28 air force magazine...air force magazine / august 2001 29 compiled by tamar a. mehuron, associate...

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 200128

AIR FORCE Magazine / August 2001 29

Compiled by Tamar A. Mehuron, Associate Editor

On the following pages appears avariety of information and statisticalmaterial about space—particularlymilitary activity in space. This alma-nac was compiled by the staff of AirForce Magazine, with assistance andinformation from R.W. Sturdevant,Air Force Space Command HistoryOffice; Steve Garber, NASA HistoryOffice; Tina Thompson, editor of TRWSpace Log; Phillip S. Clark, MolniyaSpace Consultancy; Joseph J.Burger, Space Analysis and Re-search, Inc.; and US and Air ForceSpace Command Public Affairs Of-fices.

Figures that appear in this sectionwill not always agree because of dif-ferent cutoff dates, rounding, or dif-ferent methods of reporting. The in-formation is intended to illustratetrends in space activity.

29

Space Almanac2001

The spacecraft depicted in this artist’s con-cept represents a space-based laser.


Introduction

Country/Organization

CIS (Russia/former USSR)USAPeople’s Republic of ChinaEuropean Space AgencyJapanIridiumIntl. Telecom Sat. Org.GlobalstarFranceOrbcommIndiaUnited KingdomGermanyEuropean Telecom Sat. Org.CanadaItalyLuxembourgBrazilSwedenAustraliaIndonesiaIntl. MaritimeNATOArab Sat. Comm. Org.Sea Launch (Launch Demo)South KoreaMexicoSpainArgentinaCzech RepublicIntl. Space StationThailandTurkeyAsia Sat. Telecom Co.IsraelMalaysiaNorwayEgyptFrance/GermanyPhilippinesSaudi ArabiaChileChina/BrazilDenmarkPortugalRepublic of China (Taiwan)Saudi Arabia/FranceSingapore/TaiwanSouth AfricaUAETotal

What’s Up ThereAs of May 31, 2001

Satellites

1,329766

3329678556523135212118191712111010

7998717665414433332222111111111

2,729

SpaceProbes

3546

025000000020000000000000000030000000000000000000

93

Debris

2,5562,916

334261

48000

1601110030002000060000000000000000000000000

6,145

Total

3,9203,728

367292120

8556524735222221191715111010

9998777665444433332222111111111

8,967

Robert Goddard stands in 1926 withone of his first successful liquid-fueled rockets. Goddard is consid-ered one of the pioneers of modernspace flight.

A Titan IVB lifts a Milstar satelliteinto orbit on Feb. 27, 2001.

Lo

ck

he

ed

Ma

rtin

Sp

ac

e S

ys

tem

s p

ho

to b

y R

us

s U

nd

erw

oo

d


Launch SitePlesetskWhite Sands Missile Range, N.M.Tyuratam/BaikonurVandenberg AFB, Calif.Cape Canaveral AFS, Fla.Poker Flat Research Range, AlaskaKourouJFK Space Center, Fla.Kapustin YarTanegashimaXichangWallops Flight Facility, Va.Shuang Cheng-tzu/JiuquanUchinouraTaiyuanIndian Ocean PlatformSriharikotaEdwards AFB, Calif.HammaguirPacific Ocean PlatformSvobodnyYavneGando AFB, Canary IslandsWoomeraBarents SeaKwajaleinTotal

Worldwide Launches by Site, 1957–2000

NationRussia

USKazakhstan

USUSUS

French GuianaUS

RussiaJapanChina

USChinaJapanChinaKenya

IndiaUS

AlgeriaSea Launch

RussiaIsraelSpain

AustraliaRussia

US

Launches1,4621,1301,084

576570281135120

84302927242312

99544333211

5,631

Space and Missile Badges

Space/Missile Badge

Astronaut Pilot*

Missile Badge

Missile Badge with Operations Designator

*The astronaut designator indicates a USAF rated officerqualified to perform duties in space (50 miles and up) andwho has completed at least one operational mission. Pilotwings are used here only to illustrate the position of thedesignator on the wings.

3131

Space on the Web(Some of the space-related sites on the World Wide Web))

DefenseUS Space CommandAir Force Space Command21st Space Wing30th Space Wing45th Space Wing50th Space Wing

IndustryBoeing Space Systems

Lockheed Martin AstronauticsOrbital SciencesLoral Space & CommunicationsSpectrum AstroTRW

NASAIntegrated Launch Manifest(Launch forecast for shuttleand NASA payloads on ELVs)

Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Mars Global Surveyor

NASA Human Space Flight

Space Center Houston

OtherEuropean Space Agency

Florida Today(Current and planned spaceactivity)

Space and Technology

Web addresswww.spacecom.af.mil/usspacewww.spacecom.af.mil/hqafspcwww.spacecom.af.mil/21swwww.vafb.af.milwww.patrick.af.milwww.schriever.af.mil

www.boeing.com/defense-space/spacewww.ast.lmco.comwww.orbital.comwww.loral.comwww.spectrumastro.comwww.trw.com

www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/schedule/mixfleet.htm

www.jpl.nasa.gov

mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mgs

spaceflight.nasa.gov

spacecenter.org

www.esa.int

www.flatoday.com/space

www.spaceandtech.com


The Year in Spaceone-piece uniform to green flight suitworn by aircrews.Oct. 1Maui Space Surveillance Complex inHawaii transfers from Air Force SpaceCommand (AFSPC) to Air Force MaterielCommand (AFMC).Oct. 9Retired Gen. James V. Hartinger, firstAFSPC commander, dies at 75.Oct. 23The 527th Space Aggressor Squadronactivates at Schriever AFB, Colo. Missionis to demonstrate how space can be usedby an enemy to thwart USAF operations.Oct. 25USAF announces it has taken over Mid-course Space Experiment (MSX) satel-lite, which provides deep space surveil-lance of satellites, and its ground supportinfrastructure from Ballistic Missile De-fense Organization.Oct. 31US astronaut William Shepherd andRussian cosmonauts Yuri Gidzenko andSergei Krikalev blast off from Baikonur,Kazakhstan, as Expedition 1—first ISSresidents.Oct. 31China successfully launches its firstnavigation positioning satellite.Nov. 3First of three new Ground-based ElectroOptical Deep Space Surveillance systemtelescopes is installed at Maui SpaceSurveillance Complex.Nov. 3NASA announces that its Chandra X-rayObservatory has spotted never-before-seen clues in afterglow of a gamma-rayburst that may support a “hypernova”model.Nov. 21For first time a single Delta II rocket,lifting off from Vandenberg, launches twodifferent primary payloads.Nov. 30–Dec. 11Endeavour’s crew delivers 17-tonpackage of solar arrays and equipmentto ISS and installs first set of solarpanels—measuring 240 feet tip to tip.Dec. 11Three North Carolina high schoolstudents using NASA’s Chandra X-rayObservatory win first place in Siemens–Westinghouse Science and TechnologyCompetition for discovery of first evidenceof neutron star in nearby supernova.Jan. 10–16, 2001China launches and successfully landsShenzhou II spacecraft carrying smallanimals—further preparation for mannedflight within next five years.Jan. 11Congressionally mandated SpaceCommission issues report recommend-ing significant organizational realign-ments and increased responsibilities forUSAF.Jan. 22AFSPC activates its first counterspacetechnology unit—76th Space ControlSquadron.

Jan. 22–26AFSPC’s Space Warfare Center conductsSchriever 2001—first wargame to explorerequirements for space control, countersto enemy space capabilities, and ability ofan enemy to deny US and allied use ofspace.Feb. 12NASA’s NEAR spacecraft continuestransmitting data as it becomes first man-made object to land on an asteroid—Eros—which it had orbited for a year.Feb. 27From Cape Canaveral, Titan IVBCentaur launches second Milstar II, thefirst to successfully reach orbit.March 1NASA halts funding of Lockheed Martin’sX-33, a subscale single-stage-to-orbitdemonstrator, and Orbital Sciences’s X-34, a reusable rocketplane demonstrator,in favor of funding for full scale develop-ment of a second-generation ReusableLaunch Vehicle (RLV) by mid-decade.March 23Russia de-orbits Mir space station aftermore than 15 years’ service.April 7NASA’s return to Mars begins with DeltaII launch of Mars Odyssey spacecraft.April 18India joins short list of nations able tolaunch large satellites into deep orbit viatheir own booster with launch of itsGeosynchronous Satellite LaunchVehicle (GSLV).April 28Soyuz rocket blasts off from Baikonurcarrying world’s first space tourist, USbusinessman Dennis Tito, on week-longexcursion to ISS.May 8Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeldannounces major national security spacemanagement and organizational initiativethat designates USAF as DOD ExecutiveAgent for Space.May 9USAF announces it will realign AFMC’sSpace and Missile Systems Center inLos Angeles under AFSPC by Oct. 1.May 23X-40A, 85-percent scale model unpilotedRLV completes seventh and final testflight, clearing way for unpowered flighttest of full-scale X-37—a NASA, USAF,Boeing program—as early as 2002.May 25Galileo completes closest flyby ofJupiter’s moon, Callisto, passing within86 miles of surface and gatheringvaluable scientific data.June 1Abe Silverstein, early architect of Apollomoon landing, dies at 92.June 2NASA destroys X-43A moments afterPegasus booster that was to carry theunpiloted aircraft to 95,000 feet went outof control during first flight test of theexperimental hypersonic, scramjet craft.X-43A is a step toward a low-cost,reusable spaceplane.

June 13, 2000NASA announces work with MSE Tech-nology Applications, Inc., Butte, Mont., todevelop plasma rocket technology thatcould one day reduce time to reachMars from eight months to just overthree—opening exploration of solarsystem by humans within next decade.June 30Findings published in Science revealNASA’s Global Surveyor has observedindications of current sources of liquidwater at or near the surface of Mars.July 8Fifth test flight of National Missile De-fense (NMD) prototype ends in failureafter exoatmospheric kill vehicle did notreceive a separation signal from itsbooster rocket.July 16Nearly two-hour lunar eclipse—longest in140 years—occurs.July 24Cape Canaveral AFS, Fla., celebrates 50years of launches from the Cape.July 25Russian service module, Zvezda, toserve as living quarters for first crewaboard International Space Station (ISS),successfully docks with ISS.Aug. 7NASA announces that its Hubble spacetelescope has seen at least a half-dozenminicomets with tails, the remains ofcomet Linear, which most astronomersthought had completely disintegrated.Aug. 12The peak of annual Perseid meteorshower arrives just as shock wave fromSun strikes Earth’s magnetosphere,triggering powerful geomagnetic stormand brilliant Northern Lights display.Aug. 17Robert R. Gilruth, 86, director of NASA’sManned Spacecraft Center during Mer-cury, Gemini, and Apollo programs, dies.Aug. 23Boeing successfully launches its newDelta III rocket, following two earlierfailures.Aug. 25Researchers report in Science thatmagnetic readings taken by NASA’sGalileo provide strong evidence thatEuropa, one of Jupiter’s moons, harborsan ocean of water underneath its icy coat.Sept. 1President Clinton announces his intent toleave any decision on NMD deploymentto next President.Sept. 26NASA announces that images from itsTransition Region and Coronal Explorer(TRACE) spacecraft solve decades-oldenigma by pinpointing that most heat inSun’s coronal loops occur at their bases.Corona is home to eruptions that candisrupt high-tech systems on Earth.Sept. 27USAF changes standard uniform forspace and missile operators from blue


Figures may not sum due to rounding. NASA totals represent space activities only.“Other” category includes the Departments of Energy, Commerce, Agriculture,Interior, and Transportation; the National Science Foundation; and the Environ-mental Protection Agency (only through 1998). (Note: NSF recalculated itsspace expeditures since 1968, making them significantly higher in some yearsthan previously reported.) Fiscal 2000 figures are preliminary.

