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Human Biology 1 Circulatory System

A. Blood Vessels

1. Artery

- takes blood away from heart (may carry oxygenated or

deoxygenated blood)

- thick walls, connective tissue, withstand blood pressure

-

middle layer of elastic muscle fibres expand toaccommodate rush of blood

- highest blood P- ~120 70 mm Hg

2. Arteriole

- smaller than arteries, funnel blood to capillaries- elastic tissuelayer expands and contracts with rush of

blood

- sympathetic nervous control

- dilate or constrict diameter, which regulates bloodpressure

- from ~90 mm Hg down to ~40 mm Hg3. Capillaries

- site of gas (and nutrient /waste) exchange- site of immune inflammatory response

- lead off of arteriole network around tissues andorgans

- thin walls allow diffusion of nutrient, gases, andwastes

- large surface area of network of capillaries allows forgreater exchange of nutrients and gases

- lowest velocity- speed is inversely proportional to cross-sectional

area

- largest x-sec. area- membrane contains lipoproteins which lower its

surface tension

- very narrow, forces RBC to move one abreast, andtherefore increase surface area for exchange

Text Diagram:

Capillary exchange

Where is the blood?

10% in the arteries

20% in the capillaries

70% in the veins

Relative Vessel Sizes:

Diameter/Wall Thickness

Aorta2 cm bore /2 mm thickArtery4 mm / 1 mmArteriole50 20

Capillary8 1

Venule40 2

Vein1.5 mm / 5

Vena Cava3 cm / 1.5

(Source:

http://web.missouri.edu/~huxleyv/

Biophysics2000.html)

Relative Total Cross

Sectional Area (cm2)

~ 2.5 cm2 - arteries

~ 40 cm2 - arteriole~2500 cm2 - capillaries

~ 8 cm2- veins(Source: Prov Exam, Aug., 2003)

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- ~40 mm Hg arteriole end down to ~20 mm Hgvenule end

BP>Osmotic P

!fluidmoves into the

tissues

BP

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Source: http://web.missouri.edu/~huxleyv/Biophysics2000.html

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B. Systems

System Artery Vein

Systemic

- refers to the body ingeneral

Oxygen-rich

(oxygenated)

CO2poor

CO2rich

(deoxygenated)

Pulmonary

- Refers to the vessels of thelungs

CO2rich(deoxygenated)

Oxygen-rich(oxygenated)

CO2poor

Ftal

- Refers to the vessels ofthe developing ftus

CO2rich

(deoxygenated)

Oxygen-rich

(oxygenated)

CO2poor

Source: www.medical-illustrator.co.uk/ fetal.html Copyright

Peter Gardiner 2001

X= Arteries (!arterioles)

Y= Capillaries

Z= (venules!) Veins

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C. Major Vessels

Systemic

- Aorta- Carotid artery, jugular vein- Subclavian (artery and vein)- Superior (anterior) vena cava (vein)- Inferior (posterior) vena cava (vein)- Hepatic vein- Hepatic portal vein- Mesenteric artery- Renal (artery and vein)- Iliac (artery and vein)

Pulmonary

- Pulmonary Trunk (artery)- Pulmonary arteries- Pulmonary veins

Coronary

- arteries and veins

D. Diseases of Vessels

Arteriosclerosis

- a generic term for number of diseases in which thearterial wall thickensand loses elasticitye.g.,

Atherosclersosis - assoc. with atheroma, a plaque

blockage

- cause:smoking, diet rich in low-densitylipoproteins (LDL the bad cholesterols) and poor

in high-density lipoproteins (HDL the goodcholesterols), lack of exercise, age

- Rx:preventative = diet, exercise, drug therapy tolower cholesterol levels, surgery such as by-passand thromboplasty (vacuuming out the thrombosus

/ plaque)

Heart Attack

2/3 of all heart attacks are

caused by:

o high levels of badcholesterol and

o smoking.The other top factors:

o High blood pressureo Diabeteso Abdominal obesityo Stresso Lack of daily fruits

and veges

o Lack of exercise

Text Diagram:Arteriosclerosis

Text Diagram:Major Vessels

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E. The Heart

+ pericardial membrane

+ septum

1. Atrioventricular Valves (2)- between atria and ventricles.

- tricuspid & mitral valves- prevent blood leaking back into upper chambers of atria

