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The Impact of Globalization on Somali CultureBy Adan Makina*

March 25, 2011

Abstract

Since its inception in 1960 when it gained independence from Britain and Italyrespectively after the merger of former British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland intowhat came to be known as the republic of Somalia, the impact of globalization on Somaliculture has evidently been beneficial and detrimental in many aspects. The idea that anation cannot progress economically without a strong central government does notcoincide with the current upsurge in globalization where its impact is being felt in everycorner of the world including the stateless nation of Somalia whose economyexperienced noticeable growth even with the absence of an effective central government.The immediate objective of this research is to uncover the negative and positive trends

globalization has had on the Somali culture.

Definition of Globalization

The term globalizationresonates with a novel and emerging global topic whose definitionin the myriads of available international relationstextbooks and dictionaries conjure upvarieties of rudimentary connotations. Charles W. Kegley, Jr. and Shannon N. Blanton, intheir book, World Politics: Trend and Transformation, describe globalization as theintegration of states, through increasing contact, communication, and trade, to create acommon global culture for all humanity.1 The creation of a common global culture will

sound a worrisome anecdote for those determined to preserve their local heritage anddynamic cultures.

A Brief introduction of Somalia

Situated in the Horn of Africa, the Republic of Somalia has a land area of 637,540 squarekilometers which makes it slightly smallerthan the U.S. state of Texas. On a physicalmap Somalia resembles the figure seven or arhino horn. Its terrain consists mostly ofplateaus, plains, and highlands. Measuring

3,025km, Somalia has the longest coastlinein the African continent followed by SouthAfrica (2,798km). It is bordered by the tinynation of Djibouti (inhabited by Somali-speaking people) to the northwest, the Gulfof Aden and Yemen to the north, Kenya to

the southwest, the Indian Ocean to the East,and Ethiopia to the West. The population of

A postal stamp issued in Somalia in1959 showing four men carrying afrankincense tree


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Somalia was estimated by the United Nations in 2003 at 9,890,000 and is placed atnumber 80 in population among the 193 nations of the world.2 President Aden AbdilleOsman became the first head of state of the Somali republic in 1960.

Unexploited Natural Resources

Somalia is endowed with unexploited mineral resources and vast maritime resources thathave been a source of contention since the collapse of the central government in 1991.The absence of a strong and effective government has left Somalias coastline prone toillegal fishing and dumping of toxicwaste by foreign trawlers and the dreadedMafia-an issue even voiced with deepconcern by Mauritanian-born AhmedouOuld-Abdallah, former UN envoy toSomalia.3 Somalias eastern coastlineoverlooking the Gulf of Aden has

become a hotbed for piracy consequentlybringing in millions of dollars and actingas a pedestal for an ailing economy.4

Even though Somalia is not in the list ofoil producing countries, oil explorationscarried by Conoco, Amoco, Chevron, and Philips before the military junta fell, suggest itcould contain significant reserves.5 Somalias unexploited natural resources includeuranium and largely unexploited reserves of iron ore, tin, gypsum, bauxite, copper, salt,natural gas, and likely oil reserves. 6Despite the abundance of unexploited naturalresources, factors that have been preventing Somalis from attaining economic prosperityinclude religious extremism, foreign intervention, maritime piracy, human rights

violations, insecurity, poor leadership, and general anarchy. The Ogaden Basin covers350,000 sq km and is the largest proven hydrocarbon bearing sedimentary basin inEthiopia. There are two large gas discoveries in the basin which contain estimatedreserves of approximately 3Tcf (Calub and Hillala). 7 In the meantime, of all landsinhabited by Somalis, it is only the Ogaden region in Ethiopia that has yieldedconsiderable and marketable oil with exploration, drilling, and extraction beingimplemented by Chinese companies.