Military & Civilian Space Budgets

US Space Funding, Current Dollars(Millions, as of Sept. 30, 2000)

FY

195919601961196219631964196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000Total

NASA

$261462926

1,7973,6265,0165,1385,0654,8304,4303,8223,5473,1013,0713,0932,7592,9154,0743,4403,6234,0304,6804,9925,5286,3286,8586,9257,1659,8098,322

10,09711,46013,04613,19913,06413,02212,54312,56912,45712,32112,45912,521

$278,391

DOD

$490561814

1,2981,5501,5991,5741,6891,6641,9222,0131,6781,5121,4071,6231,7661,8922,4432,4122,7383,0363,8484,8286,6799,019

10,19512,76814,12616,28717,67917,90615,61614,18115,02314,10613,16610,64411,51411,72712,35913,20313,197

$293,752

Total

$7851,0661,8093,2955,4356,8316,9566,9716,7106,5266,0055,3664,7754,6114,8634,6834,9656,7166,0466,5877,3148,759

10,05412,52015,67417,44820,27721,76826,56226,74228,56827,58728,00429,02727,90926,82823,95324,91724,97925,50926,64126,709

$588,750

Other

$344369

200259216244217216174170141162

133147158158199194226248231234313327395584477466741565511777805739640766834795829979991

$16,607

US Space Funding, Constant Dollars(Millions, as of Sept. 30, 2000)

Total

$3,7805,0368,464

15,21224,78530,78830,95130,49728,15127,07524,02620,55417,36015,93616,03214,76214,61317,97714,60315,25615,86317,62318,62621,15924,79526,41529,59030,76736,66935,96537,22134,60533,84333,80831,79129,80326,01326,49926,06326,17226,98726,709

$992,844

Other

$164204323923

1,181974

1,086949906723681540589460485498465533469523538465434529517598852674643997736641939938842711832887830851992991

$29,109

DOD

$2,3592,6503,8095,9937,0687,2077,0047,3896,9817,9748,0546,4275,4974,8635,3515,5675,5696,5395,8266,3416,5847,7428,944

11,28814,26715,69018,63219,96622,48423,77623,33019,58917,13817,49716,06814,62611,55912,24512,23612,68013,37513,197

$451,125

NASA

$1,2572,1824,3338,296

16,53622,60822,86222,15820,26418,37915,29113,58611,27410,61410,197

8,6978,580

10,9058,3098,3918,7409,4169,2489,342

10,01010,38210,10610,12713,54111,19213,15514,37515,76615,37314,88114,46613,62213,36712,99812,64112,62112,521

$512,610

FY

195919601961196219631964196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000Total

Project Office

Aerospace technologyBiological & physical researchEarth scienceHuman spaceflightSafety, mission assurance, engineeringSpace operationsSpace scienceTotal

NASA Spending on Major Space MissionsFY 2002 Proposal, Current Dollars

Millions

$2,228.8360.9

1,515.07,296.0

47.8482.2

2,786.4$14,717.1


Space Leaders

(As of July 1, 2001)

21st Space Wing, Peterson AFB, Colo.

30th Space Wing, Vandenberg AFB, Calif.

45th Space Wing, Patrick AFB, Fla.

50th Space Wing, Schriever AFB, Colo.

CommanderGen. Ralph E. Eberhart

Space Warfare Center • Schriever AFB, Colo.Commander Brig. Gen. Douglas J. Richardson

90th Space Wing, F.E. Warren AFB, Wyo.

91st Space Wing, Minot AFB, N.D.

341st Space Wing, Malmstrom AFB, Mont.

Air Force Space Command Headquarters, Peterson AFB, Colo.

(As of July 1, 2001)

20th Air Force • Hq., F.E. Warren AFB, Wyo.Commander Maj. Gen. Timothy J. McMahon

14th Air Force • Hq., Vandenberg AFB, Calif.Commander Maj. Gen. William R. Looney III

Note: The Space and Missile Systems Center in Los Angeleswill realign from Air Force Materiel Command to AFSPC inOctober.

People & Organizations

Joseph V. Charyk

Brockway McMillan

Alexander H. Flax

John L. McLucas

James W. Plummer

Thomas C. Reed

Hans Mark

Robert J. Hermann

Edward C. Aldridge Jr.

Martin C. Faga

Jeffrey K. Harris

Keith R. Hall (acting)

Keith R. Hall

Directors, National Reconnaissance Office

Sept. 6, 1961–March 1, 1963

March 1, 1963–Oct. 1, 1965

Oct. 1, 1965–March 11, 1969

March 17, 1969–Dec. 20, 1973

Dec. 21, 1973–June 28, 1976

Aug. 9, 1976–April 7, 1977

Aug. 3, 1977–Oct. 8, 1979

Oct. 8, 1979–Aug. 2, 1981

Aug. 3, 1981–Dec. 16, 1988

Sept. 26, 1989–March 5, 1993

May 19, 1994–Feb. 26, 1996

Feb. 27, 1996–March 27, 1997

March 28, 1997–

Commanders in Chief, US Space Command

Gen. Robert T. Herres

Gen. John L. Piotrowski

Gen. Donald J. Kutyna

Gen. Charles A. Horner

Gen. Joseph W. Ashy

Gen. Howell M. Estes III

Gen. Richard B. Myers

Gen. Ralph E. Eberhart

Sept. 23, 1985–Feb. 5, 1987

Feb. 6, 1987–March 30, 1990

April 1, 1990–June 30, 1992

June 30, 1992–Sept. 12, 1994

Sept. 13, 1994–Aug. 26, 1996

Aug. 27, 1996–Aug. 13, 1998

Aug. 14, 1998–Feb. 22, 2000

Feb. 22, 2000–

Commanders, Air Force Space Command

Gen. James V. Hartinger

Gen. Robert T. Herres

Maj. Gen. Maurice C. Padden

Lt. Gen. Donald J. Kutyna

Lt. Gen. Thomas S. Moorman Jr.

Gen. Donald J. Kutyna

Gen. Charles A. Horner

Gen. Joseph W. Ashy

Gen. Howell M. Estes III

Gen. Richard B. Myers

Gen. Ralph E. Eberhart

Sept. 1, 1982–July 30, 1984

July 30, 1984–Oct. 1, 1986

Oct. 1, 1986–Oct. 29, 1987

Oct. 29, 1987–March 29, 1990

March 29, 1990–March 23, 1992

March 23, 1992–June 30, 1992

June 30, 1992–Sept. 13, 1994

Sept. 13, 1994–Aug. 26, 1996

Aug. 26, 1996–Aug. 14, 1998

Aug. 14, 1998–Feb. 22, 2000

Feb. 22, 2000–

Directors, NASA

T. Keith Glennan

James E. Webb

Thomas O. Paine

James C. Fletcher

Robert A. Frosch

James M. Beggs

James C. Fletcher

Richard H. Truly

Daniel S. Goldin

Aug. 19, 1958–Jan. 20, 1961

Feb. 14, 1961–Oct. 7, 1968

March 21, 1969–Sept. 15, 1970

April 27, 1971–May 1, 1977

June 21, 1977–Jan. 20, 1981

July 10, 1981–Dec. 4, 1985

May 12, 1986–April 8, 1989

May 14, 1989–March 31, 1992

April 1, 1992–


Major Military Space Commands

Activities

Responsible for placing DOD satellites into orbit and operatingthem; supports unified commands with space-based communi-cations, weather, intelligence information, navigation, andballistic missile attack warning; enforces space superioritythrough protection, prevention, negation, and surveillance;ensures freedom of access to and operations in space anddenies same to adversaries; applies force from or throughspace; plans for and executes strategic ballistic missile defenseoperations; supports NORAD by providing missile warning andspace surveillance information; advocates the space and missilewarning requirements of the other unified commands; respon-sible for DOD’s computer network defense and attack missions.

Operates military space systems, ground-based missile-warningradars and sensors, missile-warning satellites, national launchcenters, and ranges; tracks space debris; operates andmaintains the USAF ICBM force (a component of US StrategicCommand). Budget includes funding for 11,000 contractorpersonnel and operations and maintenance for seven bases and40 worldwide sites.

Operates assigned space systems for surveillance and warning;provides spacecraft telemetry and on-orbit engineering;develops space plans, programs, concepts, and doctrine;advocates naval warfighting requirements in the joint arena.Budget includes funding for more than 400 contractor personneland operations and maintenance of headquarters, componentcommands, and field sites.

Manages joint tactical use of DSCS through the 1st SatelliteControl Battalion; operates the Army and Army National Guardspace support teams; operates the Joint Tactical GroundStations through the 1st Space Battalion; operates the ArmyNational Missile Defense Element; manages the Army AstronautProgram.

Unified CommandUS Space CommandPeterson AFB, Colo.

Service CommandAir Force Space CommandPeterson AFB, Colo.

Naval Space CommandDahlgren, Va.

Army Space CommandColorado Springs, Colo.

Personnel

877

33,600

444

650

Budget, FY2002

$66.8 million

$1.9 billion

$117.3 million

$50.0 million

Air Force Space Acquisition Organizations

1System Program Office 2Joint Program Office 3Program offices located at Los Angeles AFB, Calif.

USAF Program Executive Officer for SpaceBrig. Gen. Craig R. Cooning

MILSATCOM3

Space Based Infrared System3

Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle3

ICBM/National Missile Defense

Navstar Global Positioning System JPO2/3

Space and Missile Systems Center • Los Angeles AFB, Calif.Commander Lt. Gen. Brian A. Arnold

Air Force Materiel Command • Wright–Patterson AFB, OhioCommander Gen. Lester L. Lyles

Defense Meteorological Satellite SPO1

Launch Programs SPO

Advanced Systems SPO

Satellite and Launch Control SPO

Space Based Laser Project Management Office

Space & Missile Test & Evaluation Directorate,Kirtland AFB, N.M.

USAF Mission Area Director for Space & Nuclear DeterrenceMaj. Gen. (sel.) Joseph B. Sovey

Gen. Ralph E. Eberhart, speaking in June in California tothe Tennessee Ernie Ford Chapter of the Air ForceAssociation, heads NORAD, US Space Command, and AirForce Space Command.

US

AF

ph

oto

by

TS

gt.

An

dre

w J

. H

ug

ha

n


National Imagery and MappingAgency (NIMA)Headquarters: Bethesda, Md.Established: Oct. 1, 1996Director: Army Lt. Gen. James C. King

Mission, Purpose, OperationsProvide timely, relevant, and accurateimagery intelligence and geospatialinformation to support national securityobjectives. This DOD–chartered combatsupport agency is also a member of theIntelligence Community and has beenassigned, by statute, important national-level support responsibilities.StructureMajor facilities in Virginia, Maryland,Washington, D.C., and Missouri, with theNIMA College located at Ft. Belvoir, Va.Also, customer support teams and tech-nical representatives stationed around theworld at major customer locations.Personnel: Classified

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)Headquarters: Washington, D.C.Established: 1947Director: George J. Tenet

Mission, Purpose, OperationsThe CIA’s Directorate for Science andTechnology includes the Office of Devel-opment and Engineering, which developssystems from requirements definitionthrough design, testing, and evaluationto operations. Works with systems notavailable commercially. Disciplines in-clude laser communications, digitalimagery processing, real-time data col-lection and processing, electro-optics,advanced signal collection, artificialintelligence, advanced antenna design,mass data storage and retrieval, andlarge systems modeling and simulations.Work includes new concepts and sys-tems upgrades.Structure: ClassifiedPersonnel: Classified

National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA)Headquarters: Washington, D.C.Established: 1958Administrator: Daniel S. Goldin

Mission, Purpose, OperationsExplore and develop space for humanenterprise, increase knowledge aboutEarth and space, and conduct researchin space and aeronautics. Operate thespace shuttle and lead an internationalprogram to build a permanently occupiedspace station, for which assembly beganin 1998. Launch satellites for spacescience, Earth observations, and a broadrange of technology Research and De-velopment. Conduct aeronautical R&D.StructureTen centers around the US: JohnsonSpace Center, Houston; Marshall SpaceFlight Center, Huntsville, Ala.; KennedySpace Center, Fla.; Glenn Research

Major US Agencies in Space

Center, Cleveland; Langley ResearchCenter, Hampton, Va.; Ames ResearchCenter, Mountain View, Calif.; DrydenFlight Research Center, Edwards AFB,Calif.; Stennis Space Center, Bay St.Louis, Miss.; Jet Propulsion Laboratory,Pasadena, Calif.; and Goddard SpaceFlight Center, Greenbelt, Md.PersonnelCivilians ......................................... 18,000

National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration (NOAA)Headquarters: Washington, D.C.Established: Oct. 3, 1970Administrator and Undersecretary forOceans and Atmosphere: Scott Gudes(acting)

Mission, Purpose, OperationsProvide satellite observations of theglobal environment by operating a na-tional system of satellites. Explore, map,and chart the global ocean and its re-sources and describe, monitor, and pre-dict conditions in the atmosphere, ocean,and space environment. Its NationalEnvironmental Satellite, Data, and Infor-mation Service processes vast quantitiesof satellite images and data. Its primecustomer is NOAA’s National WeatherService, which uses satellite informationin creating forecasts.StructureNational Environmental Satellite, Data,

and Information ServiceNational Weather ServiceNational Ocean ServiceNational Marine Fisheries ServiceOffice of Oceanic and Atmospheric

ResearchNOAA CorpsOffice of Sustainable Development and

Intergovernmental AffairsCoastal Ocean ProgramPersonnelNational Environmental Satellite, Data,and Information Service ..................... 814Other NOAA employees ............... 11,681Total ............................................... 12,495

National Reconnaissance Office(NRO)Headquarters: Chantilly, Va.Established: September 1961Director: Keith R. Hall

Mission, Purpose, OperationsDesign, build, and operate reconnais-sance satellites to support global informa-tion superiority for the US. It has operatedhundreds of satellites since it was formedin 1960 and officially recognized in 1961.Responsible for innovative technology;systems engineering; development, ac-quisition, and operation of space recon-naissance systems; and related intelli-gence activities. Supports monitoring ofarms control agreements, military opera-tions and exercises, natural disasters,environmental issues, and worldwideevents of interest to the US.