2. Semi-lunar Valve (2)

- between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery, &the left ventricle and the aorta

- pulmonary & aortic valve- prevent backflow of blood into ventricles from the

pulmonary arteries and aorta

3. Coronary Arteries

- feed oxygen and nutrients to heart muscle.- if they are blocked, the heart muscle will die from lack

of oxygen and nutrition (myocardial infarction)

4. Right Atria

- receives blood from head and abdomen low in oxygen5. Left Atria

- receives oxygenated blood from the lungs viapulmonary veins

6. Right Ventricle

- pumps blood low in oxygen through the pulmonarytrunk to the lungs

7. Left Ventricle

- pumps oxygenated blood out the aorta to the rest of thebody

- the major pump (4.5 L/min) of the heart, is the mostmuscular chamber

8. Pulmonary Arteries

- attached to right ventricles- blood low in oxygen flows through to lungs

Red Wine Myth

While there may be some

evidence to suggest older men

and post-menopausal women

may have some reduced risk

of cardiovascular disease from

light consumption (1 glass a

day), your still 40% more

likely to die of otherdiseases, such as cirrhosisof

the liver, breast and othercancers.

- Source: Am I Normal,

programme 5 - Alcohol,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/s

cience/am_i_normal_series_2.

shtml

Text Diagram:

Heart

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9. Pulmonary Veins

- blood rich in oxygen flows through, from lungs to leftatrium

10. Chordae Tendineae

- holds valves in place, stops them from inverting- valves between the atria and ventricles- the heart strings

11. Septum

- wall between two sides of heart keeps oxygenated anddeoxygenated blood separated

The Heart Simplified

ulmonaryrteries

ulmonaryalve

ortic valve

r A

r V V

Superior

Vena

Cava

Inferior

VenaCava

o lungs

rom lungs (PV)

Pulmonary Veins

from lun sAorta

(to body)

Tricuspid

valve itralalve

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F. Ftal Circulation

- in order (all terms refer to infant)1. Umbilical Veins- sends blood rich in oxygen and nutrients to the ductus

venosus in the liver of the infant from the placenta

2. Ductus Venosus (Venus Duct)

- takes blood rich in oxygen from umbilical vein andmoves it through the liver via the duct to the inferior

vena cava

3. Foramen Ovale (Oval Opening)

- opening between two atriums- blood rich in oxygen from the mother is shunted from

right atrium to left atrium bypassing the lungs

4. Ductus Arteriosus (Arterial Duct)

- blood rich in oxygen from the pulmonary trunk (artery,from right ventricle) moves blood across a bridge

called the ductus arteriosus to the aorta

Text Diagram:

Foetal Circulation

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5. Umbilical Arteries

- takes blood low in oxygen from the infant to the motherfor exchange, back through the umbilical cord

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G. The Beat goes on

- Sound-lubb dupp or lub-dub-Lub= blood passing through the atrioventricular

valves

-Dub= blood passing through the semi-lunar valves- This sound comes from the valves opening and shutting on the

blood inside the heart.

- The first sound (the lub) happens when the blood hits themitral and tricuspid valves between the atria and ventricles.

- The next sound (the dub) happens when the blood hits theaortic and pulmonic valves that close up after the blood has

been squeezed out of the heart and as the heart relaxes to fill

with blood for the next beat.

Cardiac Cycle

The events related to the

flow of blood that occur from

the beginning of one

heartbeat to the beginning of

the next.

