· 3. psychologys past: from the armchair to the laboratory all psychologists want to describe,...
TRANSCRIPT
“Psychology”.
In Section 1 of this course you will cover these topics:The Science Of Psychology
How Psychologists Do Research.
Genes, Evolution, And The Environment
The Brain: Source Of Mind And SelfTopic : The Science Of Psychology
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the psychology is a science
Understand the eight critical thinking guidelines that help in understanding psychological
issues
Understand the basic principles of structuralism
Understand the basic principles of functionalism
Understand the basic principles of psychoanalysis
Understand the biological perspective explain thoughts, feelings, and behavior
Understand the learning perspective approach explain understanding behavior
Understand the cognitive perspective in psychology emphasize
Understand the socio cultural perspective in psychology focus on
Understand the psychodynamic perspective explain thoughts and behavior
Understand the role did humanism and feminism play in shaping the development of modern
psychology
Understand the main differences between basic and applied psychology
Understand the psychotherapists, psychoanalysts, and psychiatrists differ from one another in
their training, background, and approach to treatment
Definition/Overview:
Psychology: Psychology (from Greek ψῡχή, psȳkhē, "breath, life, soul"; and -λογία, -logia) is
an academic and applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and
behavior. Psychologists study such phenomena as perception, cognition, emotion,
personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychology also refers to the
application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including issues related
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
1www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
to everyday life (e.g. family, education, and employment) and the treatment of mental health
problems. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of these functions in individual and
social behavior, while also exploring the underlying physiological and neurological
processes. Psychology includes many sub-fields of study and application concerned with such
areas as human development, sports, health, industry, media, and law.
Key Points:
1. psychology, pseudoscience, and popular opinion
Psychology, pseudoscience, and popular opinion
o Psychology is based on rigorous research
o Its claims are testable
o Popular opinion is sometimes wrong
2. thinking critically and creatively in psychology
Critical thinking is the ability and willingness to assess claims and make judgments on the
basis of well-supported research
Eight guidelines for critical thinking
o Ask questions; be willing to wonder
o Define your terms
▪ A hypothesis is a statement that tries to describe or explain a given
behavior
▪ Operational definitions specify how the phenomena are to be measured
o Examine the evidence
o Analyze assumptions and biases: falsifiability is a good practice!
o Avoid emotional reasoning
o Dont oversimplify
o Consider other interpretations
o Tolerate uncertainty
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
2www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
3. Psychologys past: from the armchair to the laboratory
All psychologists want to describe, predict, understand, and modify behavior
Early psychologists
o Primarily used anecdotes or descriptions of individual cases as evidence, instead of empirical
evidence
o Phrenology
▪ Early 1800s and Joseph Gall
▪ Discredited theory that different brain areas account for character and
personality traits, and can be read from bumps on the skull
The birth of modern psychology
o Germany and Wilhelm Wundt
▪ Considered the father of psychology
▪ Established first experimental psychology lab in 1879
▪ rained introspectiontechnique by which participants were trained to
describe their sensations, mental images, and emotions
Three early psychologies
o Structuralism
▪ Titchener (student of Wundt) popularized Wundts ideas in the United
States
▪ Introspection was method of choice to determine what happens
o Functionalism
▪ William James interested in how and why behavior occurs; causes and
consequences of behavior
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
3www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Influenced by Darwin and asked how certain attributes enhance survival
and adapt to the environment
▪ Used a variety of methods and studied a broader range of subjects
o Psychoanalysis
▪ Sigmund Freud
▪ Believed that patients symptoms had mental, not bodily, causes
▪ Unconscious part of mind has strong influence on behavior
4. psychologys present: behavior, body, mind, and culture
The major psychological perspectives
o The biological perspective
▪ Examines how bodily events affect behavior, feelings, and thoughts
▪ Related to evolutionary psychology, which examines how evolutionary
past may explain some present behaviors and psychological traits
o The learning perspective
▪ Behaviorism
o Examines how the environment and experience affect a persons
actions
o Does not use the mind to explain behavior: they study only what
they can observe and measure directly
▪ Social-cognitive learning theories
o Combines behaviorism with research on mental processes like
thoughts, values, expectations, and intentions
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
4www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Expands behaviorism beyond the study of behavior to include
learning by observation, insight, imitation
o The cognitive perspective
▪ Emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem
solving, and other areas of behavior
▪ One of the strongest forces in psychology today
o The socio-cultural perspective
▪ Emphasizes social and cultural influences on behavior
▪ Social psychologists focus on social rules and roles, and on the influence
of groups, friends, lovers, and others
▪ Cultural psychologists examine how cultural rules and values affect
peoples development, behavior, and feelings
o The psychodynamic perspective
▪ Deals with unconscious dynamics within the individual, such as inner
forces, conflicts, or instinctual energy
▪ Based on Freuds theory of psychoanalysis, but other theories also exist
▪ Focuses on unconscious origins of self-defeating behavior
▪ Language, methods, standards of evidence differ from other approaches
Two influential movements in psychology
o Humanistic psychology
▪ Rejects psychoanalytic perspective as too pessimistic and behaviorism as
too mechanistic
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
5www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Rejects determinism by the unconscious (psychoanalysis) or by the
environment(behaviorism); believes in free will
▪ Goal of humanism is to help people express themselves and reach their
full potential
▪ Positive psychologymodern humanism
o Feminist psychology
▪ Identifies biases in research and psychotherapy
▪ Feminist psychologists may identify with any of the major perspectives
▪ Analyzes gender identity, roles, relations, and behavior of the sexes
▪ Motivates the study of new topics such as motherhood, menstruation, and
menopause
▪ Reminds us that research and psychotherapy are social processes,
affected by all the attitudes and values that people bring to any
endeavor
5. what psychologists do
Psychological research
o Basic researchers seek knowledge for its own sake
o Applied researchers focus on the practical uses of their findings
Psychological practice
o Practitioners work to understand and improve physical and mental health
o They work in hospitals, schools, and counseling centers
o Types of practitioners
▪ Counseling psychologists help people deal with problems of everyday
life
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
6www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ School psychologists work to enhance students performance
▪ Clinical psychologists diagnose, treat, and study mental and emotional
problems
o Differences between therapists
▪ The term psychotherapist is unregulated; anyone can claim to be one
▪ A psychoanalyst is a person who practices psychoanalysis. This requires
an advanced degree and specialized training
▪ A psychiatrist is a medical doctor with training in psychiatry;
psychiatrists often focus on biological causes and treat them with
medication
▪ Social workers and counselors usually have a Masters degree in social
work or psychology
Psychology in the community--psychologists contribute to the welfare of their communities
by helping out within their areas of expertise
Topic : How Psychologists Do Research
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the five characteristics of an ideal scientist
Understand the defining elements of descriptive research Can you give an example of a case
study, observational research, a psychological test, and a survey
Understand the positive and negative correlations look like, and what do they signify
Understand the a correlation not establish a causal relationship between two variables
Understand the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable
Understand the difference between an experimental group and a control group
Understand the random assignment necessary when conducting an experiment
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
7www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Understand the two advantages and two disadvantages of conducting an experiment,
compared to other research techniques
Understand the a psychological scientist use descriptive statistics versus inferential statistics
Understand the major ethical guidelines researchers must follow when conducting research
with human participants
Understand the major ethical guidelines researchers must follow when conducting research
with animals
Definition/Overview:
Psychologist:A psychologist is a practitioner of psychology, the systematic investigation of
the mind, including behavior, cognition, and affect. The two major categories of
psychologists are those who conduct scientific research and those who work in an applied
psychology area. Applied psychologists are further subdivided into a number of mental health
and other professions, the most well-recognized being clinical and counseling psychologists.
Doctoral level trained psychologists are also the experts in the provision/administration and
interpretation of psychological tests and assessment.
Key Points:
1. What Makes Psychological Research Scientific
Characteristics of the ideal psychologist as scientist
o Precision
▪ Begin with a theory (an organized set of assumptions and principles used
to explain a particular phenomenon)
▪ Develop a hypothesis (a specific statement that attempts to describe or
explain a particular phenomenon)
▪ Create operational definitions of a phenomenon so that one can
objectively measure that phenomenon
o Skepticism
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
8www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Do not accept explanations of phenomena based on blind faith or
authority
o Reliance on empirical evidence
▪ Show me the data
o Willingness to make risky predictions
▪ Principle of falsifiability
o Theory must make predictions that are specific enough that they
can be refutedthis allows for growth of the theory
o Theory must predict both what will happen and what will not
happen
▪ Confirmation bias
o Theory must make predictions that are specific enough that they
can be refutedthis allows for growth of the theory
o Scientists try to avoid confirmation bias via the scientific method
o Openness
▪ Science relies on openness and full disclosure of methodological,
statistical, and ethical procedures
▪ Need to replicate novel findings (e.g., need to check the Mozart effect to
see if it is the phenomenon it is purported to be)
▪ Need to disseminate results via a peer review process
2. Descriptive Studies: Establishing The Facts
Although psychologists would like to measure representative samples, obtaining them can
often be a tall order
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
9www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Much research is based on convenience samples
Case studies
o Detailed descriptions of individuals
o A drawback is that the person studied may not be representative of the population, therefore
strong conclusions cant be drawn using only this method
Observational studies involve nonobtrusive, systematic measurement of behavior
o Naturalistic observation takes place in the organisms normal environment
o A laboratory observation allows the researcher to control the environment
o A drawback is that we cant infer cause and effect because we dont know why the people or
animals are acting the way they are based only on observation
Tests are procedures for measuring traits, states, interests, abilities, and values
o Objective tests measure characteristics of which the individual is aware
o Projective tests tap unconscious feelings or motives
o Qualities of a good test
▪ Standardized
▪ Normed
▪ Reliable
▪ Valid
Surveys are questionnaires and interviews that ask people about themselves directly
o A representative sample is essential--watch out for volunteer bias
o People sometimes lie, especially if the information is sensitive and anonymity is not
guaranteed
o Think about how the questions are phrased
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
10www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
3. Correlational Studies: Looking For Relationships
A positive correlation means that high values of one variable tend to go with high values of
the other
A negative correlation means that high values of one variable tend to go with low values of
the other
The coefficient of correlation varies between +1.00 (perfect positive) and -1.00 (perfect
negative)
Correlation does not mean causation
4. The Experiment: Hunting For Causes
All studies must meet ethical guidelines
o Informed consent, humane treatment, etc., are all good ideas
Experimental variables
o Independent variables are manipulated by the researcher
o Dependent variables are a measure of the reaction of the participants to the independent
variable
o Everything but the independent variable is held constant (to as great an extent as possible)
Experimental and control conditions
o In the control condition, participants are not exposed to the treatment, whereas they are when
in the experimental condition
o In the control condition, participants may receive a placebo--a fake treatment (e.g., no active
ingredients)
o Control groups are important for both experimental and nonexperimental studies
Experimenter effects
o Participants responses may be influenced by the experimenters subtle cues
o One solution is to use double-blind studies
Advantages and limitations of experiments
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
11www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Like any method, experimentation offers a range of advantages and limitations
▪ Field versus lab, control versus realism, etc.