StructureNRO is a DOD agency, funded throughpart of the National Foreign IntelligenceProgram, known as the National Recon-naissance Program. Both the Secretaryof Defense and Director of Central Intelli-gence have approval of the program.Two offices and four directorates reportup to the level of the director. Offices aremanagement services and operationsand corporate operations. Directoratesare signals intelligence systems acquisi-tion and operations, communicationssystems acquisition and operations,imagery systems acquisition and opera-tions, and advanced systems and tech-nology.PersonnelStaffed by CIA (39 percent), USAF (39percent), Navy/Marines (6 percent), Army(1 percent), and DOD civilians (15 per-cent). Exact personnel numbers areclassified.

National Security Agency (NSA)Headquarters: Ft. Meade, Md.Established: 1952Director: USAF Lt. Gen. Michael V.Hayden

Mission, Purpose, OperationsProtect US communications and produceforeign intelligence information. Taskedwith two primary missions: an informationassurance mission and a foreign intelli-gence information mission. To accomplishthese missions, the director’s responsibili-ties include: prescribing security prin-ciples, doctrines, and procedures for thegovernment; organizing, operating, andmanaging certain activities and facilitiesto produce foreign intelligence informa-tion; and conducting defensive informa-tion operations.StructureEstablished by a Presidential directive in1952 as a separately organized agencywithin DOD under the direction, authority,and control of the Secretary of Defense,who serves as the executive agent of theUS government for the signals intelli-gence and communications securityactivities of the government. A 1984Presidential directive charged the agencywith an additional mission: computersecurity. An operations security trainingmission was added in 1988. The CentralSecurity Service was established in 1972by a Presidential memorandum to providea more unified cryptological organizationwithin DOD. The NSA director also servesas chief of the CSS.Personnel: Classified

Other AgenciesThe White House Office of Science andTechnology Policy; Defense AdvancedResearch Projects Agency; Ballistic Mis-sile Defense Organization; US SpaceCommand and the component commandsof the Air Force, Navy, and Army;NORAD; and the FAA’s Office of Com-mercial Space Transportation.


Orbital Sites

Cape Canaveral AFS, Fla.Location: 28.5° N, 80° W. USAF’s EastCoast launch site.Mission/operations: Launches satellitesinto geosynchronous orbit via ELVs. Hubof Eastern Range operations for civil andcommercial space launches and militaryballistic missile tests.Launches: 570.Launch vehicles: Athena I, II; Atlas II,III, V; Delta II, III, IV; Titan IV.History: Designated simply as OperatingSub-Division #1 in 1950, it became CapeCanaveral Missile Test Annex and, for atime, Cape Kennedy AFS, then itbecame Cape Canaveral again in 1974.Acres: 15,700.

John F. Kennedy Space Center, Fla.Location: 28° N, 80° W.Mission/operations: NASA’s primarylaunch base for space shuttle.Launches: 120.Launch vehicles: Pegasus, spaceshuttle, Taurus.History: NASA began acquiring landacross the Banana River from CapeCanaveral in 1962. By 1967, its firstlaunch complex—Complex 39—wasoperational. KSC facilities were modifiedin the mid to late 1970s to accommodatethe space shuttle program.Acres: 140,000 (land and water).

Vandenberg AFB, Calif.Location: 35° N, 121° W. USAF’s WestCoast launch site.Mission/operations: Satellite (weather,remote sensing, navigation, communica-tions, and reconnaissance) launches intopolar orbits via ELVs; sole site for testlaunches of USAF ICBM fleet; basicsupport for R&D tests for DOD, USAF,and NASA space, ballistic missile, andaeronautical systems; facilities andessential services for more than 60aerospace contractors on base.Launches: 576.Launch vehicles: Athena I; Atlas II, III,V; Delta II, III, IV; Pegasus; Taurus;Titan II, IV.History: Originally Army’s Camp Cooke,turned over to Air Force January 1957.Renamed Vandenberg AFB Oct. 4, 1958.Acres: 98,400.

Wallops Flight Facility, Va.Location: 38° N, 76° W.Mission/operations: East Coast launchsite for Orbital Sciences’ Pegasus andDOD missions and NASA’s suborbital

sounding rockets.Launches: 27.Launch vehicles: Pegasus.History: Established in 1945, it is one ofworld’s oldest launch sites.Acres: 6,166.

Sea LaunchLocation: Equator, 154° W, PacificOcean.Mission/operations: Provide heavy liftGTO launch services for commercialcustomers worldwide. Sea Launch isowned by an international partnership:Boeing, RSC Energia, Ango–NorwegianKvaerner Group, and SDO Yuzhnoye/POYuzhmash.Launches: Five.Launch vehicles: Zenit and Block DM-SL.History: Established in April 1995;demonstration launch March 1999.

Spaceport Florida AuthorityLocation: 28.5° N, 80° W.Mission/operations: Various launchcomplexes and support facilitiesdeveloped, operated, and/or financed bythe state of Florida at the CapeCanaveral Spaceport (comprising CapeCanaveral AFS and Kennedy SpaceCenter). SFA operates launch complexes20 and 46 for orbital and suborbitallaunch vehicles. SFA also developedand/or owns infrastructure at launchcomplexes 37 and 41 and manages amultiuser launch control facility, spacestation experiment laboratory, and otherfacilities.Launches: 12.Launch vehicles: Athena I, II; Minotaur;Minuteman III; Taurus; Terrier.History: Established in 1989.

Spaceport Systems International, L.P.Location: 34.70° N, 120.46° W.Mission/operations: Polar and near-polarLEO launches from Vandenberg; payloadprocessing and launches for commercial,NASA, and USAF customers; small tomedium launch vehicles up to 1 millionpound thrust; payload processing facilityfor small and heavy satellites.Launches: Two.Launch vehicles: MM II–Delta III class.History: SSI, a limited partnershipformed by ITT and California CommercialSpaceport, Inc., achieved full operationalstatus of the spaceport in May 1999.

Alaska SpaceportLocation: 57.5° N, 153° W.Mission/operations: Commercial launchfacility for polar and near-polar launches

of communications, remote sensing, andscientific satellites up to 8,000 pounds.Status: Construction of Kodiak LaunchComplex is complete. Funding securedby Alaska Aerospace DevelopmentCorp., Alaska’s spaceport authority. KLCwill be the only nonfederally runcommercial launch range in US.Complex designed for all indoorprocessing of payload and launchvehicles.Launches: Three.Launch vehicles: Suborbital.Acres: 3,100.

Virginia Space Flight CenterLocation: 38° N, 76° W (south end ofWallops Flight Facility).Mission/operations: State-owned,commercially operated launch facility foraccess to inclined and sun-synchronousorbits; recovery support for ballistic andguided re-entry vehicles; vehicle andpayload storage and processingfacilities; two commercially licensedlaunchpads and suborbital launch railsfor commercial, military, scientific, andexperimental launch customers.Operator: DynSpace Corp.Launches: 11 (since 1995).Launch vehicles: Athena I, II; BlackBrant; Minotaur; Orion; Pegasus; Taurus;Terrier.

Suborbital Sites

Poker Flat Research Range, AlaskaLocation: 65° N, 147° W.Mission/operations: Launches primarilyto investigate aurora borealis and othermiddle- to upper-atmosphere phenomena;military, NASA, and civilian launches.Operator: Owned by University ofAlaska and operated by its GeophysicalInstitute, under contract to NASA’sGoddard Space Flight Center andWallops Flight Facility.Launches: 281.Launch vehicles: Various.History: Established 1968. Only USlaunch facility in polar region.Acres: 5,280 in the range, 12 million inimpact area.

White Sands Missile Range, N.M.Location: 32° N, 106° W.Mission/operations: Conducts subor-bital sounding rocket launches.Launches: 1,130.Launch vehicles: Various.History: Established July 9, 1945, asWhite Sands Proving Ground, where testflights with captured German World WarII V-2 rockets were conducted.Acres: 2.2 million.

Note: Launches from 1957–2000, except where noted.

US Space Launch Sites

Space Operations


Military Functions in Space

CommunicationsProvide communications fromNational Command Authorities toJoint Force Commander. Providecommunications from JFC tosquadron-level commanders. Permittransfer of imagery and situationalawareness to tactical operations.Permit rapid transmission of JFCintent, ground force observations, andadaptive planning.

Computer Network OperationsCoordinate and direct the defense ofDOD computer systems and com-puter networks. Monitor incidents andpotential threats and coordinateacross DOD to stop or containdamage and restore networkoperations. Develop computernetwork attack capabilities to be usedin operations that disrupt, deny,degrade, or destroy informationresident in computers and computernetworks, or the computers andnetworks themselves.

Environmental/Remote SensingUse space systems to createtopographical, hydrographic, andgeological maps and charts and todevelop systems of topographicmeasurement.

Force ApplicationUS Space Command is identifyingpotential future roles, missions, andsystems which, if authorized bycivilian leadership for development

use to the enemy. This mission isassigned to USCINCSPACE in theUnified Command Plan.

Space Environment/MeteorologicalSupportOperate ground-based systems anddirect NOAA on the operations ofspace-based DMSP weather satellitesystems to provide solar/geophysicalsupport to the warfighter. Providedata on worldwide and local weathersystems affecting combat operations.

SpaceliftOversee satellite and boosterpreparation and integration. Conductlaunch countdown activities. OperateEastern and Western Ranges tosupport ballistic and spaceflightmissions.

Strategic Early WarningOperate satellites to give nationalleaders early warning of all possiblestrategic events, including launch ofICBMs. Identify launch locations andimpact areas. Cue area and pointdefense systems.

Tactical Warning/Attack Assess-mentDischarge the NORAD mission callingfor use of all sensors to detect andcharacterize an attack on US orCanadian territory. US SpaceCommand carries out similar tacticalwarning in other theaters.

and deployment, could attackterrestrial and space targets fromspace in support of national defense.

Missile DefenseEmploy space assets to supportidentification, acquisition, tracking,and destruction of ballistic and cruisemissiles launched against forwarddeployed US forces, allied forces, orUS territory.

NavigationOperate GPS network. Enablecommanders to determine preciselocations of friendly and enemy forcesand targets. Permit accurate, timelyrendezvous of combat forces. Mapminefields and other obstacles.

On-Orbit SupportTrack and control satellites, operatetheir payloads, and disseminate datafrom them.