-Wikipedia

Text Diagram:

Heart Beat

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1. Sinoatrial Node (S-A Node)

- in dorsal wall of upper atrium- called nodal tissues - muscular and nervous tissue

characteristics

- SA node is the pacemaker- it initiates the heartbeat automatically

- sends impulses (as measured by an ECG /EKG) overthe atria muscle so they can contract

2. Atrioventricular Node (A-V Node)- base of right atrium, near septum- picks up impulse from SA node and delays it

momentarily (120 to 200 msec) to ensure the atria have

contracted fully and are about to relax,

- before the impulse is passed on thru the Bundle ofHisto the purkinje fibres, and finally into the

ventricles

- the ventricles contract (systole)3. Medulla Oblongata

- lower brain region- control centre in brain for the heart- connects with theautonomic nervous systemand

sympathetic nervous system

- to speed heart up- parasympathetic nervous system slows heart down- Homoeostatic control of heart-rate

Source:http://davidge2.umaryland.edu/~emig/ekgtu02.html

This diagram correlates with

the heart drawing. The

initial inflection (purple)

corresponds to atrial

depolarization.

The large blue inflection

corresponds to ventriculardepolarization.The atrial

repolarization is buried in this

complex.

The green inflection

corresponds to ventricular

repolarization.This is a positive

inflection because the

repolarization begins at the

epicardial surface and

progresses through the

ventricular walls to the

endocardium.

Depolarization progresses fromendocardium to epicardium.

This combination of change in

direction and change in polarity

results in a double negative and

a positive inflection for

repolarization.

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Summary of Cardiac Cycle:

When the SA nodedepolarizes, the action potential

(impulse) spreads throughout the atria, rapidly causing

atrial depolarization and contraction. The action potentialrapidly enters the AV node where it is delayed for 120 to

200 msec. The AV nodeconducts slowly because it

depends on slow inward calcium currents to depolarize

cells. The AV node also must conduct the action potentialthrough thin fibres which slow conduction. This delay is

deliberate and allows the ventricles time to fill following

atrial contraction.

The action potential spreads to the Bundle of Hisand then

to through the purkinje fibres. These rapidly depolarize

both ventricles. The left ventricle depolarizes slightly

before the right.

The cells repolarize following depolarization. Atrial

depolarization is not seen in an ECG because the higher

magnitude ventricular depolarization occurssimultaneously. Ventricular repolarization is seen as the T

wave

Source: Introduction To EKGs

(http://davidge2.umaryland.edu/~emig/ekgtu01.html)

4. Sympathetic Nerves

Each inflection has a name and

signifies a stage in the Cardiac

(contraction) cycle.

P wave

SA node (atrial contraction)

QRS complex

VentricularcontractionVentricular depolarization

T wave

Ventricularfilling

Ventricular repolarization

U wave

Represents final stage of

ventricular repolarization

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- stress, speed up heart rate- pupils dilate, blood P and respiration. incr.- digestive activity decr.

- associated with fight or flight5. Parasympathetic Nerves

- lowers beat rate (to normal rate)[mnemonic: Paranormal]

H. Blood Pressure

- Pressure exerted by blood against blood vessel walls- measured systolic pressure over diastolic pressure

Pulse

- expanding and recoiling of an arterial wall felt in anyartery that runs close to the surface of the skin, e.g.,carotid, femoral

a. Systole

- highest arterial pressure, while heart is pumping- ventricles are contractingto pump blood out into the

circulatory system

- systolic/diastolic (120/70 mm/Hg ave. for young male)b. Diastole

- lowest arterial pressure- ventricles are relaxed

- !atrial contraction,- the atria may contract at the same time but do

not influence BP

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c. Normal blood pressure

- for an adult, a systole of between 110-150 is normal- although it can be lower or higher, depending on the

individual

- an ave. of 120/70 to 140/90 is often given as anorm (systole/diastole mm Hg)

- systolicwill fluctuate with level of activity/stress- diastolicwill be 90 or lessbut should remain

constant for the individualextreme fluctuationsare danger signs

- e.g., at work: 122/80 (light exercise) to 180/80(heavy exercise)

-

e.g., at rest:114/80 (sitting) to 150/80 (playingtennis)

Category Systolic (mm Hg) Diastolic (mm Hg)