Globalization and Somalia

Globalization has been around the world for a long time beginning with the interactionand integration of different societies through international trade and investment.Somalias proximity to the Middle East and North Africa made it a center for commercein historical antiquity with Somali sailors and merchants trading in myrrh, frankincense,ivory, and spices with ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Mycenaean, and Babylonians.Ancient Egyptians longest and earliest trading relationships in human history spanning1300 years was their peaceful interaction with the Land of Punt. Official hieroglyphicrecords found at Marsa Gawasis, a port in Egypt, where preserved ancient Egyptian ship

The Ogaden Basin covers 350,000 sq km


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fragments were found indicate that this relationship started from 2450 BC during thereign of Sahura (as evidenced by the Palermo Stone) and continued through the reign ofPharaoh Ramses III (XX Dynasty). 8 Commodities thought to have been imported fromSomalia by Queen Hatshepsut include gold and electrum (a compound for gold andsilver), plant tissues that consisted of comminphora and myrrh, pistachia and ebony;

animals and animal products including baboons, short-horned cattle, leopards, and ivory.Other than Amenhotep IV, son of Amenhotep III and Queen Tye, who changed name toAkhenaton after imposing a monotheistic religion on his subjects, successions ofPharaohs of antiquity worshipped the sun. Dubbed the Heretic Pharaoh, Akhenatonworshipped his chosen deity that he named Aten. Sun-worshipping Egyptian pharaohsvalued baboons because baboons habitually face eastwards before daybreak as a sign ofannouncing the rising of the sun while making spontaneous wa-hoo vocalization. Onthe contrary, according to popular scientific belief, baboons face the rising sun in order toheat up bacteria found in their guts that aid or promote the digestion of food. Recordsretrieved from tomb engravings have shown that families of pharaohs kept baboons aspets. Various classifications of baboons include Papio papio, Papio hamadryas, Papio

anubis, Papio ursinus, and Papio cynocephalus. Of these, Papio hamadryas and Papioanubis were the only species depicted in Egyptian paintings and mummifications.

Even though there could be similarities between Somalias previous era of globalizationand the current one, todays experience with globalization is to some degree more intensefor Somalia and her trading partners. Somalias trial with capitalism got off the groundimmediately it gained independence when thenations leaders adopted democracy as thepreferred form of governance for the country.That dream was shuttered by the arrival of amilitary government that changed the nationsgoverning style to Leninist-Marxist ideology.

Somalias current political instability excludesit from exporting finished and unfinishedproducts and goods to many countries becauseof trade barriers. However, Somalia iscurrently the United States 172nd tradingpartner with $65 million in total (two way)goods trade during 2008. It is also ineligiblefor trade benefits under the African Growthand Opportunity Act (AGOA). However, U.S. exports to Somali totaled $64 million in2008 with exports mainly consisting of resins, nuts, and fruits.9 The excesses committedagainst Somalias educated cream who would have been the torchbearers of globalizationby the military government that ruled Somalia between the years 1969 and 1991imperiled the political, social, and economic welfare of the entire nation. Crafted by an

African economist, the phrase African Disease implies what is known in the west asbrain-drain where multitudes of educated professionals migrate to the North America,Australia and New Zealand, and Europe in search of greener pastures. Somalia has neverbeen an exception as it suffered the same fate as other African nations because the most

Baboon species Papio hamadryas


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educated and experienced left the country enmasse. A substantial number of Somaliprofessionals and academics brandishing PhDs and masters degrees live in the Diasporaeither as university professors, college lecturers, think-tanks in prestigious organizationsor as administrators in specific fields requiring superior acumen.

Colonial environment

Despite centuries of warfare within Somalis and with foreign powers, the Somali culturehas remained relatively free from external contamination unlike other African culturesthat disappeared as a result of European colonial superiority. The Somali peripatetic way

of life accelerated culturalcosmopolitanism, economicinterdependence, mentalmodernization, and regionaldominance making Somalis toinhabit the most expansive

territory that stretch from theSomali-inhabited region inEthiopia to as far south asKenyas eastern and Northernprovinces while in betweentraversing Djibouti and Somalia.The dismemberment of Somaliainto five regions depleted Somalicultural harmony. The emperorswho ruled the Ogaden region ofEthiopia exploited local Somali

culture with the dominantAmharic national languageinfusing alien wordings into the