Reconnaissance and SurveillanceIdentify possible global threats andsurveillance of specific activity thatmight be threatening to US or alliedmilitary forces or US territory. Reduceeffectiveness of camouflage anddecoys. Identify “centers of gravity” inenemy forces. Accurately character-ize electronic emissions.

Space ControlControl and exploit space usingoffensive and defensive measures toensure that friendly forces can usespace capabilities, while denying their

A Boeing Delta II rocket taking off from Vandenberg AFB,Calif., on Nov. 21, 2000, successfully boosts two primarypayloads into orbit.

US

AF

ph

oto

by

SrA

. S

uza

nn

e J

en

kin

s


LaunchYear1958195919601961196219631964196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000Total

Military

003528

1518152713151012

8845

121114

810

55

1415

96

10101422101113111015

9788

435

NASA &Civilian

144399

101820161312

43754644711304311123344544557

1119

254

Commercial

0000110000000010226022136454204042435

106

65715718

291

Total

1478

121825363543262714151613101322152311121111222314

91116172916192120242679857645

980

Year19571958195919601961196219631964196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000Total

Military006

10193126322832242016151011

86779845567

126366

1313

9121312

911

977

11511

Civilian0756

10211225354134252414222015182119152412

81312151011

3265

149

161014182228272317

708

Total07

111629523857637358454029323123242826243216131818222217

68

12182718282326273337343028

1,219

US Satellites in Orbit and Deep Space(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

US Military vs. Civilian Launches(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

Space shuttle Endeavour returned with this photoof the evolving International Space Station. Itshows the addition of the 240-foot-long, 38-foot-wide solar array.

US

N p

ho

to b

y M

ich

ae

l J.

Blo

om

fie

ld


Month/Year

8/2001

11/2001

1/2002

2/2002

4/2002

4/2002

7/2002

Name

Discovery

Endeavour

Columbia

Atlantis

Columbia

Discovery

Atlantis

Mission

STS-105

STS-108

STS-109

STS-110

STS-107

STS-111

STS-112

Year

1961196219631964196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000Total

Flights

2310550241223010000023459102566877778535

131

Persons

2310

1010

06

123669030000048

202858

70

10253235534242424353331931

656

Category

ApplicationsCommunicationsWeatherGeodesyEarth resourcesMaterials processing

Automated lunar, planetaryMoonMercuryVenusMarsOuter planetsInterplanetary space

Earth orbital scienceGeneral engineering testsLaunch vehicle testsMinor military operationsNavigationOther militaryOther civilianPiloted activities

Earth orbitalEarth orbital (related)LunarLunar (related)

PlatformsReconnaissance

PhotographicElectronic intelligenceOcean electronic intelligenceEarly warning

Theater communicationWeapons-related activities

Fractional orbital bombardmentAnti-satellite targetsAnti-satellite interceptors

Total

Number

663514106

2021

26426

18

135

11240

6913448818

5171120

142017

0435250

963950

02020

1,812

US Manned SpaceflightsUpcoming Shuttle Flights

US Payloads by Mission, 1957–2000

Endeavour lifts off in April from Kennedy Space Centeron mission STS-100.


Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit

Orbits

Orbits result from the mutual attraction of any two bodies with a forceproportional to the product of their individual masses and inversely propor-tional to the square of the distance between them. The curvature of theEarth, on average, drops 16 feet below the horizontal over a distance ofabout five miles. A spacecraft circling above would “fall” that same amountover the same distance. It travels five miles in one second if gravitationalpull equals 1g. Therefore, spacecraft velocity of five miles per second(18,000 mph) produces perpetual orbit at sea level, unless the spacecraft’sflight is upset by perturbations, such as solar wind or mechanical anomalies.

LEO60–300 mi.

MEO300–22,300 mi.

HEO 22,300–60,000 mi.

Orbital Altitude

LEO Low Earth OrbitMEO Medium Earth OrbitGEO Geosynchronous Earth OrbitHEO High Earth Orbit

GEO 22,300 mi.

Transferellipse

LEO,parking orbit

Targetorbit

Apogee burn

Perigeeburn Illustrations are not drawn to scale.

It is common procedure topick an initial “parking” or-bit, usually at LEO, thenboost payloads to higher alti-tude. Engines are fired first(at perigee) to reach the apo-gee of an elliptical transferorbit and then are fired againto put the spacecraft into acircular orbit at that higheraltitude.

Orbital Inclinations

1 Equatorial2 Sun synchronous3 Polar

3

2

100 mi.

5 mi.

5 mi.

100 mi.

16 ft.

16 ft.

1

A Lockheed Martin Athena II low- tomedium-weight booster stands on apad at Vandenberg AFB, Calif.

A USAF Milstar satellite sits at thetop of a Titan IV booster at CapeCanaveral AFS, Fla.

Lo

ckh

ee

d M

art

in p

ho

to b

y R

uss

Un

de

rwo

od

Lo

ckh

ee

d M

art

in p

ho

to b

y R

uss

Un

de

rwo

od

Continued on p. 44.


Air Force Capt. Robert M. White (center) became the firstperson to gain astronaut status in a winged aircraft whenhe flew the X-15 rocket-powered research aircraft to analtitude of nearly 60 miles on July 17, 1962.

Continued from p. 42.

Space Shuttle Flights, 1981–2001 (As of June 6, 2001)

MissionSTS-1STS-2STS-3STS-4STS-5STS-6STS-7STS-8STS-9STS-10STS-11STS-12STS-13STS-14STS-15STS-16STS-17STS-18STS-19STS-20STS-21STS-22STS-23STS-24STS-25STS-26STS-27STS-29STS-30STS-28STS-34STS-33STS-32STS-36STS-31STS-41STS-38STS-35STS-37STS-40STS-43STS-48STS-44STS-39STS-42STS-45STS-49STS-50STS-46STS-47STS-52STS-53

Flight12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849505152

Launch4/12/81

11/12/813/22/826/27/82

11/11/824/4/83

6/18/838/30/83

11/28/832/3/844/6/84

8/30/8410/5/8411/8/841/24/854/12/854/29/856/17/857/29/858/27/8510/3/85

10/30/8511/26/85

1/12/861/28/869/29/8812/2/883/13/89

5/4/898/8/89

10/18/8911/22/89

1/9/902/28/904/24/9010/6/90

11/15/9012/2/90

4/5/916/5/918/2/91

9/12/9111/24/91

4/28/911/22/923/24/92

5/7/926/25/927/31/929/12/92

10/22/9212/2/92

Return4/14/81

11/14/813/30/82

7/4/8211/16/82

4/9/836/24/83

9/5/8312/8/832/11/844/13/84

9/5/8410/13/8411/16/84

1/27/854/19/85

5/6/856/24/85

8/6/859/3/85

10/7/8511/6/8512/3/851/18/86

No Landing10/3/8812/6/883/18/89

5/8/898/13/89

10/23/8911/27/89

1/20/903/4/90

4/29/9010/10/9011/20/9012/10/90

4/11/916/14/918/11/919/18/9112/1/91

5/6/911/30/92

4/2/925/16/92

7/9/928/8/92

9/20/9211/1/9212/9/92

Return1/19/934/17/93

5/6/937/1/93

9/22/9311/1/93

12/13/932/11/943/18/944/20/947/23/949/20/94

10/11/9411/14/94

2/11/953/18/95

7/7/957/22/959/18/9511/5/95

11/20/951/20/96

3/9/963/31/965/29/96

7/7/969/26/9612/7/961/22/972/21/97

4/8/975/24/977/17/978/19/9710/6/9712/5/971/31/98

5/3/986/12/9811/7/98

12/15/986/6/99

7/27/9912/27/99

2/22/005/29/009/19/00

10/24/0012/11/00

2/20/013/20/01

5/1/01

Launch1/13/93

4/8/934/26/936/21/939/12/93

10/18/9312/2/93

2/3/943/4/944/9/947/8/949/9/94

9/30/9411/3/94

2/3/953/2/95

6/27/957/13/95

9/7/9510/20/9511/12/95

1/11/962/22/963/22/965/19/966/20/969/16/96

11/19/961/12/972/11/97

4/4/975/15/97

7/1/978/7/97

9/25/9711/19/97

1/22/984/17/98

6/2/9810/29/98

12/4/985/27/997/22/99

12/19/992/11/005/19/00

9/8/0010/11/0011/30/00

2/7/013/8/01

4/19/01

MissionSTS-54STS-56STS-55STS-57STS-51STS-58STS-61STS-60STS-62STS-59STS-65STS-64STS-68STS-66STS-63STS-67STS-71STS-70STS-69STS-73STS-74STS-72STS-75STS-76STS-77STS-78STS-79STS-80STS-81STS-82STS-83STS-84STS-94STS-85STS-86STS-87STS-89STS-90STS-91STS-95STS-88STS-96STS-93STS-103STS-99STS-101STS-106STS-92STS-97STS-98STS-102STS-100

Flight5354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104


Major Military Satellite Systems

Defense Support ProgramCommon name: DSPIn brief: early warning spacecraft whoseinfrared sensors detect heat generatedby a missile or booster plume.Function: strategic and tactical missilelaunch detection.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: November 1970.Constellation: classified.On orbit: classified.Orbit altitude: 22,000+ miles.Contractor: TRW, Aerojet.Power plant: solar array, 1,485 watts.Dimensions: width 22 ft (on orbit),length 32.8 ft (on orbit).Weight: approx. 5,000 lb.

Defense Meteorological Satellite Pro-gramCommon name: DMSPIn brief: satellites that collect air, land,sea, and space environmental data tosupport worldwide strategic and tacticalmilitary operations.Function: environmental monitoringsatellite.Operator: NPOESS Integrated ProgramOffice.First launch: May 23, 1962.Constellation: two (primary).Orbit altitude: 500 miles (nominal).Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, 500–600 watts.Dimensions: width 4 ft, length 20 ft 2 in(with array deployed).Weight: 2,545 lb (including 592-lbsensor).

Global Broadcast SystemCommon name: GBSIn brief: wideband communications pro-gram, initially using leased commercialsatellites, then military systems, to pro-vide digital multimedia data directly to the-ater warfighters.Function: high-bandwidth data imageryand video.Operator: US Navy.First launch: March 1998 (Phase 2payload on UHF Follow-On).Constellation: three.On orbit: three.Orbit altitude: 23,230 miles.Contractor: Raytheon (Phase 2).Power plant: (interim host satellite: UHFFollow-On) 3,800 watts.Dimensions: width 22 ft, length 86 ft.Weight: 3,400 lb.

Defense Satellite CommunicationsSystem IIICommon name: DSCS IIIIn brief: nuclear-hardened and jam-proofspacecraft used to transmit high-priorityC2 messages to battlefield commanders.Function: SHF communications.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: October 1982.Constellation: five.On orbit: 10.Orbit altitude: 22,000+ miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, avg. 1,269watts (pre–System Life EnhancementProgram); avg. 1,500 watts (SLEP; firstSLEP satellite launched Jan. 20, 2000.Dimensions: rectangular body is 6 ft x6 ft x 7 ft; 38-ft span (deployed).Weight: 2,580 lb (pre–SLEP); 2,716 lb(SLEP).

Advanced Extremely High FrequencySatellite Communications SystemCommon name: AEHFIn brief: successor to Milstar, AEHF willprovide assured strategic, worldwide C2

communications with at least five timesthe capacity of Milstar II but in a smaller,cheaper package.Function: EHF communications.Operator: MILSATCOM JPO (acquisi-tion); AFSPC.First launch: 2005, planned.Constellation: four.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractors: Lockheed Martin, BoeingSpace and Communications, TRW.Power plant: N/A.Dimensions: N/A.Weight: approx. 5,357 lb (on orbit).

Milstar Satellite Communications Sys-temCommon name: MilstarIn brief: joint communications satellitethat provides secure, jam-resistantcommunications for essential wartimeneeds.Function: EHF communications.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: Feb. 7, 1994.Constellation: four.On orbit: three.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, almost 5,000watts.Dimensions: length 51 ft; solar array116 ft (deployed).Weight: approx. 10,000 lb.