Low (Hypotension) < 100 < 60

Normal (120/80) [120/70] < 130 < 85

High Normal 130 139 85-89

Mild Hypertension 140-159 (~145) 90-99

Moderate 160-179 (~165) 100-109

Severe 180-209 (~185) 110-119

Very Severe > 209 > 119

d. Hypertension

- high blood pressure- mild: systole > 145

- severe: systole > 185

- causes include: hardening of arteries, diet, obesity,hormone malfunction,

- Some Hormone examples that increase blood pressure- ADH - release of antidiuretic hormone to increase

water reabsorption(also called vasopressin)fromthe posterior pituitary gland will result in higher

blood pressure

- Adrenaline- from the adrenal medullastimulatesflight or fight response of the sympathetic nervous

system

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- Renin if blood sodium levels are low, renin isreleased to ultimately stimulate the release of

aldosterone

- Aldosterone- from the adrenal cortexregulatessodium level in blood, and therefore also bloodpressure, as more blood is pushed through the

kidney for reabsorpbtion of salt

- Autonomic nervous system - involuntary controlof heart glands

- Sympathetic = increase- Incr. Heart rate = incr. BP- Blood vessels contract = incr. BP

- Parasympathetic = decrease- Inhibition of the sympathetic nervous

system may also raise BP

e. The Silent Killer

- 15% of adults have high blood P, and 25% of thesedont know it

f. Signs & Treatment

- morning headaches, felt at back of head; facial flushing,ringing in ears (tinnitus), nose bleeding, shortness of

breath, frequent urination, smooth eye vessels become

inflamed

- untreated half of all cases will develop heart disease,1/3 will die of stroke- treatment: lifestyle (reduce stress, avoid smoking etc.),

diet (avoid excess salt, saturated fats), medication

g. Hypotension

- unusually low blood pressure (systole < 100) due toweak pumping of the heart

I. Inflammatory Response

1. Overview- bacteria invade tissue, toxins released attack cells

- mast cellsrelease histamine, dilate vessel, increase

permeability of vessel

- fluid escapes the capillaries to site of invasion, area is

now inflamed- neutrophils- enter site, squeezing through pores*,

then they phagocytize (engulf / eat) the invader

Text Diagram:Inflammation

Text Extra readings:

Nonspecific & Specific

Defenses

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- monocytes - arrive at site, swell into

macrophages, and engulf any bacteria

* prostaglandins are also involved here

J. The lymphatic system

- Lymphoriginates as blood plasma lost from thecirculatory system, which leaks out into thesurrounding tissues (interstitial spaces).

- The lymphatic systemcollects this interstitialfluidby diffusion into lymph capillaries, filters it

of infection, and returns it to the circulatory system.

- preventing oedema swelling, which mayresult in death as tissues are destroyed

- Once within the lymphatic system the interstitialfluid is called lymph, and has almost the samecomposition as the original interstitial fluid.

- Lymph fluid consists of a colourless, water solventcontaining amino acids, sugars, fatty acids,coenzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, salts, as

well as waste products from the cells while rich

in WBC (lymphocytes), both RBC and platelets are

absent (and!colourless).Reference: wikipedia and http://biology-pages.info

1. Overview- Inflammation:recovers excess tissue fluid that

surrounds cells, and returns it to the main blood system

- Digestion:lacteals collect digested fat- Immune:WBC fight infection at nodes (filters)

Extracellular Fluid

- all body fluid outside ofcells, either

o Interstitial fluid, whichbathes and surrounds the

cells, and makes up the

majority of extracellular

fluid, or

o Blood plasma, theliquid component of

blood, in which theWBC, RBC(and !

red), andplatelets are

suspended.