5. Evaluating The Findings
Why psychologists use statistics
o Descriptive statistics summarize the data
▪ The arithmetic mean is the sum of scores divided by the number of
scores
▪ The standard deviation tells how clustered or spread out the scores are
o Inferential statistics allow the researcher to draw inferences about the results.
▪ If the likelihood of getting the result by chance is very low, the result is
statistically significant
From the laboratory to the real world
o Choosing the best explanation--the hypothesis may need to be tested in different ways (e.g.,
cross-sectionally and longitudinally)
o Judging the results importance
▪ Researchers may disagree on its relevance for theory or practice
▪ Meta-analysis is a technique that combines data from many studies
6. Keeping the EnterpriseEthical
The ethics of studying human beings
ethics of studying animals
o Why study animals
▪ To conduct basic research on a particular species
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
12www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ To discover practical applications
▪ To study issues that cannot be studied experimentally using humans
because of practical or ethical reasons
▪ To clarify theoretical questions
▪ To improve human welfare
Topic : Genes, Evolution, And The Environment
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the evolutionary psychology and behavioral genetics related to each other
Understand the genes, DNA, chromosomes, and amino acids related to one another
Understand the genetic markers
Understand the principle of natural selection
Understand the five innate human characteristics
Understand the difference between the deep structure and the surface structure of a language
Understand the five converging lines of research evidence in support of the language
acquisition device
Understand the sociobiology and evolutionary psychology related
Understand the socio biological explanation for the different sexual strategies of women and
men
Understand the genetic leash
Understand the heritability estimate and how is it computed
Understand the three important considerations to keep in mind when interpreting heritability
estimates
Understand the evidence is there that intelligence has a strong genetic component, and what
evidence is there that intelligence has a strong environmental component
Definition/Overview:
Genes, Evolution, and the Environment: The gene-centered view of evolution, gene
selection theory or selfish gene theory holds that natural selection acts through differential
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
13www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
survival of competing genes, increasing the frequency of those alleles whose phenotypic
effects successfully promote their own propagation. According to this theory, adaptations are
the phenotypic effects through which genes achieve their propagation.
The predominant modern scientific explanation for the adaptation of living beings was
initially tailored by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, who proposed the theory of
evolution by natural selection as opposed to the Lamarckian idea of evolution via acquired
changes.
The theory of evolution by natural selection was initially based on a vague concept of
heredity. Darwin endorsed the blending inheritance hypothesis due to the absence, at that
time, of a rigorous theory of heredity. Subsequently, significant discoveries about both the
mechanisms of inheritance and those of development have revolutionised this area of
biology.
Key Points:
1. Unlocking the Secrets of Genes
Genes
Chromosomes
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Genome
Linkage studies
2. The Genetics of Similarity
Evolution and natural selection
o Traits and preferences
▪ These can be seen as successful adaptations to the environment
o Mental modules
▪ The mind developed and evolved as a system of specialized units or
modules
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
14www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Innate human characteristics
o Infant reflexes
o Interest in novelty
o Desire to explore and manipulate objects
o Impulse to play and fool around
o Basic cognitive skills
3. Our Human Heritage: Language
The nature of languagedefinition of language
The innate capacity for language
o Chomskys positionlanguage acquisition deviceuniversal grammar
o Surface structure versus deep structure
o Role of syntax
o Evidence in support of Chomskys position
▪ Children in different cultures go through similar stages of linguistic
development
▪ Children combine words in ways that adults never woulde.g.,
overregularizations
▪ Adults do not consistently correct their childrens syntax, yet children
learn to speak or sign correctly anyway
▪ Children not exposed to adult language may invent a language of their
owne.g., deaf children in Nicaragua
▪ Infants as young as 7 months can derive simple linguistic rules from a
string of soundsresearch on infant preferences for novel patterns
o Evidence for genetic contributions to language acquisitionstudies of British families with a
genetic disorder that prevents normal language acquisition
Learning and language
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
15www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Neural network models
o Adult recasting of childrens sentences
o Role of biologically determined critical period for language acquisition
4. Our Human Heritage: Courtship And Mating
Evolution and sexual strategies
o Definition of sociobiology
o Sociobiological basis of male-female differences in mating and survival strategies
o Evolutionary psychologists rely less on comparisons with other species, focus on
commonalities in human mating practices
o Both sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists emphasize evolutionary origins of
human sex differences that appear to be universal
Culture and the genetic leash
o Critics say that evolutionary explanations of sex differences in courtship and mating are
based on simplistic stereotypes
o Human sexual behavior is highly varied and changeable
o Similarity and proximity are among the strongest predictors of mate selection
o Social Darwinism
5. The Genetics of Difference
The meaning of heritability
o Definition of heritability
o Heritability of traits is expressed as a proportion
o An estimate of heritability applies only to a particular group living in a particular
environment
o Heritability estimates do not apply to individuals, only to variations within a group
o Even highly heritable traits can be modified by the environment
Computing heritability
o Heritability of traits must be inferred by studying people with known genetic similarity
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
16www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Adoption studies
o Twin studiesidentical versus fraternal twins
6. Our Human Diversity: The Case of Intelligence
Genes and individual differences
o IQ = intelligence quotient
o IQ determined by dividing mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100.
o Distribution of IQ scores in the population approximates a bell-shaped curve
o Average IQ score is 100; two-thirds of IQ scores fall between 85 and 115
The question of group differences
o Racial differences in IQ scores
o The Bell Curve
o Within-group versus between-group differences
The environment and intelligence
o Some environmental influences are associated with reduced mental ability
▪ Poor prenatal care
▪ Malnutrition
▪ Exposure to toxins
▪ Stressful family circumstances
o Healthy, stimulating environments are associated with increased mental ability
▪ Abecedarian project
▪ IQ scores in developing countries are increasing
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
17www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
7. Beyond Nature And Nurture
An either/or approach to genes and the environment is not as productive as a how much of
each approach
Topic : The Brain: Source Of Mind And Self
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the two main divisions of the human nervous system
Understand the two parts of the central nervous system
Understand the divisions of the peripheral nervous system
Understand the divisions of the autonomic nervous system
Understand the three components of a neuron
Understand the neurons communicate with one another
Understand the neurotransmitters and what do they do
Understand the endorphins and what do they do
Understand the hormones and what do they do
Understand the eight techniques researchers use for understanding the workings of the brain
Understand the the major functions of the brain stem, the cerebellum, and the thalamus
Understand the the major functions of the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and the hippocampus
Understand the the four lobes of the cerebral cortex, and Understand the the major functions
of each
Understand the studies of split-brain patients help researchers understand the functions of the
left and right cerebral hemispheres
Understand the some of the arguments in favor of and against the conclusion that womens
and mens brains differ anatomically and functionally
Definition/Overview:
Brain: The brain is the center of the nervous system in animals. All vertebrates, and the
majority of invertebrates, have a brain. Some "primitive" animals such as jellyfishes and
starfishes have a decentralized nervous system without a brain, while sponges lack any
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
18www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
nervous system at all. In vertebrates, the brain is located in the head, protected by the skull
and close to the primary sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, balance, taste, and smell.