Somali language. Likewise, Somalis in Kenya found their cultural and linguisticexpansion interrupted by the elevation and imposition of Kiswahili as the nations linguafranca. In Djibouti, 114 years of French colonial rule retarded the Somali language. Itwas only in 1972 when the Somali language came into the glare of publicity after theofficial writing script developed by Shire Jama Ahmed became the unanimously acceptedversion in favor of the Latin and Osmaniya scripts-orthography invented in the earlytwentieth century by the Majertinia poet and ruler, Osman Yusuf Kenadid.10

Global Dynamism of Somali Culture

Somalia is a homogenous nation with a mix of rich culture. Somalis speak the samelanguage which is Somali; they have one religion which is Islam, and they enjoy similarcustoms. It is the clan that determines ones place in society. A small minority group, theSomali Bantu, considered the most vulnerable communities in Somalia, has been targetedfor blanket resettlement in the US after suffering chronic discrimination and predatory

Map showing regions where the Somalilanguage is spoken


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attacks by ethnic Somalis.11 In the past two decades, Somali exposure to foreign ways oflife greatly impacted previously existing inter-tribal relations among various groups. Insome instances, improved intercommunication due to amalgamation of communal groupsmay be attributed to the alleviation of major barriers pertaining to intermarriage. Clanswho exclusively observed endogamous marriages due to customary restrictions have

eased imposing constraints by allowing partners to partake in the formulation of exogamythus leading to the creation of a wholly new concept of marital relationships never beforeseen in Somali culture.

Poetry and prose play great roles in Somali daily life even in this era of globalizationwhere it is used as a means of communication. Somalia has been described as a nationof poets. The most famous Somali poet was Seyyid Mohamed Abdille Hassan who wasdubbed mad mullah by the British colonial administration in the late 1900s. Perhaps,the first European to venture into Somali territory who meticulously described the cultureand language of the Somali people was Sir Richard Burton. About the people and theirlanguage, he wrote:

The country teems with poets, poetasters, poetitos, and poetaccios:Every man has his recognized position in literature as accurately definedas though he had been reviewed in a century of magazines-the fine ear ofthis people causing them to take the greatest pleasure in harmonioussounds and poetical expressions, whereas a false quantity or a prosaicphrase excite their violent indignation. 12

Several major universities across the globe have taken the responsibility of eitherteaching or collecting materials related to the advancement of the Somali language. Onesuch example is the University of Indiana in Bloomington 13 which boosts a largecollection on Somali literature deposited by the Somali Studies International Association.These materials were acquired by the university with support from the US Department ofEducation Title VI grant.14 The University of Ohio has included the teaching of Somaliinto its African studies program. Steve Howard, who is director of the program, wasrecently honored with the presidents award by Sheikh Sharif Sheikh Ahmed, the currentpresident of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia. He was also presented witha statuette reading, "Thank you for being a friend of the Somali community."15 SeveralEuropean countries teach the Somali language to Somali children. Higher institutions oflearning such as the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) which is part of theUniversity of London, the Swedish Academy in Uppsala, and Rome University havespecialized study programs preserved for the Somali language.16

Improved Telecommunications

Somalia has seen dramatic improvement incommunications. According to a study carriedout in sub-Saharan Africa by Benjamin Powellwho is an Assistant Professor of economics atSuffolk University and a senior economist withthe Beacon Hill Institute, Somalia moved from

Somalia Telecommunications


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the 29th place to the eighth in terms of telephone landlines use per 1,000 of populationsince it became stateless in 1991. It ranks 16th in phone mobile use, 11th in internet users,and it ranks 27th in households with televisions. It takes three days for a telephone line tobe installed; the bill for a monthly landline costs $10 with unlimited local calls andinternational calls cost 50 cents a minute. Due to the explosion of internet cafes, web

access costs 50 cents per minute. Using a mobile phone in Somalia is generally cheaperand clearer than a call from anywhere else in Africa, according to the economist.17 Thenations three biggest mobile phone companies,Hormuud Telecom 18,Nationlink19, andTelecomSomalia 20 have the benefit of 1.8 million customers who enjoy some of thecheapest rates in the world. 21

Positive Implications of Globalization

The thousands ofSomalis who settled outside of Somalias borders have tremendouslyaltered the political, social, and economic landscape of the Somali nation by injectingmillions of dollars in the form of remittances into a careworn, impecunious, and war-

ravaged nation resulting in the opening ofthe gates of globalization. In its March2009 report, the United NationsDevelopment Program (UNDP) office forSomalia, estimated that Somali Diasporaremittances to the Horn of Africa nationamounted to over $2 billion in remittanceflows.22 According to the authors of theUNDP report, Somali Diasporaorganizations may be credited for

supporting or establishing service deliveryfacilities by providing regular fundingflows meant for the payment of salaries in schools or hospitals. The significance ofglobalization and international political economy necessitate the transfer of goods andservices.