Intracellular fluid

- is cytoplasm/cytosol

Text Diagram:

Lymph

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- The lymphatic is an open system, unlike the bloodwhich flows within a closed loop. Muscles activity

throughout the body help to keep the lymph moving

forward (hence regular exercise = good immunehealth)

a. lymph capillarieslie near capillaries to take up fluids

b. Lymph- fluid in lymph vessels

- a yellow-cream coloured fluid, rich in fat and WBCc. lymph (vessels) veins merge to lymph ducts

- ultimately drain into subclavian vein!superior venacava!heart and back in to the blood system

d. lymph ductshave one-way valves to keep fluid moving

forward

e. lymph nodesalong lymph vessels, composed of

lymphoid tissue

2. Lymph Organs

- Bone marrow- formation of red blood cells and white blood cells

- Thymus glandis lymphoid tissue located just abovethe heart, it gets smaller with age

All the lymph collected from

the entire left side of the body,

the digestive tract and the

right side of the lower part ofthe body flows into a single

major lymph vessel, the

thoracic duct.- The thoracic duct

empties about 100 ml of

lymph every hour into

the left subclavian vein.

The lymph in the right

side of the head, neck,

and chest is collected by

the right lymph duct andempties into the right

subclavian vein.

- Source: http://biology-

pages.info

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- functions in the maturation T-cells (lymphocyte)- Lymph Nodes, e.g, tonsils, adenoids

- remove debris and purify lymph- Spleen- Node-like, but filled with blood instead of lymph

- Purifies the blood passing through (immune fcn)

K. Blood System

- total volume = 8-9% o f body mass,- i.e., 100kg!8-9 kg = 8-9 L

- formation:- red marrow- spongy (cancellous) bone- these are the flat bone and joints- stem cells

1. White Cells (Leukocytes)

- produced in the red marrow of spongy bone- larger than red blood cells- fewer in number than reds- lobed nucleus- lifespan a few hours (18-36) to 14 days, but types

living 3-4 months

- amoeboid movement- shape is amorphous- colourless

a. Granulocytes- granules in cytoplasm and the maturenucleus is segmented into 2-5 lobes, produced in thered bone marrow

- phagocytic

Top: Neutrophil

Bottom: Lymphocyte

Text Diagram:

Blood Formation

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- Neutrophils- are important in the inflammatory process (as

phagocytes and mediators of inflammatory reactions).

- Basophils- contain heparin and large amounts of histamine and are

active participants in hypersensitivityreactions.

- Eosinophils- contains Major Basic Protein (MBP), known to be toxic

to several parasites (helminths, microfilariae;

schistomiasis), and some mammalian cells.

b. Agranulocytes- no granules in cytoplasm, circular orindented nucleus, found in lymph tissue e.g. spleen

- Lymphocytes- B-cells (antibody formation)- T-cells (intiate, cytotoxic)

- Monocytes (macrophages)- Phagocytes

2. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

- produced in the red marrowof spongy bone- round and smaller than whites- nucleus dissolves as they mature,

- hence the biconcave shape (as the cell collapsesinward)

- the nucleus is replaced by hemoglobin- continuously produced in red bone marrow of long

bones, ends of long bones, skull and vertebrae

- carries oxygen (oxyhemoglobin HbO2)- carries carbon dioxide (carbaminohemoglobin

HbCO2)

- buffers blood by taking up excess H+(reducedhemoglobin - HHb)

-

lifespan = ~3 months- free floating- red

3. Platelets (thrombocytes)- v. small irregular cell fragments (of megakaryocytes,

in red bone marrow)

- fcn in blood clotting

Text Diagram:

Hemoglobin (Hb)

Erythropoietin

The kidneysmake this

hormone, which stimulates

the bone (red) marrow tomake blood cells, in response

to low levels of O2in the

blood.

A drop of blood contains:

~5 million RBC

~10,000 WBC

~250,000 platelets

source: a student

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4. Components of Blood

Plasma + Formed Elements (ratio)Blood =

1. Water2. Proteins3. Salts4. Gases5. Nutrients6. Urea7. Hormones, vitamins etc.

1. RBC (600)2. WBC (1)3. Platelets (40)

Text Diagram:

7thp 208, 8thp 236,

9thp 249, 11thp 227,

12thp 227

- Serum = plasma sans the protein fibrinogen- Human blood is composed of 55% plasma and 45%

formed elements

- Plasma = 90% water.- Solutes make up about 10% of the plasma volume

of which 7% are proteins.

- Albuminrepresents about 60% (about40mg/ml) of the total plasma protein.