Polar Military Satellite CommunicationsCommon name: Polar MILSATCOMIn brief: USAF deployed a modifiedNavy EHF payload on a host polar-orbiting satellite to provide an interimsolution for a cheaper alternative toMilstar to ensure warfighters haveprotected polar communicationscapability.Function: polar communications.Operator: AFSPCFirst launch: 1997.Constellation: two.On orbit: one.Orbit altitude: 25,300 miles (apogee).Contractor: classified.Power plant: 410 watts consumed bypayload (power from host solar array).Dimensions: numerous items integratedthroughout host.Weight: 470 lb (payload).

Global Positioning SystemCommon name: GPSIn brief: constellation of satellites usedby military and civilians to determine aprecise location anywhere on Earth.Function: worldwide navigation.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: Feb. 22, 1978.Constellation: 24 (and four spares).Orbit altitude: 12,636 miles (Block IIA);12,532 miles (Block IIR).Contractors: Boeing, Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, 700 watts(Block IIA); 1,136 watts (Block IIR)Dimensions: body 8 ft x 8 ft x 12 ft,including solar arrays 11 ft x 19 ft (II/IIA);body 8 ft x 6 ft x 10 ft, span includingarrays 37 ft (IIR).Weight: 2,174 lb (Block IIA, on orbit);2,370 lb (Block IIR, on orbit).

Space Based Infrared SystemCommon name: SBIRSIn brief: advanced surveillance systemfor missile warning, missile defense,battlespace characterization, andtechnical intelligence. System includesHigh (satellites in GEO and HEO) andLow (satellites in LEO) componentsFunction: infrared space surveillance.Operator: AFSPC.First launch: planned, High FY04; LowFY06.Constellation: High: 4 GEO sats, 2 HEOsensors. Low: (preliminary) 27 LEO sats,including three spares.On orbit: none.Orbit altitude: High at GEO & HEO;Low, LEO.Contractor: Lockheed Martin (High);TRW and Spectrum Astro for preliminarysystem designs (Low).Power plant: N/A.Dimensions: N/A.Weight: N/A.

Systems & Projects


Major US Civilian Satellites in Military Use

Advanced Communications Technol-ogy Satellite

Common name: ACTSIn brief: technology demonstrationsatellite for new types of K- and Ka-bandcommunications technologies.Function: communications.Operator: NASA.First launch: Sept. 12, 1993.Constellation: one.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, 1,400 watts.Dimensions: width 29.9 ft, length 47.1 ft(deployed).Weight: 3,250 lb.

Geostationary Operational Environ-mental Satellite

Common name: GOESIn brief: hovers over the equator to collectweather data for short-term forecasting.Function: storm monitoring andtracking, meteorological research.Operator: NOAA.First launch: Oct. 16, 1975 (GOES-1).Constellation: three.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Space Systems/Loral.Power plant: solar array, 1,050 watts.Dimensions: 6.6-ft cube, length 88.6 ft(deployed).Weight: 4,600 lb.

Globalstar

Common name: GlobalstarIn brief: mobile communications withprovision for security controls.Function: communications.Operator: Globalstar L.P.First launch: February 1998.

Constellation: 48.Orbit altitude: 878 miles.Contractor: Space Systems/Loral.Power plant: solar array, 1,100 watts.Dimensions: width 4.9 ft, length 35.3 ft(deployed).Weight: 990 lb.

Inmarsat

Common name: InmarsatIn brief: sometimes used for peacetimemobile communications services.Function: communications.Operator: International MaritimeSatellite Organization.First launch: February 1982 (firstlease), Oct. 30, 1990 (first launch).Constellation: nine.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin (Inmarsat 3).Power plant: solar array, 2,800 watts.Dimensions: width 6.9 ft, length 5.9 ft,57.8 ft (deployed).Weight: 4,545 lb (Inmarsat 3).

Intelsat

Common name: IntelsatIn brief: routine communications anddistribution of Armed Forces Radio andTV Services network.Function: communications.Operator: International Telecommunica-tions Satellite Organization.First launch: April 6, 1965 (Early Bird).Constellation: 20.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin (Intelsat 8).Power plant: solar array, 4,800 watts.Dimensions: width 8.3 x 7.2 ft, length11.3 ft, 35.4 ft (deployed) (Intelsat 8).Weight: 7,480 lb (Intelsat 8).

Landsat

Common name: LandsatIn brief: imagery use includes mappingand planning for tactical operations.Function: remote sensing.Operator: NASA/NOAA.First launch: July 23, 1972.Constellation: one.Orbit altitude: 438 miles (polar).Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, 1,550 watts.Dimensions: diameter 9 ft, length 14 ft.Weight: 4,800 lb.

Loral Orion

Common name: Telstar (formerly Orion)In brief: commercial satellite-based,rooftop-to-rooftop communications forUS Army and other DOD agencies.Function: communications.Operator: Loral Orion.First launch: November 1994.Constellation: three.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Space Systems/Loral(Orion 2).Power plant: solar array, 7,000 watts.Dimensions: width 5.6 ft, length 6.9 ft,72.2 ft (deployed).Weight: 8,360 lb (Orion 2).

NOAA-14 (NOAA-J) and NOAA-15(NOAA-K)

Common name: NOAA (with number onorbit) (also known as Television InfraredObservation Satellite or TIROS).In brief: weather updates for all areas ofthe world every six hours.Function: long-term weather forecasting.Operator: NOAA (on-orbit); NASA(launch).

UHF Follow-On SatelliteCommon name: UFOIn brief: new generation of satellitesproviding secure, anti-jam communica-tions; replaced FLTSATCOM satellites.Function: UHF and EHF communica-tions.Operator: Navy, AFSPC.First launch: March 25, 1993.Constellation: four primary, fourredundant.On orbit: nine.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: Hughes Space & Communi-cations.Power plant: solar array, 2,500–3,800watts.Dimensions: length 60 ft (F-2–F-7);86 ft (F-8–F10) (deployed).Weight: 2,600–3,400 lb.

Wideband Gap-Filler SystemCommon name: WGSIn brief: high data rate satellite broad-cast system meant to bridge thecommunications gap between currentsystems—DSCS and GBS—and anadvanced wideband system, tentativelyscheduled for launch in Fiscal 2004.Function: wideband communicationsand point-to-point service (Ka-band, X-band frequency).Operator: AFSPC.First launch: FY04, planned.Constellation: three.Orbit altitude: GEO.Contractor: Boeing.Power plant: TBD.Dimensions: TBD.Weight: TBD.

Dark and SpookyA number of intelligence satellites are op-erated by US agencies in cooperationwith the military. The missions and, espe-cially, the capabilities are closely guardedsecrets. Using a page from the Sovietbook on naming satellites, the US govern-ment started in the 1980s calling all gov-ernment satellites “USA” with a sequentialnumber. This allowed them to keep secretthe names of satellites which monitor theEarth with radar, optical sensors, andelectronic intercept capability. Most of thenames of satellites, like White Cloud(ocean reconnaissance), Aquacade (elec-tronic ferret), and Trumpet (Sigint) are es-sentially open secrets but cannot be con-firmed by the Intelligence Community.However, the move to declassify spacesystems has led to the release of selectedinformation on some systems. Pictures ofthe Lacrosse radar imaging satellite havebeen released without details on the sys-tem. Details of the Keyhole optical imag-ing systems in the Corona program havebeen released.


Major US Launchers in Military Use

Athena I

Function: low- to medium-weight spacelift.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First launch: Aug. 22, 1997.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Stages: two.Propulsion: stage 1 (Thiokol Castor 120Solid Rocket Motor), 435,000 lb thrust;stage 2 (Pratt & Whitney Orbus 21DSRM), 43,723 lb thrust.Dimensions: length 65 ft, max bodydiameter 7.75 ft.Weight: 146,264 lb.Payload max: 1,750 lb to LEO.

Athena II

Function: low- to medium-weight spacelift.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First launch: Jan. 6, 1998.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Stages: three.Propulsion: stages 1–2 (Castor 120SRMs), 435,000 lb thrust; stage 3 (Orbus21D SRM), 43,723 lb thrust.Dimensions: length 100 ft, max bodydiameter 7.75 ft.Weight: 265,000 lb.Payload max: 4,350 lb to LEO.

Atlas II

Function: medium-weight spacelift.Variants: IIA and IIAS.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First launch: Dec. 7, 1991; Feb. 10,1992 (USAF).Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Stages: two.Propulsion: (IIA and IIAS) stages 1–2(Boeing MA-5A), 490,000 lb thrust; (IIAS)four strap-on Castor IVA SRMs

Dimensions: length 82 ft, max bodydiameter 10 ft.Weight: with large payload fairing (IIA)408,800 lb; (IIAS) 515,333 lb.Payload max: (IIA) 14,500 lb to LEO;(IIAS) 19,050 lb to LEO.

Atlas III

Function: medium- to heavyweightspacelift.Variants: IIIA and IIIB.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First launch: May 24, 2000 (IIIA).Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Stages: two.Propulsion: (IIIA and IIIB) stages 1–2(Russian RD-180), 860,200 lb.Dimensions: length 170 ft, diameter 10 ft.Weight: with large payload fairing (IIIA)486,500 lb; (IIIB) 496,908 lb.Payload max: (IIIA and IIIB) 9,920 lbs toGTO.

Atlas V

Function: medium to heavy launch.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First Launch: planned for late 2001.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Stages: two.Propulsion: RD AMROSS LLC RD-180,up to five strap-on SRMs.Dimensions: length 106.2 ft, diameter12.5 ft.Weight: (400) with large payload fairing734,850 lb; (551) with Contraves Short(5.4 meter) payload fairing 1,191,250 lb.Payload max: 18,080 lb to GTO;13,100+ lb to GSO.

Delta II

Function: medium-weight spacelift.

Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First launch: Feb. 14, 1989.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Boeing.Stages: up to three.Propulsion: stage 1 (Boeing RS-27A),237,000 lb thrust; stage 2 (Aerojet AJ10-118K), 9,750 lb thrust; stage 3 (ThiokolSTAR 48B SRM), 14,920 lb thrust; ninestrap-on SRMs (Alliant Techsystems),100,270 lb thrust.Dimensions: length 125.2 ft, diameter 8 ft.Weight: 511,190 lb.Payload max: 11,330 lb to LEO.

Delta III

Function: medium-weight spacelift.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First launch: Aug. 26, 1998.Launch site: CCAFS.Contractor: Boeing.Stages: up to three.Propulsion: stage 1 (RS-27A), 237,000 lbthrust; stage 2 (Pratt & Whitney RL10B-2), 20,500 lb thrust; stage 3 Thiokol Star48B (modified).Dimensions: length 148 ft, diameter 13 ft.Weight: 663,200 lb.Payload max: 18,200 lb to LEO.

Delta IV

Function: medium to heavy launch.Operator: commercial (AFSPC over-sight).First Launch: planned for 2001.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Boeing.Stages: two.Propulsion: RS-68.Dimensions: stage 1 length 120 ft,diameter 16.8 ft.Weight: 480,750 lb (stage 1).Payload max: 27,400 lb (Delta IV heavy).

First launch: October 1978 (TIROS-N).Constellation: two.Orbit altitude: 530 miles.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Power plant: solar array, 1,000+ watts.Dimensions: diameter 6.2 ft, length13.8 ft (NOAA-15).Weight: approx. 4,900 lb (NOAA-15).

Orbcomm

Common name: OrbcommIn brief: potential military use understudy in Joint Interoperability WarfighterProgram.Function: mobile communications.Operator: Orbcomm Global LP.First launch: April 1995.Constellation: 35.Orbit altitude: 500–1,200 miles.Contractor: Orbital Sciences.

Power plant: solar array, 160 watts.Dimensions: width 7.3 ft, length 14.2 ft.Weight: 90 lb.

Satellite Pour l’Observation de laTerre

Common name: SPOTIn brief: terrain images used for mission-planning systems, terrain analysis, andmapping.Function: remote sensing.Operator: SPOT Image S.A. (France).First launch: Feb. 22, 1986.Constellation: three.Orbit altitude: 509 miles.Contractor: Matra Marconi Space France.Power plant: solar array, 2,100 watts(SPOT 4).Dimensions: 6.6 x 6.6 x 18.4 ft (SPOT 4).Weight: 5,940 lb (SPOT 4).