Key Points:
1. The nervous system: a basic blueprint
The central nervous system
o Functions--receives, processes, interprets, and stores incoming information; sends out
messages to muscles, glands, internal organs
o Parts--brain and spinal cord (an extension of the brain)
The peripheral nervous system--nervous system outside brain and spinal cord
o Functions
▪ Sensory nerves--bring input from skin, muscles, and organs
▪ Motor nerves--carry output to muscles, glands, and organs
o Divisions
▪ Somatic nervous system
o Nerves connected to sensory receptors
o Nerves connected to skeletal muscles--voluntary action
▪ Autonomic nervous system--works automatically
o Functions--regulates blood vessels, glands, organs
o Biofeedback--helps people control autonomic responses
o Divisions
o Healthy, stimulating environments are associated with increased mental ability
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
19www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Abecedarian project
▪ IQ scores in developing countries are increasing
2. Communication in The Nervous System
Components of the nervous system
o Glial cells--hold neurons in place; nourish, insulate neurons
o Neurons--cells that communicate to, from, or within the CNS
The structure of the neuron
o Dendrites--receive messages from other neurons, transmit to cell body
o Cell body--keeps the neuron alive, determines whether to fire
o Axon--transmits messages away from cell body to other neurons
▪ Ends in branches or axon terminals
▪ Many axons insulated by fatty material or myelin sheath
▪ Bundles of axons in the peripheral nervous system form nerves
o Precursor cells can give rise to new neurons
▪ Physical and mental activity promote survival of these new cells
▪ Stress and nicotine have detrimental effects
▪ Neurons in the news: Advances in neuroscience attract our interest
almost daily
How neurons communicate
o Synapse = axon terminal + synaptic cleft (small space between one axon and next dendrite) +
covering membrane of receiving dendrite or cell body
▪ Many thousands of neurons may communicate at a synapse
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
20www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Synaptic connections continue to change throughout life
o How neurons communicate
▪ Wave of electric voltage, called action potential, moves down axon to
end of axon terminal, called synaptic end bulb
▪ Action potentials travel more rapidly in myelinated axons than in
unmyelinated axons
▪ Synaptic end bulb releases chemical neurotransmitters (transmitters)
which have been stored in synaptic vesicles (sacs in the end bulb)
▪ Transmitters cross the synaptic cleft and briefly lock onto receptor sites
on the receiving dendrites
▪ They can increase or decrease the likelihood that the receiving neuron
will generate an action potential
▪ Receiving neuron averages the excitatory and inhibitory incoming
messages to determine if it reaches firing threshold
▪ Neurons either fire or do not fire (all or none); the strength of firing does
not vary
Chemical messengers in the nervous system
o Neurotransmitters: Versatile couriers
▪ Many have been identified, more are being found
▪ Neurotransmitters exist throughout the body
▪ Better understood neurotransmitters and some of their effects
o Serotonin--sleep, mood, eating
o Dopamine--movement, learning, memory, emotion [pleasure]
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
21www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Acetylcholine--muscle action, memory, emotion
o Norepinephrine--heart rate, learning, memory
o GABA--major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
▪ Levels that are too high or too low may produce problems
o Low levels of serotonin and norepinephrine associated with
depression
o Abnormal GABA levels associated with sleep and eating disorders
and convulsive disorders
o Loss of cells that produce acetylcholine associated with Alzheimers
disease
▪ Each neurotransmitter plays many roles and functions overlap
▪ Cause and effect between neurotransmitters and behavior unclear
o Endorphins: The brains natural opiates
▪ Endorphins are endogenous opioid peptides
▪ Produce effects similar to natural opiates; reduce pain, promote pleasure,
as well as playing a role in other functions
▪ Most act as neuromodulators--influence actions of neurotransmitters
▪ Work by binding to receptors in brain
▪ Levels increase during stress or fear response
▪ Release of endorphins may also be linked to the pleasures of social
contact
o Hormones: Long-distance messengers
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
22www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Substances produced in one part of the body but affect another
▪ riginate primarily in endocrine glands that release hormones into the
bloodstream, which carries them to other organs and cells
▪ A chemical may act as either a neurotransmitter or a hormone, depending
where it is located
▪ Hormones of particular interest to psychologists
o Melatonin--secreted by the pineal gland, regulates biological
rhythms
o Oxytocin--secreted by the pituitary gland
o Adrenal hormones
o Sex hormones--three major types; all three types occur in both
sexes
3. Mapping The Brain
Researchers study the brains of those who have experienced disease or injury
Lesion method--involves damaging or removing section of brain in animals and then
observing the effects
Electrical and magnetic detection
o Electroencephalogram (EEG) involves brain wave recording; not very specific
o Needle electrodes
▪ Thin wires inserted into the brain to record electrical activity and to
stimulate brain
▪ Microelectrodes--fine wires that can be inserted into single cells
o Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
23www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Most recent technique; holds a great deal of promise
o Positron-Emission Tomography--PET scan
▪ Records biochemical changes in the brain as they occur
▪ Utilizes a radioactive glucose-like substance
▪ Used to diagnose abnormalities or to learn about normal brain activity
o Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)--uses magnetic fields and radio frequencies
4. A Tour Through The Brain
The brain stem--located at base of skull; old part of brain
o Pons--involved in sleeping, waking, and dreaming
o Medulla--regulates breathing and heart rate; automatic functions
o Reticular activating system [RAS]--network of neurons, extends upward and connects
with higher brain areas; screens information, responsible for arousal and
alertness
Cerebellum--regulates balance and coordination of movement; also involved in remembering
certain skills and acquired reflexes
Thalamus--directs incoming sensory messages (except olfactory) to higher center
Hypothalamus--associated with drives, such as hunger, thirst, emotion, sex and reproduction,
body temperature, and the autonomic nervous system
Pituitary gland--master gland governed by hypothalamus
Limbic system--loosely interconnected structures involved in emotions
o Amygdala--evaluates sensory information to determine its importance, involved in mediating
anxiety and depression
o Hippocampus--gateway to memory that enables us to form new memories; The case of H.M.
illustrates its importance
Cerebrum--responsible for higher forms of thinking--divided into two halves or cerebral
hemispheres
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
24www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Connected by band of fibers called corpus callosum
o Right hemisphere in charge of left side of the body
o Left hemisphere in charge of right side of the body
o Lateralization--each hemisphere has somewhat different tasks and talents
o Covered by layer of densely packed cells--cerebral cortex
▪ Grayish appearance = gray matter
o Made up of cell bodies of nerve cells
o White matter beneath cortex is formed by myelinated axons
▪ Contains three-fourths of all cells in the brain
▪ Divided into four regions
o Occipital lobes--contain the visual cortex
o Parietal lobes--contain somatosensory cortex, that receives
information about pressure, pain, touch, and temperature from
all over the body
o Temporal lobes--contain auditory cortex
o Frontal lobes--contain the motor cortex; responsible for making
plans, taking initiative, and thinking creatively
▪ Association areas make up large parts of the cerebral cortex
▪ Prefrontal association areas involved in personality
o Damage to the prefrontal cortex may affect this
o Case of Phineas Gage shows the outcomes of damage to the
prefrontal cortex
o Involved in social judgment, rational decision making, and the
ability to set goals and make and carry through plans
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
25www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Involved in determining the proper order of behaviors and knowing
when to stop
5. The Two Hemispheres Of The Brain
Split brains: A house divided
o Corpus callosum, which connects the cerebral hemispheres in normal brains, is severed
o This surgery has been performed in animal studies and for some human conditions such as
severe epilepsy
o Effects
▪ Split-brain patients are able to lead normal lives
▪ Effects on perception and memory are observable under experimental
conditions
o The work of Sperry and colleagues is described
A question of dominance
o Left hemisphere handles language for nearly all right-handed people and a majority of left-
handers
o Left side more active than right during some logical, symbolic, and sequential tasks, such as
math
o Many researchers believe the left side is dominant because cognitive skills, including rational
and analytic abilities, originate here
o Others point to abilities of the right hemisphere: superior visual-spatial abilities, facial
recognition, appreciation of art and music; some researchers claim it is holistic and intuitive
o In real life, the two hemispheres cooperate automatically in most activities
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
26www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
6. Two Stubborn Issues In Brain Research
Where is the self
o Conscious sense of a unified self may be an illusion
▪ Many actions and choices we make are without conscious direction
▪ Brain operates outside of consicous awareness
▪ Not a unified thing--but a collection of thoughts, concepts, and feelings
that shift from moment to moment --consistent with Buddhist
teachings
Are there his and her brains
o Efforts to identify male-female differences have reflected biases of the times
o Two questions must be asked:
▪ Are male and female brains physically different
o Sex differences have been found in animal brains
o Human sex differences more elusive
▪ If there are brain differences, what do they mean for the behavior of men
and women in real life
o Many supposed sex differences are stereotypes
o Biological differences do not necessarily mean behavioral
differences
o Sex differences in the brain could be the result rather than the cause
of behavioral differences
In Section 2 of this course you will cover these topics:Body Rhythms And Mental States
Sensation And Perception
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
27www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Learning And Conditioning
Behavior In Social And Cultural Context
Topic : Body Rhythms And Mental States
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the a circadian rhythm and how do the hypothalamus and hormones affect it
Understand the evidence that moods can be affected by seasons, menstrual cycles, or
testosterone
Understand the stages of non-REM sleep are there, and Understand the characterizes each
stage
Understand the is REM sleep different from non-REM sleep
Understand the body cycle through the stages of sleep during a nights rest
Understand the some of the consequences of a lack of sleep
Understand the some of the benefits of a good nights sleep
Understand the four explanations of the significance of dreaming
Understand the differences between stimulants and depressants
Understand the effects do opiates and psychedelic drugs have on human consciousness
Understand the drugs affect behavior at a physiological level
Understand the six main conclusions that can be reached about the nature of hypnosis
Understand the dissociation explanation of hypnosis
Understand the socio-cognitive explanation of hypnosis
Definition/Overview:
Mental States: In psychology, mental state is an indication of a person's mental health.
As computer technology proliferated, so emerged the metaphor of mental function as
information processing. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as
well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as a popular model of
the mind. Cognitive psychology differs from other psychological perspectives in two key
ways. First, it accepts the use of the scientific method, and generally rejects introspection as a
method of investigation, unlike symbol-driven approaches such as Freudian psychodynamics.
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
28www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Second, it explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief,
desire and motivation), whereas behaviorism does not.