Thus, improved social interaction, enhanced communication, abundance and accessibilityof maritime routes within Somalias coastline allows Somali businessmen to balancesupply and demand in almost every region of the country regardless of daily hostilities.Depending on the size or intricacy of developmental assistance, various Diaspora groupsfund multifarious schemes not only in the health and education sectors but in

construction, feeding centers, orphanage homes, digging of water wells, farming,banking, manufacturing, fishing, and the transportation sector.

When the military junta was in power, Somalia had only one national university. Thanksto the generous contributions of the Somali Diaspora and international organizationscurrently Somalia has over a dozen universities with Mogadishu University ranked 54among 100 African universities in 2010, according to an international evaluation of worlduniversities. 23

Modern air travel in Somalia


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Professions that were once frowned upon bySomalias previously closed society have nowturned out to be popular especially amongaspiring youth residing in North America,

Europe, and Eurasia. Massive resettlementinitiated by Western nations and other self-propelled emigrational movements orundertakings enabled the heralding of a plethoraof talented writers, internationally-acclaimedsupermodels, and reputable artists.

Modest education, easy contact with agents andpublishing houses, access to computers, the

internet, and general media have elevated the bulk of books, documentaries, and filmsconsequently broadening the number of fans and readers. In the unrecognized breakawayrepublic of Somaliland and in the eastern autonomous region of Puntland, the semblanceof peace has triggered a progression of various competing air travel companies, foreign-funded educational institutions, maritime trade and investment.

Negative Effects of Globalization

General anarchy in southern Somalia and therise of religious militancy coupled with foreigninterference in Somali sovereignty have set badprecedents and adversely impacted the lives ofordinary Somalis. The proliferation of small

arms and unsecured borders has forced manyyoung Somalis to take sides in every major orminor conflict. Children as young as ten yearsmake the bulk of child soldiers. Islamists whohave laid claim to a bigger part of southern andcentral Somalia have imposed stringentmeasures on schools funded by the Diaspora byplacing a ban on the teaching of English and

the Sciences. They have also slapped a ban onwestern-style haircuts, western fashion, and

western manners; in their efforts to fight vice, all cinema halls and video dens remain

closed indefinitely; all men are required to have their trousers above the ankle otherwisethey risk flogging or imprisonment or both; owners of television and radio stations havebeen told to refrain from playing music or else risk arrest and to make matters worse, thelocal VOA and BBC transmissions have been taken off the air and their equipmentstransferred to other radio stations owned by the Islamists.

The rise of Islamic militancy has not only affected Somalia but has also become a majorpolitical force in the Arab-Muslim world thus fostering chaos in failed states such as

Mogadishu University

A wounded Somali child soldier


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Sudan, Afghanistan, and now Iraq.24 The globalization of al-Qaida and the drastic rise ofradicalism after September 11, 2001 inspired the spread of proxy wars in the Horn ofAfrica with Somalia becoming the major breeding ground for extremists fromAfghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, US, Canada, Europe, and elsewhere.

As a result of acculturation, many Somali children born overseas have lost in touch withreality. Many of these kids have lost their parents cultural heritage and no wonder prisonhouses in Minnesota, Ohio, California, Quebec, and Ontario hold sizable population ofSomali convicts-mainly among the youth who could not find role models to emulatesince majority of parents remain illiterate. Majority of offenders who are high schooldropouts eventually resort to drug abuse and addiction, rape, murder, violence, and otherhorrendous criminal acts. The rate of unwanted pregnancies continues to skyrocketamong girls; the numbers of dysfunctional homes raise alarming figures; the break-up offamilies and the percentile of single mothers remains disturbing. Substantial figures ofSomali Diaspora kids have become victims of stress, depression, mental disorders, andanxiety.

