25147694 chapter i introduction a background heredity is

7/23/2019 25147694 Chapter i Introduction a Background Heredity Is

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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background

Heredity is the passing of traits to offspring (from its parent or ancestors).

This is the process by which an offspring cell or organism acquires or becomes

predisposed to the characteristics of its parent cell or organism. Through heredity,

variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause a species to evolve.

The study of heredity in biology is called genetics, which includes the field of

epigenetics.

The ancients had a variety of ideas about heredity: Theophrastus proposed

that male flowers caused female flowers to ripen Hippocrates speculated that

!seeds! were produced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time

of conception, and "ristotle thought that male and female semen mixed at

conception."eschylus, in #$% &', proposed the male as the parent, with the female

as a !nurse for the young life sown within her!.arious hereditary mechanisms were envisaged without being properly tested

or quantified. These includedblending inheritanceand the inheritance of acquired

traits.evertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds of animals as well

as crops throughartificial selection. The inheritance of acquired traits also formed a

part of early *amarc+ianideas on evolution.n the -th century ", the "fro/"rabwriter "l/0ahi1considered the effects

of the environmenton the li+elihood of an animal to survive, and first described the

struggle for existence.His ideas on the struggle for existence in theBook of Animals

have been summari1ed as follows: !"nimals engage in a struggle for existence for

resources, to avoid being eaten and to breed. 2nvironmental factors influenceorganisms to develop new characteristics to ensure survival, thus transforming into

new species. "nimals that survive to breed can pass on their successful

characteristics to offspring.! 3rom this view we.ve experiment about theB. Purpose


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"fter doing this experiment we could prove the ratio number of genotype and

phenotype from *aw of 4endel and based on characteristic of human heredity

C. Benefit

The benefit of this experiment are made the student understood and +now

about characteristic of human heredity and could +now about the *aw of 4endel

CHAPTER II

PREVIE O! "ITERATURE


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"n "ustrian mon+ named 5regor 0ohann 4endel, towards the end of the 6-th

century made the crossing a series of experiments on peas (7isum sativum). 3rom the

experiments done during these years, 4endel discovered the principles of

inheritance, which later became the main basis for the development of genetics as a

branch of science. Than+s to this wor+, 4endel recogni1ed as the father of genetics.

4endel chose peas as experiment materials, primarily because these plants have a

few pairs of very prominent trait differences, such as flower color is easy todistinguish between the purple and white. n addition, the peas can be pulveri1ed

plant itself, and with the help of humans, can also pulveri1ed cross. This is caused by

the existence of perfect flowers, the flowers which have male genitals and female.

"nother consideration is that peas have a life cycle is relatively short, and easy to

cultivate and maintain. 4endel was also luc+y, because by chance he used peas are

diploid plants (having two sets of chromosomes). f he uses poliploid organisms, so

he will not get a simple cross and easy to analy1e. ("limuddin, 899).

n one experiment plants 4endel crossed tall peas with a short. The selected

plants are pure strains of plants, the plants that when pulveri1ed itself will not result

in different plants with. n this high plant will remain high yield crops. ;imilarly

short plants will always result in shorter plants.


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7 : > High x ;hort ?

dd

5amete d

36: High

d

7ulveri1ed itself (d x d)

38:

5ametes

5ametes

d

(high)

d

(short)

d

(high)

dd

(short)

High (/) : short (dd) @ : 6 : d : dd @ 6 : 8 : 63igure 8.6. 4onohybrid crossing diagram for the high qualities of plants


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Tall and short individuals are used in the early crosses are said to be elders

(parental), abbreviated 7. Aesults are the descendants heredity (filial) generation of

the first, abbreviated to 36.Higher plants in 7 generation is denoted by , dd is a

short plant. 4eanwhile, tall plants obtained at 36 generation is represented by d.