Key Points:
1. Biological rhythms: the tides of experience
Biological rhythms
o Regular fluctuations in biological systems
o Endogenous rhythms--occur in absence of external cues
Circadian rhythms
o Endogenous rhythms that occur every 24 hours
o Exist in plants, animals, insects, and humans
o Can be studied by isolating subjects from environmental time cues
o The bodys clock
▪ Circadian rhythms controlled by a master biological clock located in the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus
▪ SCN regulates neurotransmitters and hormones which provide feedback
to the SCN and affect its functioning
▪ Melatonin, a hormone regulated by the SCN, responds to light-dark
o When the clock is out of sync
▪ Internal desynchronization--a state in which biological rhythms are not in
phase (synchronized) with one another
▪ Cycles are affected by environmental and individual factors (e.g., jet lag,
night-shift workers)
▪ Bright lights may be used to help re-synchronize body rhythms
Moods and long-term rhythms
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
29www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Does the season affect moods
▪ Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
o Depression during winter months only
o Deficiency of melatonin
▪ Bright light treatment and negative ion exposure treatment effective in
alleviating symptoms of SAD
o Does the menstrual cycle affect moods
▪ First half of the cycle, estrogen increases; midcycle, ovaries release egg,
then progesterone increases; if conception does not occur, estrogen and
progesterone levels fall
▪ Feelings of PMS versus true PMS
o Many women experience cramping, breast tenderness, water
retention, etc., and many report feeling moody
o However, true PMS includes predictable emotional symptoms of
depression and irritability
o True PMS affects less than 5 percent of the female population
o Retrospective reports differ across the menstrual cycle, but daily
reports of mood across the menstrual cycle do not
2. The rhythms of sleep
The realms of sleep
o Ultradian cycle occurs, on average, every 90 minutes
▪ Non-REM stages
o 1 - small, irregular brain waves; light sleep
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
30www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o 2 - high-peaking waves called sleep spindles
o 3 - delta waves begin; slow with high peaks
o 4 - mostly delta waves and deep sleep
o Normal sleep cycle: 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1, rapid eye movement (REM)
▪ REM sleep
o Active brain waves
o Increased heart rate and blood pressure, limp muscles, twitching
o Dreaming
▪ REM and non-REM sleep cycle throughout the night
▪ The purpose of REM sleep is unclear
Why we sleep
o Sleep is recuperative for the body
o The mental consequences of sleeplessness
▪ Sleep deprivation affects attention, creativity, stress levels
▪ Sleepdisorders resulting in daytime sleepiness:
o Sleep apnea
o Narcolepsy
o The mental benefits of sleep
▪ Memory consolidation and enhanced problem solving are improved
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
31www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
3. Exploring the dream world
Characteristics of dreams
o Focus of attention is inward
Dreams as unconscious wishes (Freud)
o Royal road to the unconscious
o In dreams we express unconscious wishes, desires (usually sexual or violent in nature)
o Freudian dream interpretation
▪ Manifest content--what we experience and remember
▪ Latent content--hidden, symbolic; unconscious wishes
o Many people disagree with Freuds interpretations
Dreams as efforts to deal with problems
o Problem-focused approach in which dreams convey true, not symbolic, meaning
o Dreams reflect ongoing conscious preoccupations of waking life
o Dreams often contain material related to current concerns
o Some believe dreams provide an opportunity for resolving problems
Dreams as thinking
o Physiological and information-processing approach
o Unnecessary neural connections are eliminated and important ones are strengthened
o Associated with consolidation
o Dreams are the remains of the sorting, scanning, and sifting process
Dreams as interpreted brain activity
o Activation-synthesis theory
▪ Dreams are the result of neurons firing spontaneously in the lower brain
(in the pons) that are sent to the cortex
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
32www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Signals from pons have no meaning, but the cortex tries to synthesize
them
▪ Accordingly, dreams should be bizarre and disjointed in terms of their
meaning
o Critics say sometimes dreams do make meaningful sense
Evaluating dream theories
o No single theory explains all facets of dreaming
o All approaches account for some of the evidence
4. The riddle of hypnosis
Hypnosis
o Procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts,
feelings, or behavior of the subject
o Suggestions involve performance of an action
o Compliance with suggestions feels involuntary
The nature of hypnosis
o Responsiveness depends more on person being hypnotized than hypnotists skill
o Participants cannot be forced to do things against their will
o Hypnotic inductions increase suggestibility but only to a modest degree; people accept
suggestions with and without hypnosis
o Hypnosis does not increase memory accuracy; it can increase amount of information
remembered, but it also increases errors
o Does not produce a literal re-experiencing of long-ago events
Theories of hypnosis
o Dissociation theories
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
33www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Like lucid dreaming and simple distractions, hypnosis involves
dissociation, a split in consciousness in which one part of the mind
operates independently of the rest of consciousness
▪ Several theories of dissociation attempt to explain the state
▪ These theories fit well with recent research and brain theories
o The sociocognitive approach
▪ The effects are a result of the interaction between the hypnotist and the
abilities, beliefs, and expectations of the participant
▪ Individual plays the role of a hypnotized person without faking
▪ This role, like others, is so engrossing, it is done without intent
▪ Individual uses imagination and fantasy to fulfill the role requirements
5. Consciousness-altering drugs
Altering mood and consciousness
o Efforts to alter mood and consciousness appear to be universal
o During the 1960s, people sought to produce altered states of consciousness
Classifying Drugs
o Psychoactive drugs -- substance affecting perception, mood, thinking, memory, or behavior by
changing the bodys biochemistry
o Classifying drugs
▪ Stimulants
o Speed up activity in central nervous system
o Include cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine, caffeine, MDMA, Ritalin
▪ Depressants (sedatives)
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
34www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Slow down activity in central nervous system
o Include alcohol, tranquilizers, barbiturates
▪ Opiates
o Mimic endorphins
o Include opium, morphine, heroin, methadone
▪ Psychedelics
o Alter perception
o Include LSD, mescaline, psilocybin
▪ Anabolic steroids and marijuana--dont fit other classifications
Physiology of drug effects
o Can produce cognitive or emotional effects
o Repeated use of certain drugs can cause permanent brain damage
o Some drugs lead to tolerance (needing more over time) and withdrawal (symptoms upon
removal of the drug)
Psychology of drug effects
o Effects depend on a persons physical condition, experience with the drug, environmental setting,
and mental set
o Alcohol may be used as an excuse for violent or other behavior
The drug debate
o Often people fail to distinguish between drug abuse and drug use
o Legality of drugs not always linked to dangerousness
o
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
35www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Topic : Sensation And Perception
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the the separate sense receptors, and what kinds of stimulation do they respond to
Understand the absolute thresholds and difference thresholds, and how does signal detection
theory help us understand them
Understand the primary distinctions among sensory adaptation, sensory deprivation, and
selective attention
Understand the three psychological dimensions of vision
Understand the rods and cones differ in their structure and functions
Understand the the trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory explain color vision
Understand the four main Gestalt principles of perception
Understand the five visual constancies that contribute to visual perception
Understand the three psychological dimensions of hearing
Understand the major structures of the inner ear that contribute to the sense of hearing
Understand the taste and smell called chemical senses
How does gate-control theory account for our perception of pain
Understand the evidence that some perceptual abilities are present from birth Understand the
these abilities, and what is the evidence
Understand the four psychological and cultural factors that influence how we perceive things
Understand the evidence for the existence of subliminal perception or extrasensory
perception
Definition/Overview:
Sensation: In psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic
events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a sensory
organ, which then leads to perception, the mental state that is reflected in statements like "I
see a uniformly blue wall." In other words, sensations are the first stages in the functioning of
senses.
Perception: In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of attaining
awareness or understanding of sensory information. It is a task far more complex than was
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
36www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
imagined in the 1950s and 1960s, when it was predicted that building perceiving machines
would take about a decade, a goal which is still very far from realizable. The word perception
comes from yje weird Latins word perception, percepio, , meaning "receiving, collecting,
action of taking possession, apprehension with the mind or senses."