Albumin:

- A plasma protein very important in maintainingfluid balance in the blood.

- Important in maintaining blood pressure,regulating fatty acids, and hormone transport.

- synthesized in the liver.Functions:- Buffers pH- Maintains Osmotic pressure

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- Oncotic (colloidal osmotic) pressure in thecirculatory system is a form of osmotic pressureexerted by proteins in blood plasma thatnormally tends to pull water into the circulatorysystem, i.e., oncotic pressure tends to pullfluid into the capillaries. In conditions where

plasma proteins are reduced, e.g., from beinglost in the urine (proteinuria) or frommalnutrition, the result of low oncotic pressurecan be oedema excess fluid buildup in thetissues.

- Transports thyroid hormones, e.g., Thyroxine- Transports other hormones, particularly fat

soluble ones, e.g., cortisol

- Transports fatty acids("free" fatty acids) to theliver

- Transportsunconjugated bilirubin- RBC are destroyed in the spleenwhen they get

old or damaged. This releases hemoglobin,which is broken down to heme, as the globinparts are turned into amino acids. The heme isthen turned into unconjugated bilirubinin themacrophages of the spleen. This unconjugatedbilirubin is not water soluble. It is then boundto albumin and sent to the liver.- In the liver it is conjugated with glucuronic

acid, making it soluble in water. Much of itgoes into thebileand thus out into the smallintestine.

- Transports many drugs, and serum albumin levelscan affect the half-life of drugs.

- Competitively binds calcium ions(Ca2+)- 45% is protein bound, predominantly to

albumin, and is biologically inert- Reference: Wikipedia

L. Blood Factors

Antigen: an agent that is foreign (i.e., non-self), and isrecognized by the immune system, often as foreignsurface-protein.

Antibody:a protein produced by lymphocytes (B-cells),

capable of identifying and binding to specific antigens

Albumin, basically is

- responsible for much of theplasma colloidal osmotic

pressure and- serves as a transport

proteincarrying large

organic anions such asfattyacids, bilirubinand many

drugs;

- also carries certainhormonessuch as cortisol

and thyroxinewhen their

specific binding globulins

are saturated;

- and ma act as a buffer.

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1. Human Blood Types: ABO

- the A-B-O system is a means of classifying blood

according to the antigens located on the surface of the

erythrocytes (antigens are substance located on cells that

stimulate the production of antibodies)

TYPE: A

Antigen on RBC: A

Antibodies in Plasma: anti-BCan get blood from: O, A

Can give blood to: A, AB

TYPE: BAntigen on RBC: B

Antibodies in Plasma: anti-A

Can get blood from: O, BCan give blood to: B, AB

TYPE: AB

Antigen on RBC: A & B on each RBC

Antibodies in Plasma: NoneCan get blood from: O, A, B, AB

Can give blood to: AB

TYPE: O

Antigen on RBC: none

Antibodies in Plasma: anti-B, anti-ACan get blood from: OCan give blood to: O, A, B, AB

- Blood type O is a universal donor- because O has no antigens attached to its surface for

the recipients antibodies to identify, therefore it can be

given to practically anyone

- AB is the universal acceptor- because has A and B antigens but no antibodies, so can

receive all blood types

2. Rhesus factor

- the Rh factor is another type of blood antigen (antigen-D). Eighty-five percent of the North American

population is Rh-positive (Rh+), meaning that they

Text Diagram:

ABO

Source:

http://anthro.palomar.edu/synthetic/synth_5.htm

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have Rh antigens. A person without antigens in their

blood is Rh-negative (Rh-)

- if Rh+blood is given to an Rh-person, antibodies tothe Rh antigen will react with the antigen and

agglutination will occur

Rh Disease:

aka Erythroblastosis fetalis / Hemolytic disease

- when the mother is Rh- and father Rh+;- the child may inherit Rh+allele; because mother and

child blood supplies are separate only a little mixing of

material occurs-usually at birth; subsequently themother develops antibodies to the Rh factor; if a

second Rh+

child is conceived, serious damage mayoccur as the mothers antibodies attack the childs

blooda condition called erythroblastosis fetalis

- !is to give the Rh-mother anti-Rh antibodies,these will destroy any Rh antigen in her blood

before her body produces any antibodies (Win-Rhoin Canada, and Rho-gram in the US)