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite Sys-tem

Common name: TDRSIn brief: global network that allows otherspacecraft in LEO to communicate with acontrol center without an elaboratenetwork of ground stations.Function: communications relay.Operator: NASA.First launch: April 1983.Constellation: six.Orbit altitude: 22,300 miles.Contractor: TRW.Power plant: solar array, 1,800 watts.Dimensions: width 45.9 ft, length 57.4 ft(deployed).Weight: 5,000 lb.

Continued on p. 50.


First launch: April 12, 1981.Launch site: Kennedy Space Center, Fla.Contractor: Boeing.Stages: delta-winged orbiter.Propulsion: three main engines,394,000 lb thrust; two SRMs, 3.3 million lbthrust.Dimensions: system length 184.2 ft;span 76.6 ft.Weight: 4.5 million lb (gross).Payload max: 55,000 lb to LEO.

Taurus

Function: low-weight spacelift.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First launch: March 13, 1994.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB, Wallops Is.Contractor: Orbital Sciences.Stages: three.Propulsion: Castor 120 SRM, 495,400 lbthrust; stage 1, 109,140 lb thrust; stage 2,26,900 lb thrust; stage 3, 7,200 lb thrust(stages 1–3, Alliant Techsystems).Dimensions: length 89 ft, max bodydiameter 7.6 ft.Weight: 50,000 lb.Payload max: 3,000 lb to LEO.

Titan II

Function: low- to medium-weight spacelift.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).

Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

Function: medium/heavy spacelift.Note: Atlas V and Delta IV (see indi-vidual entries for specifications) areparticipating in USAF’s EELV moderniza-tion spacelift program to cut launch costsby 25 to 50 percent. These systems willeventually replace Delta II, Atlas II, TitanII, and Titan IV launch vehicles.

Pegasus

Function: low-weight spacelift.Variants: Standard and XL.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First launch: (Standard) April 5, 1990;(XL) June 27, 1994.Launch site: dropped from L-1011 aircraft.Contractor: Orbital Sciences/Alliant.Stages: three.Propulsion: (XL) stage 1, 109,400 lb.thrust; stage 2, 27,600 lb thrust; stage 3,7,800 lb thrust (all Alliant Techsystems).Dimensions: length 49 ft, wingspan 22 ft,diameter 4.17 ft.Weight: 42,000 lb.Payload max: (Standard) 850 lb to LEO;(XL) 1,050 lb to LEO.

Space Shuttle

Function: heavyweight manned spacelift.Operator: United Space Alliance (NASAcontract).

First launch: April 8, 1964 (NASA).Launch site: VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Stages: two.Propulsion: stage 1, 430,000 lb thrust;stage 2, 100,000 lb thrust (both Aerojet).Dimensions: length 110 ft (stages 1+2),diameter 10 ft.Weight: 408,000 lb.Payload max: 4,200 lb to polar LEO.

Titan IVB

Function: heavyweight spacelift.Operator: commercial (AFSPC oversight).First launch: (IVB) Feb. 23, 1997.Launch site: CCAFS, VAFB.Contractor: Lockheed Martin.Stages: two; may add Centaur or InertialUpper Stages.Propulsion: two SRM upgrades (AlliantTechsystems), 1.7 million lb thrust each;stage 1 (LR87-AJ-11), 551,200 lb thrust;stage 2 (LR91-AJ-11), 106,150 lb thrust(stages 1–2, Aerojet); Centaur, 33,000 lbthrust; IUS (Boeing), 41,700 lb thrust.Dimensions: length (stage 1–2) 119.2 ft,diameter 10 ft.Weight: 1.9 million lb.Payload max: 47,800 lb to LEO.

■ DiscoveryFunding: $217.1 million. Mis-sion: Low-cost planetary explora-tion program. Genesis spacecraftwill collect samples of chargedparticles in the solar wind andreturn them to Earth for study.Comet Nucleus Tour (CON-TOUR) will intercept and collectdata on three comets. Launchschedule: Genesis: July 2001;CONTOUR: July 2002.

■ Earth Observing SystemFunding: $371.9 million. Mis-sion: Document global climaticchange and observe environmen-tal processes via satellites.Launch schedule: First launchDec. 18, 1999. Other launchesscheduled for 2001–03.

■ ExplorerFunding: $155 million. Mission:Study the effects of solar wind onEarth’s magnetosphere, measurethe position and brightness of 40million stars, and study organic

Selected NASA Projects Fiscal 2002 Proposal (Current Dollars)

compounds in interstellar clouds.Launch schedule: IMAGElaunched March 25, 2000.Additional launches through2005.

■ Hubble Space TelescopeFunding: $161.8 million. Mis-sion: Perform observations atvisible, near-ultraviolet, and near-infrared wavelengths. Launchschedule: First launched in April25, 1990. Previous servicingmissions: December 1993,February 1997, December 1999.Upcoming servicing missons:2002.

■ Relativity (Gravity Probe B)Funding: $40.2 million. Mission:Test Einstein’s theory of generalrelativity. Launch schedule:October 2002.

■ Space shuttleFunding: $3.3 billion Mission:Provide safe, reliable, andeffective access to space for widevariety of missions, such as

repair and service of the HubbleSpace Telescope, advance of lifesciences and technology throughSpacelab and Spacehab missions,and initial assembly of the Interna-tional Space Station (ISS). Launchschedule: seven flights for FY01,seven for FY02.

■ International Space StationFunding: $2.1 billion. Mission:Establish a long-term residence andlaboratory for science research andset-up permanent crew capability.FY01 was first year of crewed on-orbit operations.

■ Russian Program AssuranceFunding: FY02 funding is underreview. Mission: Fund contingencyactivities and backup capabilities inthe event Russia delays or fails inits commitments to ISS.

■ Other space operationsFunding: $39.2 million. Missions:Support of planetary missionsincludes NEAR, Stardust, Genesis,and CONTOUR.

Continued from p. 47.


PlatformsEarth orbital scienceAutomated lunar, planetary

MoonMercuryVenusMarsOuter planetsInterplanetary space

ApplicationsCommunicationsWeatherGeodesyEarth resourcesMaterials processing

Piloted activitiesEarth orbitalEarth orbital (related)LunarLunar (related)

Launch vehicle testsGeneral engineering testsReconnaissance

PhotographicElectronic intelligenceOcean electronic intelligenceEarly warning

Minor military operationsNavigationTheater communicationWeapons-related activities

Fractional orbital bombardmentAnti-satellite targetsAnti-satellite interceptors

Other militaryOther civilianTotal

Russian Payloads by Mission, 1957–2000(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

518211

8634

03319

00

534315

7434

10011

25990

16108

274

1,101805133

8479

161223535

56181820

12

3,718

Russian Operational Spacecraft(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

MissionCommunications

Early warning

Electronic intelligence

Geodesy

Meteorology

Navigation

Photoreconnaissance

Remote sensing

Space station activity

Number1

1

4

2

4

5

2

6

1

4

4

5

1

4

1

2

2

1

1

1

4

12

6

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

TypeBonum-1

Ekran-M

Ekspress

Gals

Gonets-D

Gorizont

Kosmos (Geizer)

Kosmos (Strela-3)

LMI

Molniya-1

Molniya-3

Raduga/Raduga-1

Yamal

Kosmos (Oko)

Kosmos (EORSAT)

Kosmos (Tselina-2)

Kosmos (Etalon)

Kosmos (GEO-IK)

Meteor-3

Dedicated SAR

Kosmos (civil)

Kosmos GLONASS

Kosmos (military)

Kosmos (Yantar-4KS1)

Kosmos (Orlets-2)

Okean

Okean-O

Resurs-01

Kristall (Mir)

Kvant-1 (Mir)

Kvant-2 (Mir)

Mir core

Priroda (Mir)

Progress M (Mir)

Progress-M1 (ISS)

Soyuz-TM (ISS)

Spektr (Mir)

Zarya (ISS)

Zvezda (ISS)

Foreign Space Activities

A Lockheed Khrunichev Energia International (LKEI) Protonbooster waits for launch at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in

Kazakhstan.

Lo

ck

he

ed

Ma

rtin

ph

oto

by

Ru

ss

Un

de

rwo

od


Russian Military vs. Civilian Launches(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

Total21336

2017304844667470818374868189999888878998

101989798919590747559544748322528242635

2,634

Year19571958195919601961196219631964196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000Total

Military0000057

1525274649515560535852607469606064596858636463625342453032262615

810

967

1,636

Civilian21336

151015231720251926232128292925292827253933403434283337323029222122171718152228

1,000

Russian Launches(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

Commercial/Foreign

Communications

Dedicated SAR

Dummy satellite (ELV test)

Electronic intelligence (ocean recon)

Navigation

Photoreconnaissance

Piloted flight

Remote sensing

Space station module

Unmanned space station resupply

Total

Launches

15

5

1

3

1

1

3

2

2

1

5

39

Spacecraft

24

5

1

4

1

3

3

2

2

1

5

51

Russian Launch Site Activity(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

Spacecraft

Baikonur Cosmodrome, Tyuratam, KazakhstanDnieprProton-KSoyuz-USoyuz-U/FregatZenit-2Total

Svobodny Cosmodrome, Svobodny, RussiaStart-1Total

Odyssey Platform, Pacific Ocean (Sea Launch)Zenit-3SLTotal

Plesetsk Cosmodrome, Plesetsk, RussiaKosmos-3MRokotTotal

Number of launches

114

942

30

11

22

314

This 1996 photo shows Russia’s Mir space station inorbit. The Russians de-orbited the Mir on March 23, 2001,after more than 15 years’ service.


*Total number of personnel who flew in space in a given year.

(Individuals may have made multiple flights.)

Year1961196219631964196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000Total

Russian Manned Spaceflights(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

Flights2221101151202343352633232133132223222212

90

Persons*22232011

1126046866

104

1368595289276658655635

205

*International Telecommunications Satellite Organization

Payloads in Orbit(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

Launcher/operator

MexicoSpainArgentinaCzechoslovakiaThailandInternational Space StationIsraelMalaysiaNorwayTurkeyEgyptFrance/GermanyPhilippinesChileDenmarkPortugalSingaporeSouth AfricaTaiwanUnited Arab EmiratesTotal

Launcher/operator

RussiaUnited StatesJapanITSO*

FranceChinaESAUnited KingdomGermanyIndiaCanadaItalyLuxembourgBrazilIndonesiaSaudi ArabiaSwedenNATOAustraliaSouth Korea

Objects

1,371980

715650353029202017111110

999877

Objects

66544333332221111111

2,813

Nation

AfghanistanAustriaBelgiumBulgariaCanadaCubaCzechoslovakiaFranceGermanyHungaryIndiaItalyJapanMexico

Spacefarers*(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

Persons

11128118911351

Nation

MongoliaNetherlandsPolandRomaniaRussiaSaudi ArabiaSlovakiaSpainSwitzerlandSyriaUkraineUnited KingdomUnited StatesVietnamTotal

Persons

1111

921111111

2501

397

*Individuals who have flown in space.