Somalis have settled in many parts of the world including Europe, North America, theMiddle East, East Africa, South Africa, and North Africa. Approximately 2.5 millionimmigrants have secured resettlement in these regions. Despite the hardships the

dysfunctional country has beenthrough for almost two decades,one thing is certain:globalization is taking root at agreater pace. Since Somalis arenaturally business-driven people,one would be out of touch toassociate Somalia's economicalboom with the monies generatedfrom illegal pirating activities.Past economic strangulation,sweeping monopolization, and

austerity measures imposed bythe fallen regime had been the

major causes of Somalia's underdevelopment witnessed from 1969 to 1991. The exit ofthe military regime ushered in the much-needed freedom from government involvement.

Aden Makina

-------------------------------------Mr. Makina is a frequent contributor to www.wardheernewscom. He blogs at

http://cleanthehorn.blogspot.com and can be reached [email protected]

Al-Uruba Hotel in Mogadishu after the civil war


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References

1 Charles W. Kegley, Jr. and Shannon L. Blanton, World Politics: Trend andTransformation (12ed), Wadsworth, 20 Channel Center Street, Boston, MA 02210

2 Encyclopedia of the Nations: http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Somalia-POPULATION.html

3 Toxic Waste Behind Somali Piracy by Najad Abdullahi, Aljazeera (October 11, 2008).http://english.aljazeera.net/news/africa/2008/10/2008109174223218644.html

4 Helen Kennedy, Piracy big boon to Somalia economy; hotels, restaurants sprout in portof Eyl in pirates' presence, nydailynews, (April 9, 2009).http://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/2009/04/10/2009-04-10_piracy_boon_to_somalia_economy.html5 Natural Resources (Somalia), Natural Resources: http://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Sentinel-Security-Assessment-North-Africa/Natural-resources-Somalia.html

6 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/so.html

7 http://www.sw-oil-gas.com/ogaden_basin_overview.htm

8 Dr. Dominy's and Gillian Moritz's Presentation at the Eritrean Community Center inOakland: A Summary, http://kemey.blogspot.com/


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9 Office of the United States Trade Representative: Executive Office of the President:U.S-Somalia Trade Facts. (May 26, 2010): http://www.ustr.gov/countries-regions/africa/east-africa/somalia.

10 Shire Jama Ahmed: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire_Jama_Ahmed

11 Rachel Swarns, Africas Lost Tribe Discovers American Way, New York Times (10march, 2003).

12 Sir Richard Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa, Tylston and Edwards, The MeccanPress, 3 Soho Square, London, WMDCCCXC1V.

13 http://www.indiana.edu/~libsalc/african/Digital_Somali_Library/intro.html

14 History of Indiana Universitys Somali Collection:http://www.indiana.edu/~libsalc/african/Digital_Somali_Library/history.html

15 Youtube.com, www.ohio.edu/outlook/09-10/October/79a.cfm

16 The Institute of Practical Research and Training: The Role of Somali language inEducation by Mohamed H. Rabi.http://www.iprt.org/role_of_somali_language_in_educa.htm

17 Benjamin Powell, Somalia: Failed State, Economic Success?, Freeman: Ideas onLiberty, (April 2009) Volume: 59 Issue: 3http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/somalia-failed-state-economic-success/

18 http://www.hortel.net/our_partner.html

19 http://www.nationlinktelecom.com/nation_services_mobile.asp

20 http://telcom-somalia.com/

21 Somali mobile phone firms thrive despite chaos by Abdi Sheikh and IbrahimMohamed, Reuters (Nov 3, 2009)http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE5A20DB20091103

22

The Missing Million: The Role of the Diaspora in Somali Development, a report forthe UNDP by Hassan Sheikh and Sally Healy, (March 2009).http://www.so.undp.org/index.php/Somalia-Stories/Forging-Partnerships-with-the-Somali-Diaspora.html

23 http://www.4icu.org/reviews/4222.htm


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24 Laurent Cohen-Tanugi. The Shape of the World to Come: Charting the Geopolitics of aNew Century. Trans. George Holoch, Columbia University Press (2008): pp.9

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