needs of students and the particular setting of Cameroon; subject-matter specialists should be associated to English teachers in a sort of ‘team teaching’ (Robinson 1989) to enable EAP teachers to gather more information on learners’ language needs from their subject specialist colleagues; in-service training and seminars should be organised from time to time by universities to enable academic authorities and teachers to up-date their knowledge in the field; the course should also be scheduled at the beginning of the academic year to enable students to feel their impact on other subjects. Universities libraries should be equipped with internet facilities and EAP/ESP books on various academic disciplines. This may enable students to fill in the gap caused by inadequate syllabuses and teaching methods. Finally, the programme should regularly be evaluated by both national and international experts to oversee its development.

6. Conclusion

Due to a number of factors, the situation of EAP is a major cause for concern in Cameroon. They include lack of a clear governmental language policy and instructions at tertiary level, lack of adequate and coherent programmes, lack of national co-ordination of the programme, irrelevant teaching methods and marginal qualification of teachers, large size of classes, lack of course books and other teaching /learning materials, and lack of language laboratories, to name but a few. The absence of those factors leads to deficiencies in the programme, and the language class, whose impact on other academic disciplines is capital, otherwise becomes a waste of time to students. Therefore, urgent remedies recommended in Section 5 quickly need to be applied to avoid further prejudice to students in Cameroonian State universities.

References

Benesch, S. (1996). Needs Analysis and Curriculum Development in EAP: an

Example of a Critical Approach, TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 30(4), 723-38.

Biloa, E. (1999). Bilingual Education at the University of Yaounde I: the Teaching of

French to English-Speaking Students in Echu, G. and Grundstrom, A. W. eds. (1999), Official Bilingualism and Linguistic Communication in Cameroon, New York : Peter Lang, pp.53-74.

Celce-Murcia, M. ed.( 1991).Teaching English as a second or foreign language,

Boston: Heinle & Heinle

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Daoud, M.(1991).The processing of EST discourse: Arabic and French native speakers recognition of rhetorical relationship in engineering texts. Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.

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APPENDIX A

Students’ questionnaire

Please, answer these questions about your English for Academic Purposes Programme.

Tick as many answers as possible. Cocher autant de réponses possibles.

1. Why do you need English for Academic Purposes (EAP)? it is compulsory for studies for communication

2. How will you use the language acquired /learnt in EAP courses? in writing in speaking in reading notes/technical books in following lectures

3. What type of language do you expect to learn in EAP classes? _________________ ________________________________________________________________________

4. With whom will you use the language acquired / learnt? lecturers Anglophone classmates other speakers of English in the world

internet correspondents

5. Where will you use the language acquired /learnt? in lectures in the library in seminars in personal research in Cameroon abroad


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6. When will you use the language acquired/learnt? during courses taught by Anglophone lecturers frequently seldom

7. What do you expect in general from English for Academic Purposes? (a) Ability to read textbooks in English (b) Ability to listen to lectures and take notes in English (c) Ability to read scientific books and journals in English (d) Ability to write articles in English (e) Ability to ask and answer questions in English in class (f) Ability to take part in seminars in English 8. What do you think of English for Academic Purposes programmes that you have covered so

far? e.g. first year, second year, etc. 9. What do you think can be done to ameliorate them? e.g. teachers, teaching methods, contents…

APPENDIX B: Five programmes (by individual teachers, faculties or

universities)

1. Third year chemistry (University of Dschang, year 2008) • Tenses: present continuous tense, present tense, past simple tense, past participles, present

perfect, active/passive voice. • Questions: conversation, making suggestions, forms of questions, auxiliary verbs, question

words, subject/object question, question tags. • Agreement: do and does, since and for, by and until, as and like, too and enough, some and

any, many and few. • Preposition: in, on and at • Rules for forming comparatives and superlatives.

2. Second year Economic Sciences and Management (University of Dschang, Year 2007)

o Rules and variations o Why do we learn English? o Variation according to use o General principles of English grammar and their applications (sentence type, parts of speech,

numbers pronunciation, the verb, suffixes, auxiliaries). o Conjugation of verbs o Letter writing o Literature: The Black Cat by John Milne

3. Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences (University of Douala, year 2008 /2009)

Level One Pronunciation - vowels and consonants - diphthongs and triphthongs Vocabulary - some masculine and feminine - some idioms, proverbs and idiomatic sayings - register of banking - register of law and the court Grammar - the genitive - the comparative and the superlative

Language and function - saying greetings and farewells - introducing people Comprehension - examination techniques - reading and understanding a text Essay - mechanics of composition - letter writing: general principles Level Two pronunciation - intonation


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- determiners - indefinite pronouns - use of tenses

Vocabulary - Phrasal verbs - synonyms and antonyms - some idioms, proverbs, and idiomatic sayings

4. University of Yaounde I, Year 2006: Psychology, Geography,

Anthropology, Sociology, Spanish, French Modern Letters

• First Year: Literature: Of Mice and Men (abridged version), John Steinbeck • Second Year: Literature: Great Expectations (abridged version), Charles Dickens • Third Year : Literature: Corail Island (abridged version), Ballantyner, M.

5. Higher Teacher Training College, University of Maroua, Second Cycle

Programme (for all classes, 2009 – 2010)

- pronunciation: vowels, consonants, stress.

- socialising: greetings, apologies, leave taking …

- tag questions, yes/no questions

- active and passive voice

- Essay writing.

- Reading comprehension

Appendix C: Examples of EAP classes from four Cameroon State Universities

University Academic

year Class

Total number of students in class

Douala 2008-2009 History I (N=185) + Communication I (N=168) 353

Dschang 2008-2009

First Year Earth Sciences (N=62) +

First Year Biochemistry (N=68) +

First Year Animal Biology (N=56) +

First Year Vegetal Biology (N = 72)

258

Yaounde II Soa

2009-2010 Second Year Economic Sciences and Management (N=2,500)

2,500

Maroua

2008-2009 Second Cycle Counsellors (N=600) 600

2010-2011 Second Cycle Computer Sciences (N=120) +

Second Cycle Mathematics (N=90) 210

2222 288 x-content

Education

use of online instruction

use of online education

icts use

use of computers

ease of use

rational use

nigeria university

frequency of use ofcomputer