Year

196519661967196819691970197119721973197419751976197719781979198019811982198319841985198619871988198919901991199219931994199519961997199819992000Total

Other, Launches(As of Dec. 31, 2000)

France

112

21

3

10

China

11

32

1

11131224

51415236645

65

Japan

121

1212322313322322321121122

53

ESA

1

2

243227758776

111012111012

129

India

11

1

1

2

11

1

9

Israel

1

1

1

3


March 23Gemini 3 astronauts Maj. Virgil I. “Gus”Grissom and Lt. Cmdr. John W. Young com-plete world’s first piloted orbital maneuver.June 4Gemini 4 astronaut Maj. Edward H. White IIperforms first American space walk.July 14Mariner provides first close-up pictures ofMars.Aug. 21Gemini 5 launched as first manned space-craft using fuel cells for electrical powerrather than batteries.March 16, 1966Gemini 8 astronauts Neil A. Armstrong andMaj. David R. Scott perform first manualdocking in space with Agena rocket stage.June 2Surveyor 1 is first US spacecraft to landsoftly on moon. It analyzes soil content andtransmits surface images to Earth.Jan. 25, 1967Soviet Kosmos 139 anti-satellite weaponcarries out first fractional orbit bombardment.Jan. 27First deaths in US spacecraft occur in flashfire in Apollo 1 command module, killingastronauts Grissom, White, and Lt. Cmdr.Roger B. Chaffee.Sept. 8Surveyor 5 conducts first chemical analysisof lunar soil.Oct. 20, 1968Soviet Kosmos 248 and Kosmos 249spacecraft carry out first co-orbital anti-satellite test.Dec. 21–27Apollo 8 becomes first manned spacecraftto escape Earth’s gravity and enter lunarorbit. First live lunar television broadcast.March 3–13, 1969Apollo 9 crew members Col. James A.McDivitt, Col. David R. Scott, and RussellL. Schweickart conduct first test of lunarmodule in Earth orbit.July 20Apollo 11’s Neil A. Armstrong is first humanto walk on moon.Nov. 14–24US Apollo 12 mission deploys first majorscientific experiments on moon and com-pletes first acquisition of samples fromearlier spacecraft—Surveyor 3.Feb. 11, 1970Japan launches first satellite, Osumi, fromKagoshima Space Center using Lambda 4Ssolid-fuel rocket.Jan. 31, 1971Apollo 14 launched; its astronauts will com-plete first manned landing on lunar highlands.April 19First space station, Salyut 1, goes aloft.June 6USSR’s Soyuz 11 performs first successfuldocking with Salyut space station.Oct. 28First British satellite, Prospero, launchedinto orbit on Black Arrow rocket.

March 22, 1946First US rocket to leave Earth’s atmo-sphere, JPL–Ordnance WAC reaches 50-mile height after launch from White SandsProving Ground, N.M.Feb. 24, 1949Bumper–WAC Corporal two stage rocket,first with fully tanked second stage, reachesrecord altitude of 244 miles and velocity of5,150 mph.July 24, 1950Bumper No. 8 becomes first missilelaunched from Cape Canaveral, Fla.Sept. 20, 1956US Jupiter C rocket achieves record firstflight, reaching altitude of 682 miles andlanding 3,400 miles from Cape Canaveral.Aug. 21, 1957First successful launch of Soviet R7 rocket,which six weeks later will loft Sputnik intoorbit.Oct. 4USSR launches Sputnik 1, first man-madesatellite, into Earth orbit.Nov. 3First animal in orbit, a dog named Laika, iscarried aloft by Soviet Sputnik 2.Dec. 6First US attempt to launch satellite failswhen Vanguard rocket loses thrust andexplodes.Dec. 17First successful USAF Atlas ICBM test flight.Jan. 31, 1958Explorer 1, first US satellite, launched.May 15USSR launches first automatic scientific lababoard Sputnik 3.Dec. 18Project Score spacecraft conducts first USactive communication from space.Feb. 28, 1959Discoverer 1 becomes first satellitelaunched from Vandenberg AFB, Calif.June 9First engineer group arrives at CapeCanaveral to prepare Atlas booster carryingfirst Mercury capsule.Aug. 7Explorer 6 spacecraft transmits first televi-sion pictures from space.Sept. 12Soviet Union launches Luna 2, which twodays later becomes first man-made objectto strike moon.April 1, 1960TIROS 1 becomes first US weather satelliteto go aloft.April 13Transit 1B becomes first US navigationsatellite in space.May 24Atlas D/Agena A booster places MIDAS II,first early warning satellite, in orbit.June 22US performs first successful launch ofmultiple independently instrumented satel-lites by single rocket.

Aug. 11Capsule ejected from Discoverer 13 para-chutes into Pacific Ocean and becomes firstorbital payload ever recovered.Aug. 12First passive communications carried viaEcho 1 satellite.Aug. 19Capsule containing first satellite photo-graphs of Soviet Union ejected from Dis-coverer 14 becomes first orbital payloadrecovered in midair by C-119 Flying Boxcar.Jan. 31, 1961Preparing for manned spaceflight, US firsttests life support by launching a Mercurycapsule with chimpanzee Ham on a subor-bital trajectory.Feb. 16Explorer 9 becomes first satellite launchedfrom Wallops Island, Va.April 12Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin pilotsVostok 1 through nearly one orbit to be-come first human in space.May 5Lt. Cmdr. Alan B. Shepard Jr., aboardFreedom 7 Mercury capsule, becomes firstAmerican in space, climbing to 116.5 milesduring suborbital flight lasting 15 minutes,28 seconds.Oct. 27First flight of Saturn rocket marks beginningof more than 11 years of Apollo launches.Feb. 20, 1962Project Mercury astronaut Lt. Col. John H.Glenn Jr., aboard Friendship 7 capsule,completes first US manned orbital flight.July 17Air Force Capt. Robert M. White earnsastronaut wings when he reaches altitudeof nearly 60 miles in rocket-powered X-15,first aircraft to be flown to lower edge ofspace, considered to be 50 miles.Dec. 14Mariner 2 passes Venus at distance of21,600 miles, becoming first space probe toencounter another planet.June 16, 1963Valentina Tereshkova of USSR pilotsVostok 6 to become first woman in space.July 26Hughes Corp.’s Syncom 2 (prototype ofEarlyBird communications satellite) orbitsand “parks” over Atlantic to become world’sfirst geosynchronous satellite.Oct. 17Vela Hotel satellite performs first space-based detection of nuclear explosion.July 28, 1964First close-up lunar pictures provided byRanger 7 spacecraft.Aug. 14First Atlas/Agena D standard launch vehiclesuccessfully fired from Vandenberg.March 18, 1965First space walk conducted by AlexeiLeonov of Soviet Voskhod 2.

Space Lore

Space Firsts


Nov. 2Titan IIIC launches first Defense SatelliteCommunications System (DSCS) Phase IIsatellites into GEO.April 16–27, 1972Apollo 16 astronauts Capt. John Young, Lt.Cmdr. Thomas K. Mattingly II, and Lt. Col.Charles M. Duke Jr. are first to use moonas astronomical laboratory.July 23US launches first Earth Resources Technol-ogy Satellite (ERTS A), later renamedLandsat 1.Dec. 3, 1973Pioneer 10 becomes first space probe tocome within reach of Jupiter.July 15, 1975US Apollo and Soviet Soyuz 19 perform firstinternational docking of spacecraft in space.July 20, 1976NASA’s Viking 1 performs first soft landingon Mars and begins capturing images ofRed Planet’s surface.Aug. 12, 1977Space shuttle Enterprise performs first freeflight after release from Boeing 747 at22,800 feet.Feb. 22, 1978Atlas booster carries first Global PositioningSystem (GPS) Block I satellite into orbit.Dec. 13Successful launch of two DSCS II satellitesputs full four-satellite constellation at users’disposal for first time.July 18, 1980India places its first satellite, Rohini 1, intoorbit using its own SLV-3 launcher.April 12–14, 1981First orbital flight of shuttle Columbia(STS-1) and first landing from orbit ofreusable spacecraft.Dec. 20, 1982First Defense Meteorological Satellite Pro-gram (DMSP) Block 5D-2 satellite launched.June 13, 1983Pioneer 10 becomes first spacecraft toleave solar system.June 18Space shuttle Challenger crew memberSally K. Ride becomes first Americanwoman in space.Sept. 11, 1985International Cometary Explorer becomesfirst man-made object to encounter a comet(Giacobini–Zinner).Sept. 13First US anti-satellite intercept test destroysSolwind scientific satellite by air-launchedweapon.Oct. 3, 1985First launch of Atlantis (STS-51J) results infirst launch of pair of DSCS III satellites fromspace shuttle using Inertial Upper Stage.Jan. 24, 1986Voyager 2, launched Aug. 20, 1977, makesfirst solo planet flyby of Uranus and sweepsby Neptune on Aug. 24, 1989, becomingfirst spacecraft to visit these planets.

Jan. 28Space shuttle Challenger explodes afterliftoff, killing seven astronauts.Feb. 22France launches first Satellite Pour l’Obser-vation de la Terre (SPOT) for remote sensing.Aug. 12First launch of Japanese H-I rocket putsExperimental Geodetic Satellite into circularorbit.May 15, 1987USSR stages first flight of its Energia heavylauncher, designed to lift 100 tons into LEO.Nov. 15, 1988USSR makes first launch of 30-ton shuttleBuran using Energia rocket.Feb. 14, 1989Launch of first Block II GPS satellite beginsoperational constellation.Aug. 10, 1990Unmanned spacecraft Magellan—on firstdedicated US mission to study surface ofVenus in detail using radar imagery—entersorbit around Venus.Jan. 17, 1991What USAF calls “the first space war,” Opera-tion Desert Storm, opens with air attacks.Oct. 29Galileo swings within 10,000 miles of Gas-pra, snapping first close-up images of anasteroid.May 13, 1992First trio of space-walking astronauts,working from shuttle Endeavour, rescuesIntelsat 6 from useless low orbit.Jan. 13, 1993USAF Maj. Susan Helms, flying aboardEndeavour, becomes first US militarywoman in space.July 19Launch of DSCS Phase III satellite intoGEO provides first full five-satellite DSCSIII constellation.Dec. 2–13USAF Col. Richard O. Covey pilots shuttleEndeavour on first mission to repair HubbleSpace Telescope, setting a record for mostextravehicular activities—five in one mission.Jan. 25, 1994Launch of 500-pound unpiloted Clementinespacecraft marks first post–Apollo US lunarmission.Feb. 7 First Titan IV Centaur boosterlaunches first Milstar Block I satellite intoorbit.March 13First launch of Taurus booster places twomilitary satellites in orbit.Nov. 5Ulysses, first probe to explore sun’s envi-ronment at high latitudes, completes passover sun’s southern pole and reveals thatsolar wind’s velocity at high latitudes (i.e.,about 2 million mph) is nearly twice itsvelocity at lower latitudes.Feb. 6, 1995Shuttle Discovery (STS-63) and spacestation Mir perform first US–Russian space

rendezvous in 20 years, with USAF Lt. Col.Eileen M. Collins coincidentally becomingfirst woman to pilot a US spaceship.March 14US astronaut Norman E. Thagard becomesfirst American to accompany Russian cos-monauts aboard Soyuz TM-21 spacecraftand, two days later, becomes first Americanto inhabit space station Mir.June 29Atlantis (STS-71) docks with Mir, the firstdocking of a US spacecraft and a Russianspace station.March 8, 1996First successful launch of Pegasus XLrocket from beneath modified L-1011 air-craft sends Air Force Radiation Experi-ment–II satellite into polar orbit.June 27Galileo captures first close-up images ofJupiter’s moon Ganymede.April 21, 1997Celestis, Inc., of Houston performs firstspace “burial” when Pegasus rocketlaunched from L-1011 off coast of north-west Africa carries cremated remains of“Star Trek” creator Gene Roddenberry and23 other space enthusiasts into orbit 300miles above Earth.April 29US astronaut Jerry Linenger and Russiancosmonaut Vasily Tsibliev complete five-hour space walk outside Mir, the first suchjoint excursion in space history.June 27In first flyby of “dark, primitive main-belt”type asteroid, NASA’s Near-Earth AsteroidRendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft passes 253Mathilde.July 5One day after Mars Pathfinder lands onsurface of Red Planet, Sojourner roverbecomes first mobile, semiautonomous,robotic vehicle to traverse another planet’ssurface.May 29, 1998First transfer of operational military spacesystem to civilian agency occurs when AirForce hands to NOAA control of DMSPspacecraft.June 17Hughes completes first commercial missionto moon, having used dual lunar flybys tomaneuver errant HGS-1 satellite into us-able, geosynchronous orbit.Dec. 4–15Space shuttle Endeavour completes thefirst ISS assembly mission.July 23–27, 1999Air Force Col. Eileen M. Collins becomesfirst woman to command shuttle missionwhen Columbia (STS-93) places ChandraX-Ray Observatory, world’s most powerfulX-ray telescope, in orbit.Feb. 14, 2000NEAR spacecraft becomes first man-madeobject to orbit, and later to land on, aster-oid—433 Eros.