- Doctor will discuss afore hand, as these drugsmay be associated with an increase risk of

cancer

3. Blood typing test

- look for agglutination to indicate type, e.g., if the bloodsample containing the anti-B compound (which mimics

antibody B in the blood) agglutinates then blood type is

B

- a second example: - only anti-Rh has agglutinated

anti-A anti-B anti-Rh

= blood type O+

Text Diagram:

Hemolytic Disease

Text Diagram:Blood Typing

Winnipeg, Manitoba1950s

-Bruce Chown (b-Winnipeg)

and John Bowman (b-

Winnipeg) developed

'WinRho', the serum that

prevents erythroblastosisfetalis.

The mother is given

antibodies/immunoglobins

that mop up any Rh antigens,

before the mothers immune

system has time to produce

her own antibodies, thus she

never develops an immune

response, and may go on to

have more children if she sodesires.

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Circulatory System


M. Blood Clot1. Overview

- clotting factors are always in the blood; platelets,prothrombin(a globular protein) and fibrinogen

platelets clump at site of puncture

injured tissues release the enzyme (catalysis)

prothrombin activator (thromboplastin) that converts prothrombin (a protein in the blood

plasma, which requires vitamin Kto synthesize) to

thrombin (in the presence of Ca2+)

this in turn acts as an enzyme on fibrinogen (anotherblood protein)

splitting it into long threads of fibrin this serves as a framework to hold patch together

1. Platelets + Damaged cells "thromboplastin

2. thromboplastin + Prothrombin"thrombin

3. thrombin + Fibrinogen"fibrin

4. Fibrin + cells + dried serum = blood clot

- vitamin K (mostly produced by E. coli in the colon) is

necessary for the production of prothrombin (by the liver)

- absence of results in uncontrolled hemorrhageN. Bloods a Rover

1. At the lungs

- oxygen diffuses out the alveoli to red blood cells- oxygen combines with reduced hemoglobin to form

oxyhemoglobin and H+ions

A pO2of 100% = 4

molecules of O2per RBC/Hb

Text Diagram:Clot

Student 3:Shows apositive

response of the control,

indicating that something is

wrong with this test it is

possibly contaminated, and

therefore the results are

unreadable, i.e., blood type isunknown.

Students 1, 2, & 4:Show a

negative(nothing unexpected

has happened) response of

the control, indicating these

blood tests should be

accurate.

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Circulatory System


- freed H+combines with HCO3-and forms H2O + CO2,the carbon dioxide released from the bicarbonate iondiffuses into the lungs

- H+not accumulated is released from HHb(hemoglobin) and combines with the HCO3- whichreleases CO2

- Hemoglobin is a carrier for O2, CO2, and H+.2. At the tissues

- CO2produced in the cells of tissues diffuses into blood- blood cells contain carbonic anhydrase to accelerate

reaction

- CO2combines with H2O, to form CO2, HCO3-andH+.

- H+taken up by Hb (hemoglobin sans H+)- O2is released as a result

3. Carbonic Anhydrase

- enzyme within red blood cells, that facilitates theconversion of CO2+ H2O to and from H++ HCO3

-,

i.e.,

CO2+ H2O" H2CO3" H++ HCO3-at the tissues

(internal respiration)

H++ HCO3-" H2CO3"CO2+ H2O at the lungs

(external respiration)

- CO2transport:- ~70% via HCO3-- ~25% via Hemoglobin- ~5% dissolved in the blood

4. Hydrogen Ions

- produced when hemoglobin binds with oxygen at thelungs

- produced when carbon dioxide combines with water atthe tissues

5. Hemoglobin (Hb-)

- iron containing quaternary protein (globin)- carries oxygen in blood, oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)

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Circulatory System

- buffer, picks up H+ ions, reduced hemoglobin(HHb)

- carries CO2, carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2)

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