4onohybrid crosses on the diagram above, it appears that to produce the 36 d

individuals, then both the and dd to form a gamete generation 7 (sex cells).

ndividual form gametes, individuals were forming gametes dd d. Thus, d in

36 individuals is the result of the merger of the two gametes. ;imilarly, when the

other individual is doing pollination d themselves to produce 38, then each will

form the first gametes. 5ametes produced by individuals d there are two +inds,

namely and d. 3urthermore, the combination of these gametes obtained individuals

with a ratio of 38 generation : d: dd @ 6: 8: 6. f and dd are grouped into

one (for both individuals representing high), then the ratio becomes /: dd @ : 6.

3rom the diagram it also can be seen that the inheritance of a trait is determined by

the inheritance of a particular material, which in this example is represented by or

d. 4endel called this material as inherited genetic (hereditary), which in the next

stage until now called genes. ("nonim6

, 899-).

There are several terms that need to +now to explain the principles of

inheritance. "s already mentioned above, 7 is the individual elders, 36 is the first

generation offspring, and 38 is the second/generation offspring. 3urthermore, gene

is said to be a dominant gene or allele, is d gene is recessive gene or allele. "lleles

are alternative forms of a gene located on the locus (place) some. ominant gene is

said to d gene, because gene expression will cover the d gene expression if they

are together in one individual (d). Thus, the dominant genes are genes whose

expression covering alelnya expression. n contrast, recessive genes are genes whose

expression is covered by alelnya expression.


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ndividuals named individuals hetero1ygous d, and is dd individuals

each individual is called homo1ygous dominant and homo1ygous recessive. The

properties that can be directly observed in these individuals, ie, tall or short, is called

the phenotype. Thus, the phenotype is a direct gene expression can be observed as a

trait in an individual. 4eanwhile, the underlying genetic ma+eup the appearance of a

trait called genotypes. n the example above, the high phenotype (/) can be

produced from the genotype or d, are short phenotype (dd) only generated

from the genotype dd. t appears that the individual is homo1ygous recessive, the

symbol for the same phenotype to genotype symbols. ("nonim8. 899-)

*egal segregation , &efore performing a cross, each individual produces

gametes that contain half of the gene content of individual genes. 3or example,

individuals will form gametes , and individuals will form gametes dd d. n

individual d, which produce gametes gametes and d, will be seen that the gene

and gene d would be separated (disegregasi) to the gametes that formed it. This

principle became +nown as the law of 4endel=s laws of segregation or *aw of

segregation: B"t the last time the formation of gametes, each pair of genes will

disegregasi into each gamete is formedC ndependent 2lectoral *aw , 'rosses which

concerns only one +ind of inheritance patterns of such properties by the above/

mentioned 4endel called monohybrid crosses. 4endel did monohybrid crosses to

the other six +inds of properties, namely flower color (purple/white), cotyledon color

(green/yellow), seed color (green/yellow), the form of pods (flat/grooved), the

surface of seeds (finely/wrin+led) , and the location of interest (axial/terminal)

(2isenmesser 2D. 899$).

n addition monohybrid crosses, 4endel also made crosses dihybrid, which

crosses involving two different +inds of patterns perwarisan instantaneous nature.

Ene of them is the intersection of pure soy/smooth yellow seed with a pure strain/

wrin+led green seeds. ;oybean plants resulted in 36 generation of all/smooth yellow


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seeds.


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38:

5am

etes ?