Remote imaging. Images of Earthgenerated from a spacecraft that providedata for mapping, construction, agricul-ture, oil and gas exploration, news mediaservices, and the like.

Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV). Alaunch vehicle that can be reused afterflight.

Rocket. An aerospace vehicle thatcarries its own fuel and oxidizer and canoperate outside Earth’s atmosphere.

Semisynchronous orbit. An orbit set atan altitude of 12,834 miles. Satellites inthis orbit revolve around Earth in exactly12 hours.

Single-Stage-To-Orbit (SSTO) system.A reusable single-stage rocket that cantake off and land repeatedly and is ableto boost payloads into orbit.

Stratosphere. That section of atmo-sphere about 10 to 30 miles aboveEarth’s surface.

Sun synchronous orbit. An orbit inclinedabout 98° to the equator and at LEOaltitude. At this inclination and altitude, asatellite’s orbital plane always maintainsthe same relative orientation to the sun.

Thermosphere. The thin atmosphereabout 50 to 300 miles above Earth’ssurface. It experiences dramaticallyincreased levels of heat compared to thelower layers.

Transfer. Any maneuver that changes aspacecraft orbit.

Transponder. A radar or radio set that,upon receiving a designated signal,emits a radio signal of its own.

Troposphere. The region of theatmosphere from Earth’s surface toabout 10 miles above the equator andfive miles above the poles. This is wheremost clouds, wind, rain, and otherweather occurs.

Van Allen belts. Zones of intenseradiation trapped in Earth’s magneto-sphere that could damage unshieldedspacecraft.

Aerospace. A physical region made upof Earth’s atmosphere and the spacebeyond.

Aerospace plane. A reusable spacecraftable to operate effectively in both theatmosphere and space. Also known as a“transatmospheric vehicle” or, morecurrently, “spaceplane.”

Apogee. The point of greatest distancefrom Earth (or the moon, a planet, etc.)achieved by a body in elliptical orbit.Usually expressed as distance fromEarth’s surface.

Atmosphere. Earth’s enveloping sphereof air.

Boost phase. Powered flight of a ballisticmissile—i.e., before the rocket burns out.

Burn. The process in which rocketengines consume fuel or other propellant.

Circumterrestrial space. “Inner space”or the atmospheric region that extendsfrom 60 miles to about 50,000 miles fromEarth’s surface.

Constellation. A formation of satellitesorbiting for a specific combined purpose.

Deep space. All space beyond theEarth–moon system, or from about480,000 miles altitude outward.

Eccentric orbit. An extremely elongatedelliptical orbit.

Ecliptic plane. The plane defined by thecircle on the celestial sphere traced bythe path of the sun.

Elliptical orbit. Any noncircular, closedspaceflight path.

Exosphere. The upper limits of Earth’satmosphere, ranging from about 300miles altitude to about 2,000 milesaltitude.

Expendable Launch Vehicle (ELV). Alaunch vehicle that cannot be reusedafter one flight.

Ferret. A satellite whose primaryfunction is to gather electronic intelli-gence, such as microwave, radar, radio,and voice emissions.

Geostationary Earth orbit. A geosyn-chronous orbit with 0° inclination inwhich the spacecraft circles Earth 22,300miles above the equator and appearsfrom Earth to be standing still.

Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO).An orbit at 22,300 miles that is synchro-nized with Earth’s rotation. If a satellitein GEO is not at 0° inclination, its groundpath describes a figure eight as it travelsaround Earth.

Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit(GTO). An orbit that originates with theparking orbit and then reaches apogee atthe GEO.

Ground track. An imaginary line on

Earth’s surface that traces the course ofanother imaginary line between Earth’scenter and an orbiting satellite.

High Earth Orbit (HEO). Flight pathabove geosynchronous altitude (22,300to 60,000 miles from Earth’s surface).

High-resolution imagery. Detailedrepresentations of actual objects thatsatellites produce electronically oroptically on displays, film, or other visualdevices.

Inertial Upper Stage (IUS). A two-stagesolid-rocket motor used to propel heavysatellites into mission orbit.

Ionosphere. A region of electricallycharged thin air layers that begins about30 miles above Earth’s atmosphere.

Low Earth Orbit (LEO). Flight pathbetween Earth’s atmosphere and thebottom of the Van Allen belts, i.e., fromabout 60 to 300 miles altitude.

Magnetosphere. A region dominated byEarth’s magnetic field, which trapscharged particles, including those in theVan Allen belts. It begins in the upperatmosphere, where it overlaps theionosphere, and extends severalthousand miles farther into space.

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO). Flight pathbetween LEO, which ends at about 300miles altitude, and GEO, which is at anaverage altitude of 22,300 miles.

Mesosphere. A region of the atmo-sphere about 30 to 50 miles aboveEarth’s surface.

Orbital decay. A condition in whichspacecraft lose orbital altitude andorbital energy because of aerodynamicdrag and other physical forces.

Orbital inclination. Angle of flight pathin space relative to the equator of aplanetary body. Equatorial paths are 0°for flights headed east, 180° for thoseheaded west.

Outer space. Space that extends fromabout 50,000 miles above Earth’s surfaceto a distance of about 480,000 miles.

Parking orbit. Flight path in whichspacecraft go into LEO, circle the globein a waiting posture, and then transferpayload to a final, higher orbit.

Payload. Any spacecraft’s crew orcargo; the mission element supported bythe spacecraft.

Perigee. The point of minimum altitudeabove Earth (or the moon, a planet, etc.)maintained by a body in elliptical orbit.

Period. The amount of time a spacecraftrequires to go through one completeorbit.

Polar orbit. Earth orbit with a 90°inclination. Spacecraft on this path couldpass over every spot on Earth as Earthrotates under the satellite’s orbit (seeorbital inclination).

Space Terms


Reading About Space

The Golden Age of NASANameDurationCostDistinctionHighlightNumber of flightsKey events

NameDurationCostDistinction

HighlightNumber of flightsKey events

NameDurationCostDistinctionHighlights

Number of flightsKey events

Project MercuryNov. 3, 1958–May 16, 1963$392.1 million (cost figures are in then-year dollars)First US manned spaceflight programAstronauts are launched into space and returned safely to EarthSixMay 5, 1961 Lt. Cmdr. Alan B. Shepard Jr. makes first US manned flight, a 15-minute suborbital tripFeb. 20, 1962 Lt. Col. John H. Glenn Jr. becomes first American to orbit EarthMay 15, 1963 Maj. L. Gordon Cooper Jr. begins flight of 22 orbits in 34 hours

Project GeminiJan. 15, 1962–Nov. 15, 1966$1.3 billionFirst program to explore docking, long-duration flight, rendezvous, space walks,and guided re-entryDockings and rendezvous techniques practiced in preparation for Project Apollo10June 3–7, 1965 Flight in which Maj. Edward H. White II makes first space walkAug. 21–29, 1965 Cooper and Lt. Cmdr. Charles “Pete” Conrad Jr. withstandextended weightlessnessMarch 16, 1966 Neil A. Armstrong and Maj. David R. Scott execute the firstspace dockingSept. 15, 1966 Conrad and Richard F. Gordon Jr. make first successfulautomatic, computer-steered re-entry

Project ApolloJuly 25, 1960–Dec. 19, 1972$24 billionSpace program that put humans on the moonNeil Armstrong steps onto lunar surface. Twelve astronauts spend 160 hourson the moon11May 28, 1964 First Apollo command module is launched into orbit aboard aSaturn 1 rocketJan. 27, 1967 Lt. Col. Virgil I. “Gus” Grissom, Lt. Cmdr. Roger B. Chaffee, andWhite die in a command module fire in ground testOct. 11–22, 1968 First manned Apollo flight proves “moonworthiness” ofspacecraftDec. 21–27, 1968 First manned flight to moon and first lunar orbitJuly 16–24, 1969 Apollo 11 takes Armstrong, Col. Edwin E. “Buzz” Aldrin Jr.,and Lt. Col. Michael Collins to the moon and backArmstrong and Aldrin make first and second moon walksDec. 7–19, 1972 Final Apollo lunar flight produces sixth manned moonlanding

Boyne, Walter. Beyond the Wild Blue: AHistory of the United States Air Force,1947–1997. New York: St. Martin’sPress, 1997.

Burrows, William E. Deep Black. NewYork: Berkley Publishers Group, 1988.

Burrows, William E. This New Ocean:The Story of the First Space Age. NewYork: Random House, 1998.

Canan, James W. War in Space. NewYork: Harper & Row, 1982.

Collins, John M. Military Space Forces.Washington, D.C.: Pergamon–Brassey’s,1989.

Day, Dwayne A., John M. Logsdon,and Brian Latell, eds. Eye in the Sky:The Story of the Corona Spy Satellites.Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institu-tion Press, 1998.

Department of Defense Space Technol-ogy Guide, FY 2000–01. Office of theSecretary of Defense, 2001 (on Web atwww.c3i.osd.mil/org/c3is/spacesys/index.html).

Hopkins University Press, 1997.

Muolo, Michael L., Richard A. Hand,Bonnie Houchen, and Lou Larson.Space Handbook (two volumes). MaxwellAFB, Ala.: Air University Press, 1993.

The National Space TransportationPolicy: Issues for Congress. USCongress. Office of Technology Assess-ment. Washington, D.C: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1995.

Neal, Valerie, Cathleen S. Lewis, andFrank H. Winter. Spaceflight: ASmithsonian Guide. New York:Macmillan, 1995.

Newberry, Maj. Robert D., USAF.Space Doctrine for the Twenty-FirstCentury. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air Univer-sity Press, 1998.

Oberg, James E. Space Power Theory.Washington, D.C.: Government PrintingOffice, 1999 (on Web at www.spacecom.af.mil/usspace/SPT/overview.htm).

Peebles, Curtis. The Corona Project:America’s First Spy Satellites. Annapolis,Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1997.

Report of the Commission to AssessUnited States National Security SpaceManagement and Organization. USDepartment of Defense, 2001 (on Web atwww.space.gov).

Richelson, Jeffrey T. America’s SecretEyes in Space. New York: Harper &Row, 1990.

Richelson, Jeffrey T. America’s SpaceSentinels: DSP Satellites and NationalSecurity. Lawrence, Kan.: University ofKansas Press, 1999.

Shultz, Richard H. Jr., and Robert L.Pfaltzgraff Jr., eds. Space: A NewStrategic Frontier, The Future ofAirpower in the Aftermath of the GulfWar. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air UniversityPress, 1992.

Sellers, Jerry Jon. UnderstandingSpace: An Introduction to Astronautics.New York: McGraw Hill, 1994.

Smith, Marcia S. Space Activities of theUnited States, CIS, and Other LaunchingCountries/Organizations: 1957–1993.Washington, D.C.: CongressionalResearch Service, 1994.

Smith, Marcia S. US Space Programs.Washington, D.C.: CongressionalResearch Service, 1993.

Spires, David N., et al. Beyond Hori-zons: A Half Century of Air Force SpaceLeadership. Maxwell AFB, Ala.: AirUniversity Press, 1998.

Wolfe, Tom. The Right Stuff. New York:Bantam Books, 1980.

Goure, Daniel, and Christopher M.Szara. Air and Space Power in the NewMillennium. Washington, D.C.: CSISPress, 1997.

Hall, R. Cargill, and Jacob Neufeld,eds. The US Air Force in Space: 1945 tothe 21st Century: Proceedings, Air ForceHistorical Foundation Symposium.Washington, D.C.: USAF History andMuseums Program, 1998.

Hayes, Peter. Space Power Interests.Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996.

Hobbs, David. Space Warfare. OldTappan, N.J.: Prentice–Hall, 1986.

Lovell, Jim, and Jeffrey Kluger. LostMoon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13.Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994.

Mantz, Michael R. The New Sword: ATheory of Space Combat Power.Maxwell AFB, Ala.: Air University Press,1995.

McDougall, Walter A. The Heavens andthe Earth: A Political History of theSpace Age. Baltimore: The Johns

28 air force magazine...air force magazine / august 2001 29 compiled by tamar a. mehuron, associate...

Documents