Key Points:
1. Our Sensational Senses
Definitions
o Sensation--the detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects
o Perception--processes that organize sensory impulses into meaningful patterns
o Introduction to the senses
▪ There are five widely known senses and other lesser known senses
▪ All senses evolved to help us survive
The riddle of separate sensations
o Sense receptors stimulate sensory neurons which stimulate brain cells
o Encoding the electrical messages--the nervous system uses two kinds of codes
▪ Anatomical codes
o Doctrine of specific nerve energies--signals received by the sense
organs stimulate different nerve pathways, which terminate in
different areas of the brain
o Does not fully explain separate sensations; different skin senses do
not have distinct nerve pathways; different colors do not have
distinct pathways
▪ Functional codes
o Particular receptors fire or are inhibited in the presence of certain
stimuli
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
37www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Codes relate to which cells, how many, and the rate and pattern of
firing
▪ Synesthesia occurs when stimulation of one sense evokes sensations in
another
Measuring the senses
o Psychophysics--how the physical properties of stimuli are related to our psychological
experience of them
o Absolute threshold--the smallest amount of energy a person can detect reliably (50 percent of the
time)
o Difference threshold--the smallest difference in stimulation that a person can detect reliably (50
percent of the time); also called just noticeable difference (jnd)
o Signal detection theory
▪ Accounts for response bias (tendency to say yes or no to a signal)
▪ Separates sensory processes (the intensity of the stimulus) from the
decision process (influenced by observers response bias)
Sensory Adaptation
o Decline in sensory responsiveness occurs when a stimulus is unchanging; nerve cells
temporarily stop responding
o Sensory deprivation studies
▪ Early deprivation study subjects became edgy, disoriented, confused,
restless, and had hallucinations
▪ Early studies exaggerated negative reactions
o Brain requires minimum stimulation to function normally
Sensing without perceiving
o Cocktail party phenomenon--we routinely block out unimportant sensations
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
38www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Selective attention protects us from being overwhelmed with sensations
2. Vision
What we see
o Stimulus for vision is light, which travels in waves
o Characteristics of light waves
▪ Hue--color that is related to wavelength
▪ Brightness--intensity, corresponds to amplitude of the wave
▪ Saturation--colorfulness--complexity of the range of wavelengths
o Psychological dimensions of visual experience--hue, brightness, saturation
o Physical properties of light--wavelength, intensity, complexity
An eye on the world
o Cornea--front part of the eye; protects the eye and bends light rays toward lens
o Lens--located behind the cornea; focuses light by changing curvature
o Iris--muscles that control the amount of light that gets into the eye
o Pupil--round opening surrounded by iris; widens and dilates to let light in
o Retina--located in the back of the eye, contains visual receptors
▪ Parts of retina
o Two types of receptors
o Fovea--center of retina, sharpest vision, contains only cones
▪ Processing visual information
o Dark adaptation--time it takes to adjust to dim illumination--
reflects mainly increase in sensitivity of rods
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
39www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Rods and cones connect to bipolar neurons that connect to ganglion
cells, whose axons converge to form optic nerve, that carries
information out of the eye to the brain
o Optic nerve--leaves the eye at optic disc--no rods or cones--blind
spot on retina
Why the visual system is not a camera
o Eyes are not a passive recorder of external world; neurons build picture of the external world by
detecting its meaningful features
o Special feature-detector cells in visual cortex code complex features
o Other cells in the visual system respond maximally to certain specific visual information like
faces, bulls-eyes, or starlike shapes
o Frequency, pattern, and rhythm of firing all provide information to the brain
How we see colors
o Trichromatic (Young-Helmholtz) theory
▪ This approach applies to the first level of processing (in the retina)
▪ Retina contains three types of cones: one responds to blue, another to
green, another to red; these combine to make all colors
▪ People with color deficiencies lack particular types of cones
o Opponent-process theory
▪ Second stage of color processing in the ganglion cells of the retina and
neurons in the thalamus and visual cortex (opponent process cells)
▪ They turn off to one wavelength in a pair and on to the other
▪ Another opponent-process system responds in opposing fashion to black
and white, providing information about brightness
▪ Opponent-process theory can explain why we see negative afterimages
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
40www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Perceived color of an object also depends on the wavelengths reflected by the other objects
around it
Constructing the visual world
o Visual perception--the mind interprets the retinal image and constructs the world using
information from other senses
o Form perception
▪ Gestalt psychologists studied how people organize the visual world into
meaningful patterns
▪ Strategies for building perceptual units include use of: figure/ground
distinction, proximity, closure, similarity, and continuity
o Depth and distance perception--objects location inferred from distance or depth cues
▪ Binocular cues--dependent on information from both eyes
o Changes in angle of convergence of the image seen by each eye
provide distance cues
o Retinal disparity--disparity in the lateral separation between two
objects as seen by the two eyes is used to infer depth or distance
▪ Monocular cues--cues that do not depend on using both eyes include
interposition and linear perspective
o Visual constancies: When seeing is believing
▪ Perceptual constancy--our perception of objects is unchanging though the
sensory patterns they produce are constantly shifting
▪ Visual constancies--shape, location, size, brightness, and color
o Visual illusions: When seeing is misleading--visual constancies may occasionally fool us,
resulting in visual illusions
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
41www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
3. Hearing
What we hear
o Stimulus for sound is a wave of pressure created when an object vibrates; that causes molecules
in a transmitting substance (such as air) to move
o Characteristics of sound waves
▪ Loudness--intensity of a waves pressure; corresponds to amplitude; also
affected by pitch; units of measure are decibels
▪ Pitch--frequency (and intensity) of wave; units of measure are hertz
(cycles per second)
▪ Timbre--complexity of wave; the distinguishing quality of a sound
o When all frequencies of the sound spectrum are present, white noise occurs
An ear on the world
o Sound wave passes into the outer ear through a canal to strike the eardrum
o Eardrum vibrates at the same frequency and amplitude as the wave
o The wave vibrates three small bones in the inner ear--the hammer, anvil, and stirrups--intensify
the sound; the third bone pushes on a membrane that guards the entrance to the inner ear, of
which the cochlea is a part
o The cochlea contains the receptor cells called cilia, or hair cells, that are embedded in the basilar
membrane stretching across the cochlea
o Pressure causes movement in the basilar membrane; the hair cells initiate a signal to the auditory
nerve, which carries the message to the brain
o The pattern of movement of the basilar membrane influences the pattern and frequency of how
the neurons fire, which determines what is heard
Constructing the auditory world
o Perception is used to organize patterns of sounds to construct meaning
o Strategies used to organize and interpret sounds include the Gestalt principles of figure/ground,
proximity, continuity, similarity, closure
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
42www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Loudness is a distance cue
o Differences in loudness and/or time of arrival of auditory stimuli to the two ears allows us to
estimate direction
4. Other Senses
Taste
o Chemicals stimulate receptors (inside taste buds) on tongue, throat, and roof of mouth
▪ Papillae--bumps on tongue, contain taste buds
▪ Taste receptors are replaced every 10 days--number of taste buds and
receptor cells declines with age
o Four basic tastes: salty, sour, bitter, sweet
▪ Each taste produced by a different type of chemical
▪ Each can be perceived wherever there are receptors
▪ Flavors are a combination of the four, but unclear how this occurs
▪ Natural tastes--preference for sweet
▪ Taste influenced by smell, culture, individual differences, temperature,
texture
▪ There are genetic differences in sensitivity to certain tastes
Smell
o The sense of smell is called olfaction
o Receptors are millions of specialized neurons embedded in a mucous membrane in upper part of
nasal passage; respond to chemical molecules in the air
o Signals travel from receptors to olfactory bulb in the brain
o Not well understood--no agreement on which smells are basic; there may be a thousand different
receptor types
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
43www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Sense of smell allows us to sniff out danger--smoke, spoiled food, poison gases
o Odor preferences influenced by culture, context, and experience
Senses of the skin
o Skin protects innards, helps identify objects, involved in intimacy, serves as boundary
o Skin senses include: touch (pressure), warmth, cold, and pain
▪ No correspondence among four sensations and types of receptors, except
for pressure
▪ Many aspects of touch continue to baffle scientists
The mystery of pain
o Pain differs from the other skin senses in that removal of stimulus doesnt always terminate
sensation
o Chronic pain puts stress on the body
o Gate-control theory of pain
▪ To experience pain sensation, impulses must pass a gate to central
nervous system
▪ The gate is made of neurons that either transmit or block pain message
▪ Chronic pain results when fibers that close the gate are damaged
o The neuromatrix theory of pain
▪ Gate-control theory can't explain phantom pain
o The brain can generate pain without external stimulation
o The neuromatrix gives us a sense of our own bodies
o Abnormal activity can occur in the neuromatrix as a result of
memories and expectations
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
44www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
The environment within
o Kinesthesis--tells us about location and movement of body parts using pain and pressure
receptors in muscles, joints, and tendons
o Equilibrium--gives information about position and motion of the body as a whole using three
semicircular canals in the inner ear
5. Perceptual Powers: Origins And Influences
Inborn abilities and perceptual lessons
o Studies with animals show that experience during a critical period may ensure survival of skills
present at birth
o Research concludes that infants are born with many perceptual abilities
▪ Ability to detect edges, angles, sizes, and colors
▪ Visual cliff experiment shows depth perception by 2 months of age
▪ Taste and smell preferences, ability to discriminate odors, distinguish
voices from other sounds, localize sound is present early
Psychological and cultural influences on perception
o Needs, beliefs, emotions, expectations (perceptual set) influence perception
o Culture affects perception by shaping stereotypes and directing attention
6. Puzzles Of Perception
Subliminal perception
o Evidence exists for perceptual processing without awareness
o A visual stimulus of which one is not aware can influence responses
o Evidence for influence of nonconscious processes in memory, thinking, decision making
o ubliminal perception is the perception of stimuli that are presented at below-threshold levels
o Subliminal stimuli can affect responses to simple stimuli, but there is no empirical evidence of
subliminal persuasion
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
45www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Extrasensory perception: Reality or illusion
o Reported ESP experiences include telepathy and precognition
o Evidence or coincidence
▪ Most evidence for ESP comes from unreliable anecdotal accounts
▪ Parapsychology: Field concerned with the study of ESP
▪ Studies under controlled conditions by parapsychologists
o Some positive results found but there were methodological
problems and results have not been replicated
o There is presently no empirical evidence to support the existence of
any of the phenomena included in the definition of ESP
▪ Magicians trick us by relying on the tendency of the mind to impose its
own interpretation on perceptions
Topic : Learning And Conditioning
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the the two types of stimuli and the two types of responses that form the basis of
classical conditioning
Understand the process of extinction work in classical conditioning
Understand the stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination refer to in classical
conditioning
Understand the principles of classical conditioning contribute to acquired preferences and
acquired fears
Understand the principles of classical conditioning contribute to food aversions and reactions
to medical treatments
Understand the three types of consequences that a behavior might produce
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
46www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Understand the the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement in
operant conditioning
Understand the extinction, generalization, and discrimination take place in operant
conditioning How are those processes different in classical conditioning
Understand the the difference between a continuous schedule of reinforcement and an
intermittent schedule of reinforcement
Understand the six reasons why punishment usually fails to change behavior
Understand the some circumstances under which reward might backfire
Understand the latent learning
Understand the observational learning
Definition/Overview:
Learning: In the fields of neuropsychology, personal development and education, Learning
is one of the most important mental function of humans, animals and artificial cognitive
systems. It relies on the acquisition of different types of knowledge supported by perceived
information. It leads to the development of new capacities, skills, values, understanding, and
preferences. Its goal is the increasing of individual and group experience. Learning functions
can be performed by different brain learning processes, which depend on the mental
capacities of learning subject, the type of knowledge which has to be acquitted, as well as on
socio-cognitive and environmental circumstances.
Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of
behavior. Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning (also called
respondent conditioning, or Pavlovian conditioning) in that operant conditioning deals with
the modification of "voluntary behavior" or operant behavior. Operant behavior "operates" on
the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals
with the conditioning of respondent behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions.
Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by
consequences.
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
47www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Key Points:
1. Introduction To Learning Concepts
Learning--any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs due to experience
Behaviorism--school of psychology that accounts for behavior in terms of observable events
Conditioning--involves forming associations between environmental stimuli and responses
o Classical conditioning
o Operant conditioning
Other theories reject the idea of omitting mental processes from explanations of human
behavior
o Social learning theories
o Cognitive theories
2. classical conditioning
New reflexes from old
o Pavlov was the first to describe and document the form of learning we now call classical
conditioning
o Terminology
▪ Unconditioned stimulus (US)--stimulus eliciting an automatic or
reflexive response
▪ Unconditioned response (UR)--response that is automatically produced
▪ Conditioned stimulus (CS)--an originally neutral stimulus that comes to
elicit a conditioned response after being paired with a US
▪ Conditioned response (CR)--response that is elicited by a CS
o Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is regularly paired with a US and the neutral stimulus
becomes a CS that elicits a CR that is similar to the original, unlearned one
o Classical conditioning is also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
48www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Principles of classical conditioning
o Extinction--when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned
stimulus, the conditioned response eventually disappears
o Spontaneous recovery--after a response has been extinguished, it may spontaneously reappear
after the passage of time, with exposure to the conditioned stimulus
o Higher-order conditioning--a neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by being
paired with an already established conditioned stimulus
o Stimulus generalization--after a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response,
similar stimuli may produce the same reaction
o Stimulus discrimination--different responses are triggered by stimuli that resemble the
conditioned stimulus in some way
What is actually learned in classical conditioning
o For effective conditioning to occur, it is not enough to pair the stimuli; the neutral stimulus must
reliably signal the unconditioned one
o Conditioning is less certain in everyday life
3. classical conditioning in real life
Learning to like
Learning to fear
o Some things may be more easily learned because of a biological predisposition based on
evolutionary considerations
o Little Albert example
o Therapy techniques that have developed to reverse classically conditioned
fears include counterconditioning and systematic desensitization
Accounting for taste--food and odor likes and dislikes
Reacting to medical treatments
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
49www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
4. operant conditioning
The birth of radical behaviorism
o Introduced at the turn of the twentieth century
o Thorndike observed that behavior is controlled by its consequences
o B.F. Skinner--behavior is explainable by looking outside of the individual
The consequences of behavior
o A response can lead to three types of consequences: neutral consequences, reinforcers, (increase
the probability that the response they follow will recur), and punishers (make the response they
follow less likely to recur)
o Consequences are most effective when there is no delay between response and consequence
o Primary and secondary reinforcers and punishers
▪ Primary reinforcers satisfy biological needs
▪ Primary punishers are inherently unpleasant
▪ Secondary reinforcers are reinforcing through association with other
(possibly primary) reinforcers
▪ Secondary punishers are punishing through association with other
punishers
o Positive and negative reinforcers and punishers
▪ Reinforcers--always increase the likelihood of a response
o Positive reinforcement--something pleasant is presented
o Negative reinforcement--something unpleasant is removed
▪ Punishers--decrease the likelihood of a response
o Positive punishment--something unpleasant occurs
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
50www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Negative punishment--something pleasant is removed
5. principles of operant conditioning
Skinner boxes and cumulative recorders are often used when conditioning animals
Extinction--a previously learned response stops occurring because it is no longer reinforced
o Spontaneous recovery is the return of a response that has been extinguished
Generalization and discrimination
o Stimulus generalization--a response occurs to stimuli that resemble the stimuli present during the
original learning
o Stimulus discrimination--the ability to distinguish between similar stimuli and to respond only to
the one that results in the reinforcer
o Discriminative stimulus is a signal whether a response will pay off; it is said to exert stimulus
control over the response because it signals whether the conditions in which the response will
be reinforced are present
Schedule of reinforcement--the pattern of delivery of reinforcements; can have powerful
effects on rate, form, and timing of behavior
o Continuous reinforcement--reinforcing a response each time it occurs; most effective for
initial learning
o Partial or intermittent schedules--reinforcement occurs only after a certain amount of time has
passed or only after a certain number of responses have been made
o Superstitious behavior can be learned when behavior is coincidentally reinforced
o Reinforcement on an intermittent schedule makes a response more resistant to extinction
when reinforcement is discontinued
Shaping--method of getting a response to occur in the first place by reinforcing successive
approximations to the desired response
Principles of conditioning are limited by genetic dispositions and physical characteristics
Skinner: The man and the myth
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
51www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
6. operant conditioning in real life
Operant principles may explain why people do not always behave as we or they would like
Behavior modification--the use of classical and operant conditioning techniques in real-
world settings
Pros and cons of punishment
o Punishment is widely used as a means of controlling behavior; punishment is appropriate in
situations where the individual's behavior is dangerous
o Punishment is often administered inappropriately or in a state of rage
o The recipient often responds with anxiety, fear, or rage
o Effects can be temporary and may depend on the presence of the punisher
o Most behavior is hard to punish immediately
o Punishment conveys little information about how to behave differently
o An action intended to punish may be reinforcing because it brings attention
Guidelines
o No physical abuse
o Describe appropriate behavior
o Reinforce desirable behavior as soon as possible
o Alternative to punishment--combine extinction of undesirable behavior with the
reinforcement of desirable behavior
The problems with reward
o Rewards must be tied to the activity being reinforced
o Intrinsic reinforcers involve enjoyment of the task itself, feelings of accomplishment
o Extrinsic reinforcement may undermine intrinsic reinforcement because the behavior is now
viewed as work, so they should be used sparingly
7. learning and the mind
Latent learning
o Tolmans experiment with rats demonstrated latent learning
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
52www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Latent learning is learning that is not immediately revealed through a change in behavior
o Latent learning occurs without obvious reinforcement
o Perceptions of the model and of themselves influence individuals learning
Social-cognitive learning theory
o The importance of observational learning was demonstrated by Bandura
o Media violence in movies, on television, in video games spotlights these issues
Topic : Behavior In Social And Cultural Context
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the distinctions among a norm, a role, and a culture
Understand the four reasons why people obey the commands of an authority figure
Understand the difference between a situational attribution and a dispositional attribution, and
fundamental attribution error highlight this distinction
Understand the six conditions under which coercive persuasion should be effective
Under what circumstances is groupthink likely to occur
Understand the diffusion of responsibility and deindividuation each predict antisocial
behavior by individuals in a group
Understand the six situational factors that predict acting courageously in the face of
opposition
Understand the ethnic identity, and how might it contribute to ethnocentrism
Understand the stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination differ from one another
Understand the three broad origins of prejudice
Understand the four ways of measuring prejudicial attitudes
Understand the four conditions that promote the reduction of prejudice and inter-group
conflict
Definition/Overview:
Social Behavior: In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed
towards society, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
53www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
predation which involves members of different species is not social. While many social
behaviors are communication (provoke a response, or change in behavior, without acting
directly on the receiver) communication between members of different species is not social
behavior.
In sociology, "behavior" itself means an animal-like activity devoid of social meaning or
social context, in contrast to "social behavior" which has both. In a sociological hierarchy,
social behavior is followed by social action, which is directed at other people and is designed
to induce a response. Further along this ascending scale are social interaction and social
relation. In conclusion, social behavior is a process of communicating.