5ametes

>

5< 5w g< gw

5< 55


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: : 6 as a result of the segregation of genes 5 and < are independent. Thus,

gametes are formed may contain a combination of dominant genes with a dominant

gene (5


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CHAPTER IIIE#PERI$ENT%& $ETHOD

A. P'ace and Date

The experiment was done at:ay and ate :


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6. imple of chin was dominant () and not was recessive (dd)8. Tip of the auricle of ear as be free was dominant (2) and not was recessive (ee)

. Thumb of left hand at up of right hand was dominant (3) and not was recessive(ff)#. The +nuc+le bone of the little finger that most tip goes as+ew on it was dominant

(&) and not was recessive (bb)$. Hair at forehead stic+ out was dominant (


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6. 7ersonal ata

o

The characteristic of heredity 5eotipe

6 imple of chin was dominant () and not was recessive

(dd)

d

8 Tip of the auricle of ear as be free was dominant (2) and

not was recessive (ee)

2e

Thumb of left hand at up of right hand was dominant (3)

and not was recessive (ff)

3f

# The +nuc+le bone of the little finger that most tip goes

as+ew on it was dominant (&) and not was recessive (bb)

&b

$ Hair at forehead stic+ out was dominant (


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a) ominant dominant

of practican100=

1

4100=25

b) Aecessive dominant

of practican100=

3

4100=75

. Thumb of left hand at up of right hand

a) ominant dominant

of practican100=

3

4100=75

b) Aecessive dominant

of practican100=

1

4100=25

#. The +nuc+le bone of the little finger that most tip goes as+ew on it

a. ominant dominant

of practican100=

4

4100=100

b. Aecessive dominant

of practican 100=

0

4 100=0

$. Hair at forehead stic+ out

a. ominant dominant

of practican100=

0

4100=0


of practican100=

4

4100=100

. Hair at the finger (on second Loints)

a. ominant domin ant

of practican100=

4

4100=100


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of practican100=

0

4100=0

G. imple

a. ominant dominant

of practican100=

1

4100=25


of practican100=

3

4100=75

%. 'an rolled hisMher tongue be along

a. ominant dominant

of practican100=

3

4100=75


of practican100=

1

4100=25

-. 7eople that have incisor of on and be gap

a. ominant dominant

of practican100=4

4100=100


of practican100=

0

4100=0

. "nalysis of class ata

6. imple of 'hin

c. ominant dominant

of practican100=

0

32100=0


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d. Aecessive dominant

of practican100=

32

32100=100

8. Tip of the auricle of ears as be free

c) ominant dominant

of practican100=

8

32100=25

d) Aecessive dominant

of practican100=

24

32100=75

. Thumb of left hand at up of right hand

c) ominant dominant

of practican100=

16

32100=50

d) Aecessive dominant

of practican100=

16

32100=50

#. The +nuc+le bone of the little finger that most tip goes as+ew on it

c. ominant dominant

of practican100=19

23100=59.4


of practican100=

14

23100=43.75

$. Hair at forehead stic+ out

c. ominant dominant

of practican

100= 7

32100=21.875


of practican100=

25

32100=78.125


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. Hair at the finger (on second Loints)

c. ominant dominant

of practican100=

32

32

100=100


of practican100=

0

32100=0

G. imple

c. ominant dominant

of practican100=

5

32100=15.625


of practican100=

27

32100=84.75

%. 'an rolled hisMher tongue be along

c. ominant dominant

of practican100=

16

32

100=50


of practican100=

16

32100=50

-. 7eople that have incisor of on and be gap

c. ominant dominant

of practican100=

21

32100=65.625


of practican100=

11

32100=34.4


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'. 7embahasan6. "nalisis ata 5roup

a) *esung dagu sifat dominan () dan resesif (d), fre+uensi untu+ sifat

lesung dagu, anggota grup semuanya bersifat resesif dengan

persentase 699N.b) JLung daun telinga menggantung bebas sifat dominan (2) dan resesif(e),

fre+uensi untu+ sifat ini berdasar+an hasil pengamatan, untu+ sifat

dominan (2) dengan Lumlah fre+uensi sebanya+ 6 orang dengan

persentase 8$N dan untu+ sifat resesif sebanya+ orang dengan

persentase G$N.c) bu Lari tangan +iri diatas ibuLari tangan +anan adalah sifat dominan (3)

dan sifat resesif (f). Jntu+ sifat ominan pada grup yaitu G$N dan untu+

sifat resesifnya 8$N.d) JLung ibu Lari +eling+ing menyerong +edalam adalah sifat dominan (&),

resesif (b). Jntu+ sifat dominan yang di mili+i +elompo+ ini semuanya

bersifat dominan dengan persentase 699N.