Key Points:
1. Social And Cultural Psychology
Social psychologists study how social roles, attitudes, relationships, and groups influence
people to do things they would not necessarily do on their own
Cultural psychologists study the origins of roles, attitudes, and group norms in peoples ethnic,
regional, and national communities
2. Roles And Rules
Definitions
o Norms--rules about how people are supposed to act
o Roles--positions in society that are regulated by norms about how people in those positions
should behave
Milgrams obedience study
o Method
▪ Subjects thought they were in an experiment about the effect of
punishment on learning, and were instructed to give increasing levels
of shock to another subject every time an error was made
▪ No one received shocks, but the subjects did not know this
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
54www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Results
▪ Every subject administered at least one shock to the learner; two-thirds
obeyed the experimenter and gave all the levels of shock, even though
they thought the victim was in pain
▪ Many subjects were visibly upset by being asked to administer shocks,
but continued anyway
▪ Subsequent studies examined conditions for disobedience
o nothing the victim said or did decreased the subjects compliance
o participants were more likely to disobey orders to give shocks
when:
o Conclusions
▪ Obedience is a function of the situation, not of personalities
▪ The nature of the relationship to authority influences obedience
Stanford Prison Study (Zimbardo)
o Method
▪ College students were randomly assigned to the roles of prisoners or
guards
▪ No further instructions were given on how to behave
o Results
▪ Some prisoners quickly became distressed, helpless, and panicky; others
became rebellious and angry
▪ Half of the prisoners begged to be let out of the study after a few days
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
55www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Guards acted like guards; one-third became tyrannical
▪ Guards seemed to enjoy their roles
▪ Researchers terminated the study early, because they had not expected
such a quick transformation from college student to prisoner or guard
o Conclusions
▪ Critics said students knew those roles from the media and were only
acting
▪ Researchers say that is their point--peoples behavior depends in part on
their roles; situations can outweigh personality
Why people obey
o In both studies described above, subjects behaviors depended on their assigned roles
o Factors that cause people to obey when they would rather not
▪ Legitimization of authority, which allows people to feel absolved of
responsibility for their actions
▪ Routinization--behavior becomes normalized
▪ Wanting to be polite--people do not want to rock the boat or appear rude
▪ Entrapment--obedience escalates through a commitment to a course of
action
3. Social Influences On Beliefs
Social cognition--area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought,
memory, perception, and other cognitive processes
Attributions
o Attribution theory--theory that people are motivated to explain their own and others behavior
by attributing causes of that behavior to a situation or a disposition
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
56www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Situational attributions--identify the cause of an action as something in
the environment
▪ Dispositional attributions--identify the cause of an action as something in
the person, such as a trait or motive
▪ Fundamental attribution error
o Tendency to overestimate personality factors and underestimate the
influence of the situation when explaining someone elses
behavior
o More prevalent in Western cultures
o Self-serving bias--when explaining ones own behavior, people take
credit for good actions and attribute the bad ones to the situation
o Just-world hypothesis
o Most human actions are determined by both the situation and personality
Attitudes
o Attitudes are relatively stable opinions containing a cognitive element and an emotional
element
o Affected by many social and environmental influences
▪ Some arise from the characteristic attitudes of each generation
▪ Events that occur when a person is between the ages of 16 to 24 appear
to be critical for the formation of generational identity
o Friendly persuasion
▪ Repetition of information increases the likelihood it will be believed--
called the validity effect
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
57www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Exposure to an argument from an attractive person is also persuasive
▪ Pairing a message with something pleasant, such as food, also increases
persuasion
▪ Fear
o Often causes people to resist arguments that are in their own best
interest
o May aid persuasion if the information produces moderate anxiety
levels and if message provides information on how to avoid the
danger
o Coercive persuasion (brainwashing) involves the following processes:
▪ The person is put under physical or emotional distress
▪ The persons problems are defined in simplistic terms and simple answers
are offered repeatedly
▪ The leader offers unconditional love, acceptance, and attention
▪ A new identity based on the group is created
▪ The person is subjected to entrapment
▪ The persons access to information is severely controlled. Attitudes and
behavior can affect each other
4. Individuals In Groups
Conformity--taking action or adopting attitudes as a result of real or imagined pressures
o Aschs conformity study--judgment of line length--showed that many people will conform to
incorrect judgments
o Influences on conformity
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
58www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Prevailing social norms
▪ Culture--more conformity in group-oriented cultures than in
individualistic cultures
▪ Conditions of study--conformity increases when:
Groupthink
o Groupthink--the tendency for all members of the group to think alike and suppress dissent
▪ Occurs when the need for agreement overwhelms the need for the wisest
decision
▪ Symptoms of groupthink
o Illusion of invulnerability
o Self-censorship
o Direct pressure on dissenters to conform
o There is an illusion of unanimity
▪ Groupthink is less likely when:
o Conditions explicitly encourage and reward the expression of doubt
and dissent
o Groups decision is based on majority rule rather than demand for
unanimity
The anonymous crowd
o Diffusion of responsibility
▪ Tendency of individuals to fail to take action because they believe
someone else will do so
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
59www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Bystander apathy reflects diffusion of responsibility
o Social loafing
▪ Diffusion of responsibility in work groups
▪ Individuals slow down and let others work harder
▪ Does not happen in all groups
o Deindividuation
▪ Losing all awareness of individuality and sense of self
▪ Increases under anonymous conditions
▪ In anonymous situations, people are more likely to conform to the norms
of the situation
Altruism and dissent
o Altruism--a willingness to take selfless or dangerous action on behalf of others
o Factors that predict independent action and altruism
▪ The individual perceives the need for intervention or help
▪ The individual decides to take responsibility
▪ The individual decides that the costs of doing nothing outweigh the costs
of getting involved
▪ The individual has an ally; the presence of another dissenter increases the
likelihood of dissent
▪ The individual becomes entrapped; once initial steps have been taken,
most people will increase their commitment
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
60www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
5. Us Versus Them: Group Identity
Ethnic identity
o Personal identity--a sense of self that is based on our own unique traits and history
o Social identities--aspects of our self-concepts that are based on nationality, ethnicity, religion,
and social roles
▪ Many people face a dilemma of balancing ethnic identity (close
affiliation with a religious or ethnic group) with acculturation
(identifying with and feeling part of the dominant culture)
▪ Four patterns of ethnic identity and acculturation are possible:
o Bicultural--strong ties to ones ethnicity and larger culture
o Assimilated--weak ethnic feelings, strong acculturation
o Ethnic separatists--strong ethnic identity, weak acculturation
o Marginal--connected neither to ones ethnicity nor the dominant
culture
Ethnocentrism
o The belief that ones own culture or ethnic group is superior
o Generates us-them thinking--example of Tajfel study
Stereotypes
o Summary impression of a group in which all members of that group are viewed as sharing a
common trait or traits
o They help us quickly process new information, retrieve memories, and organize experience
o Stereotypes lead to distortions of reality in three ways:
▪ They accentuate differences between groups
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
61www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ They produce selective perception
▪ They underestimate differences within other groups
▪ Stereotypes stem from cultural values, which affect how people evaluate
action
6. Group Conflict And Prejudice
Consists of a negative stereotype of a group and a strong emotional dislike of its members
The origins of prejudice
o It can ward off feelings of doubt and fear
o Prejudice is a tonic for low self-esteem
o Economic benefits and justification of majority group dominance in times of job competition
Reducing conflict and prejudice
o Both sides have equal status and economic standing
o Both sides have opportunities to work and socialize together, formally and informally
o Both sides must have the moral, legal, and economic support of the authorities
o Both sides cooperate in working toward a common goal
7. The Question Of Human Nature
Bad people do bad things, but good people (in certain circumstances) also do bad things
o The person in the situationthe eternal dialogue
In Section 3 of this course you will cover these topics:Thinking And Intelligence
Memory
Emotion
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
62www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Topic : Thinking And Intelligence
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the distinctions among a concept, prototype, proposition, schema, and mental
image
Understand the evidence is there that many types of thinking and decision making occur
outside of conscious awareness How do the concepts of mindlessness, subconscious
processes, and non conscious processes contribute to our understanding of this phenomenon
Understand the difference between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning
Understand the difference between an algorithm and a heuristic
Understand the six main barriers to reasoning rationally
Understand the availability heuristic, the hindsight bias, and the confirmation bias
Understand a mental set
Understand the three conditions that contribute to cognitive dissonance reduction
Why were IQ tests originally invented How was IQ originally measured How is IQ measured
currently
Understand the evidence is there that cultural background affects performance on intelligence
tests
Understand the three components of the triarchic theory of intelligence
Understand the evidence that intelligence is influenced by both genetics and the environment
Definition/Overview:
Thinking: Thinkingconsists of mental processes of discernment, analysis and evaluation. It
includes possible processes of reflecting upon a tangible or intangible item in order to form a
solid judgment that reconciles scientific evidence with common sense. In contemporary usage
"critical" has a certain negative connotation that does not apply in the present case. Though
the term "analytical thinking" may seem to convey the idea more accurately, critical thinking
clearly involves synthesis, evaluation, and reconstruction of thinking, in addition to analysis.
Intelligence: Intelligence(also called intellect) is an umbrella term used to describe a
property of the mind that encompasses many related abilities, such as the capacities to reason,
to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use language, and to
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
63www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
learn. There are several ways to define intelligence. In some cases, intelligence may include
traits such as creativity, personality, character, knowledge, or wisdom. However, most
psychologists prefer not to include these traits in the definition of intelligence.