e) Aambut dahi menLoro+ merupa+an sifat dominan (


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a) "danya lesung dagu merupa+an sifat dominan () dan resesif (d). Jntu+

data ini semua sample bersifat resesi (d) dengan persentase sebesar 699Nb) 4emili+i uLung telinga menggantung bebas merupa+an sifat dominan (2)

dan resesif (e). Jntu+ sifat dominan memili+i persentase sebesar 8$N dan

sifat resesif memili+i persentase sebesar G$N.c) 7ada ibu Lari tangan +iri diatas ibu Lari tangan +anan merupa+an sifat

dominan. Jntu+ sifat dominan dan resesif pada data ini memili+i hasil

yang sama dengan persentase sebesar $9N.d) 7ada ruas Lari +eling+ing paling uLung menyerong +edalam. Jntu+ sifat

dominan pada data ini memili+i persentase sebesar $-.#N dan memili+i

sifat resesif sebesar #.G$N.e) Jntu+ rambut ruas yang menLoro+ merupa+an sifat dominan (


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CHAPTER V

CNC"U&ION AND &U,,E&TION

A. Conc'usion

The conclusions that can be ta+en after this observation are:6. 2very organism, change by factor descendant (gene)8. "ccording to *aw of 4endel that from cross dominant will cover that

recessive alel if the second there is a may same

. 2very organism have characteristic of heredity, which the characteristic ofheredity arrange by gene

B. &uggestion

for the next practican, must ma+e a good wor+ with the other group so, the

practicum will be better and with this way the practicum could be finished

quic+ly

BIB"IO,RAPH+


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"limuddin. 899. Genarl Biology. 4a+assar: 0urusan &iologi 347" J4"nonim6. 899-.Hereditys. file:www. MMMhttp:MheredityM.htm. "ccessed on ecember

89th899-

"nonim8. 899-. Segregation of Mendel..www. wikipedia.com. "ccesed on ecember89th899-

2isenmesser 2D. 899$. Gregor Mendels experiment.0a+arta: 2rlangga

7arson.6--#.Biology of university. 0a+arta: 7usta+a ;etia

Fatim,


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exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause a speciesto evolve. The study ofheredity inbiologyis called genetics, which includes the field of epigenetics.

The ancientshad a variety of ideas about heredity: Theophrastusproposed that maleflowers caused female flowers to ripen Hippocrates speculated that !seeds! wereproduced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time ofconception, and "ristotlethought that male and female semen mixed at conception."eschylus,in #$% &', proposed the male as the parent, with the female as a !nursefor the young life sown within her!.

arious hereditary mechanisms were envisaged without being properly tested orquantified. These includedblending inheritanceand the inheritance of acquired traits.evertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds of animals as well as

crops through artificial selection. The inheritance of acquired traits also formed apart of early *amarc+ianideas on evolution.

n the -th century ", the "fro/"rabwriter "l/0ahi1considered the effects of theenvironmenton the li+elihood of an animal to survive, and first described thestruggle for existence.O6PO8P His ideas on the struggle for existence in the Book ofAnimalshave been summari1ed as follows:

!"nimals engage in a struggle for existence for resources, to avoid being eaten andto breed. 2nvironmental factors influence organisms to develop new characteristicsto ensure survival, thus transforming into new species. "nimals that survive to breed

can pass on their successful characteristics to offspring.!OP

n 6999 ", the "rab physician, "bu al/Qasim al/Dahrawi(+nown as "lbucasis inthe


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7angenesiswas an idea that males and females formed !pangenes! in every organ.These pangenes subsequently moved through their blood to the genitals and then to

the children. The concept originated with the ancient 5ree+s, and influenced biologyuntil as recently as a century ago. The terms !blood relative!, !full/blooded!, and!royal blood! are relics of pangenesis. 3rancis 5alton, 'harles arwin=s cousin,experimentally tested and disproved pangenesis during the 6%G9=s.

/edit0 Tpes of 1eredit

This section 2a re3uire c'eanupto 2eet ikipedia4s 3ua'it standards.7lease improve this sectionif you can. "August #$$%&

Do2inant and recessi5e

"n allele is said to be dominant if it is always expressed in the appearance of anorganism(phenotype). 3or example, in peas the allele for green pods, 5, is dominantto that for yellow pods, g. ;ince the allele for green pods is dominant, pea plants withthe pair of alleles 55 (homo1ygote) or 5g (hetero1ygote) will have green pods. Theallele for yellow pods is recessive. The effects of this allele are only seen when it ispresent on both chromosomes, gg (homo1ygote). Oby: 6urat7u'7ain Basit. *ahore,7a+istanP

The description of a mode of biological inheritance consists of three main categories:

(. Nu28er of in5o'5ed 'oci

4onogenetic(also called !simple!) I onelocus

EligogeneticI few loci

7olygeneticI many loci

). In5o'5ed c1ro2oso2es

"utosomalI loci are not situated on asex chromosome

5onosomalI loci are situated on a sex chromosome
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heredity&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heredity&action=edit


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o R/chromosomal I loci are situated on the R chromosome(themore common case)

o F/chromosomal I loci are situated on theF chromosome

4itochondrialI loci are situated on themitochondrial "

*. Corre'ation genotpe9p1enotpe

ominant

ntermediate(also called !codominant!)

Aecessive

These three categories are part of every exact description of a mode of inheritance inthe above order. "dditionally, more specifications may be added as follows:

:. Coincidenta' and en5iron2enta' interactions

7enetrance

o 'omplete

o ncomplete (percentual number)

2xpressivity

o nvariable

o ariable

Heritability(in polygenetic and sometimes also in oligogenetic modesof inheritance)

4aternal or paternal imprintingphenomena (also see epigenetics)


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;. &e


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reproduction, that certain traits could be sex/lin+ed, etc.) rather than suggestingmechanisms.

arwin=s initial model of heredity was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, hiscousin 3rancis 5alton, who laid the framewor+ for thebiometricschool of heredity.5alton reLected the aspects of arwin=s pangenesis model which relied on acquiredtraits.

The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the 6%%9s when"ugust


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. ;election is overwhelmingly the main mechanism of change even slightadvantages are important when continued. The obLect of selection is the

phenotype in its surrounding environment. The role of genetic drift isequivocal though strongly supported initially by ob1hans+y, it wasdowngraded later as results from ecological genetics were obtained.

#. The primacy of population thin+ing: the genetic diversity carried in naturalpopulations is a +ey factor in evolution. The strength of natural selection inthe wild was greater than expected the effect of ecological factors such asniche occupation and the significance of barriers to gene flow are allimportant.

$. n palaeontology, the ability to explain historical observations by

extrapolation from micro to macro/evolution is proposed. Historicalcontingency means explanations at different levels may exist. 5radualismdoes not mean constant rate of change.

The idea that speciationoccurs after populations are reproductively isolated has beenmuch debated. n plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation.3ormulations such as =evolution consists primarily of changes in the frequencies ofalleles between one generation and another= were proposed rather later. Thetraditional view is that developmental biology (=evo/devo=) played little part in thesynthesis, but an account of 5avin de &eer=s wor+ by ;tephen 0ay 5ouldsuggests hemay be an exception.O%P

"lmost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varyingdegrees of success. There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a greatlandmar+ in evolutionary biology. t cleared up many confusions, and was directlyresponsible for stimulating a great deal of research in the post/


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25147694 chapter i introduction a background heredity is

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