Key Points:
1. Thought: Using What We Know
The elements of cognition
o Concept--a mental category that groups objects, relations, activities, abstractions, or qualities
having common properties
▪ Concepts simplify information about the world so that we can make
decisions effectively
▪ Prototypes are instances that are the most representative example of a
concept. We use prototypes to decide if something belongs to a
concept
▪ Concepts are the building blocks of thought
o Proposition--unit of meaning made up of concepts that express a unitary idea
o Cognitive schemas--propositions that are linked together in networks of knowledge,
associations, beliefs, and expectations--serve as mental models of the world
o Mental images--mental representations formed through any of the senses
How conscious is thought
o Subconscious processes--outside of awareness but can be made conscious; include many
automatic routines; enable us to perform more than one task simultaneously
o Nonconscious processes--outside of awareness but affect behavior; intuition
o Mindlessness--acting, speaking, making decisions without really processing relevant
information
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
64www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
2. Reasoning Rationally
o Reasoning--purposeful mental activity that involves operating on information in order to
reach conclusions; drawing inferences from observations, facts, or assumptions
o Formal reasoning: Algorithms and logic
▪ Algorithms--set of procedures guaranteed to produce a solution, even if
you dont know how they really work
▪ Deductive reasoning--if the premises are true, the conclusion must be
true
▪ Inductive reasoning--the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the
premises, although the premises support the conclusion; conclusion
may not be true
Informal reasoning: Heuristics and dialectical thinking--information may be incomplete;
many viewpoints compete; no established problem-solving procedures
o Heuristics--rules of thumb that suggest a course of action without guaranteeing a correct
solution
o Dialectical reasoning--ability to evaluate opposing points of view
Reflective judgment--critical thinking; the ability to evaluate and integrate evidence, relate
evidence to theory or opinion, and to reach and defend conclusions
General outline of seven cognitive stages of King and Kitchener
o Prereflective stages--assume a correct answer exists and is knowable through the senses or
from authorities; dont distinguish between knowledge and belief, or belief and evidence
o Middle or quasi-reflective stages--recognize that some things cannot be known with certainty,
but unsure how to deal with this
o Last stages of reflective judgment--understand that although some things cannot be known
with certainty, some judgments are more valid than others
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
65www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
3. Barriers To Reasoning Rationally
Exaggerating the improbable; influenced by the availability heuristic (the tendency to judge
the probability of an event by how easy it is to think of examples or instances)
Avoiding loss--people making decisions try to avoid or minimize risks and losses
Fairness biasnotions of equity and fairness influence reasoning
Hindsight bias--believing that an outcome was predictable all along
Confirmation bias--paying attention to information that confirms what we believe while
ignoring information that opposes our beliefs
Mental set--tendency to try to solve new problems using procedures that worked before on
similar problems
The need for cognitive consistency
o Cognitive dissonance is a state of tension that occurs when a person simultaneously holds two
cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent or holds a belief that is inconsistent with the
persons behavior
o People are motivated to reduce dissonance by changing a belief or behavior or by
rationalizing
o Conditions under which people are most likely to reduce dissonance
▪ When people feel they have freely made a decision
▪ When what people do violates their self-concept
▪ When people put a lot of effort into a decision and the results are less
than they hoped for--justification of effort
Overcoming cognitive biases
o When people have some expertise in an area
o When decisions have real-life consequences
o When people understand the bias
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
66www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
4. Measuring Intelligence: The Psychometric Approach
Disagreements exist on the nature of intelligence
o Factor analysis is a procedure used to identify which abilities underlie performance on certain
tasks on an intelligence test
o Some believe in a general ability, or g factor, underlying all other abilities
Invention of IQ tests
o Focus on peoples performance on standardized mental tests
▪ Achievement test--measures skills and knowledge that have been taught
▪ Aptitude test--measures ability to acquire skills and knowledge in the
future
o Binets brainstorm--a test to identify slow learners
▪ Measured a childs mental age (MA)--intellectual development relative to
other childrens
▪ A later scoring system divided mental age by chronological age (CA) to
yield intelligence quotient (IQ)
▪ The scoring system was revised again, using the normal distribution as
the criterion
▪ Test was brought to the United States, and Terman revised it and
established norms for U.S.children; became Stanford-Binet
Intelligence Scale
▪ Wechsler developed test for adults (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, or
WAIS) and children (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children or
WISC); provides both general IQ
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
67www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Recognized that the test merely sampled intelligence--didnt measure
everything covered by the term and should not be confused with
intelligence itself
o Problems with the tests and their use in the United States
▪ Tests used in different ways and for different purposes in France and in
the United States
▪ Overlooked background and experience differences prevalent in the
U.S.population that resulted in the tests favoring certain groups
▪ Used incorrectly to categorize people according to their "natural" ability
o Culture-free and culture-fair tests
▪ Tried to address biases present in other IQ tests
▪ Culture-free tests--nonverbal tests
▪ Culture-fair tests--tried to eliminate the influence of culture
▪ Stereotype threat creates anxiety, which can adversely affect
performance
o Beyond the IQ test--some conclusions
▪ IQ tests put some groups at a disadvantage, yet measrue skills and
knowledge useful in the classroom
▪ Scores on IQ tests may be poor predictors of how intelligently people
behave in real life
5. Dissecting Intelligence: The Cognitive Approach
Emphasizes problem-solving strategies
Sternbergs triarchic theory of intelligence--three aspects
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
68www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Componential intelligence--internal information-processing strategies; the only one measured
by most IQ tests; involves recognizing problems, selecting a method to solve them, mastering
and carrying out the strategy, and evaluating the result
o Metacognition--part of Sternbergs componential intelligence--knowledge or awareness of
own cognitive processes and ability to monitor and control those processes
o Experiential intelligence--creativity and ability to transfer skill to new situations
o Contextual intelligence--practical application of intelligence; requires that people take into
account different contexts in which they find themselves
o The experiential and contextual components are not measured on most IQ tests
▪ Allow us to use tacit knowledge--strategies for success that are not
formally taught, but must be inferred
▪ Tacit knowledge scores predict effectiveness on the job and academic
success
Domains of intelligence--Gardners theory of multiple intelligences
o Seven domains: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic,
intrapersonal, and interpersonal intelligence
o These are independent talents and may have their own neural structure
o Intra- and interpersonal intelligences correspond to what some psychologists call emotional
intelligence
▪ Ability to identify own and other peoples emotions accurately
▪ Ability to express emotions clearly
▪ Ability to regulate one's own and others emotions
Motivation, hard work, and intellectual success
o Terman study--showed that motivation was determining factor in life success
o Study by Stevenson and colleagues: Asian students outperformed American students
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
69www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ American parents, teachers, and children were more likely than Asians to
believe math ability was innate; Asian teachers saw studying hard as
the key to success
▪ American parents had lower standards for performance and for schools
than did Asian parents
▪ American students did not value education as much as Asian students
6. Animal Minds
Animal intelligence
o Kohler demonstrated problem solving in chimps
o Cognitive ethology--the study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals
▪ Some animals show ability to use rudimentary tools
▪ Some animals show some mathematical abilities
Animals and language
o Early efforts to teach language to primates had good success followed by skepticism
o Newer research better controlled; has found that animals can develop some language abilities
▪ Some chimps use signs, symbols, some understanding of words and
sentences, spontaneous communication, learning without formal
training
▪ Some evidence nonprimates can acquire aspects of language
o Dolphins have been able to respond to two artificial languages
o Alex the African grey parrot shows some language ability
Thinking about the thinking of animals
o Meaning of the studies questioned; concerns about anthropomorphism a anthropocentrism
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
70www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Topic : Memory
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the memory that largely a reconstructive process rather than an accurate
recording process
Understand the flashbulb memories
Understand the four a circumstance under which confabulation is likely to take place
Understand the difference between recognition and recall Understand the difference between
explicit memory and implicit memory
Understand the three boxes in the three-box model of memory
Understand the sensory register What role does it play in memory
Understand the capacity limits of short-term memory What is chunking, and how does it help
overcome these capacity limits
Understand the differences among procedural, declarative, semantic, and episodic memories
Understand the long-term potentiation contribute to the formation of memories
Understand the some effective strategies for encoding information for storage in long-term
memory
Understand the decay, replacement, and interference each contribute to forgetting
Understand the evidence is there both for and against the existence and accuracy of repressed
memories
Understand the four explanations for childhood amnesia
Definition/Overview:
Memory: In psychology, memoryis an organism's ability to store, retain, and subsequently
retrieve information. Traditional studies of memory began in the realms of philosophy,
including techniques of artificially enhancing the memory. The late nineteenth and early
twentieth century put memory within the paradigms of cognitive psychology. In recent
decades, it has become one of the principal pillars of a branch of science called cognitive
neuroscience, an interdisciplinary link between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
71www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Key Points:
1. Reconstructing The Past
The manufacture of memory--a reconstructive process
o Source amnesia--other information is integrated into memories and cannot be distinguished
from original memory
o Flashbulb memories--memories of emotional events that seem photographic--are not always
complete or accurate, especially over time
o The conditions of confabulation (remembering something incorrectly)
▪ Person has thought about imagined event many times
▪ The image of the event contains a lot of details
▪ The event is easy to imagine
2 .Memory And The Power Of Suggestion
The eyewitness on trial
o People reconstruct memories, so eyewitness testimony can be incorrect
o Errors are particularly likely to occur when the suspects ethnicity differs from that of the
witness
o Recollection of past events is influenced by the way a question is asked
Studies on childrens testimony describe the conditions under which a child might be
suggestible
o Preschoolers are more suggestible and more likely to have source amnesia than school-aged
children
o Pressure to conform to expectations and a desire to please an interviewer lead to more errors
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
72www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
3. In Pursuit Of Memory
Measuring memory
o Ways to measure explicit memory (conscious recollection of an event or item of information)
▪ Recall--the ability to retrieve information that is not present
▪ Recognition--the ability to identify information you previously
experienced
o Ways to measure implicit memory (information that affects our thoughts and actions even
when we do not consciously or intentionally remember it)
▪ Priming--exposure to one set of information affects answers on a
different type of task
▪ Relearning method--relearning a previously learned task and measuring
savings (also a test of explicit memory)
Models of memory
o Information processing models are based on computers--we encode information, store it, and
retrieve it
▪ After encoding, next step is storage (maintenance of memory over time)
▪ After storage, then retrieval (recovery of stored memory)
o Storage takes place in three interacting systems (three-box model)
▪ Sensory memory--retains incoming information for a second or two
▪ Short-term memory (STM)--holds limited amount of information for
about 30 seconds
▪ Long-term memory (LTM)--accounts for longer storage
o Parallel distributed processing model--rejects information-processing models
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
73www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Maintains that memory is different than a computer; the human brain
processes information simultaneously
▪ Considers knowledge to be stored in connections among thousands of
units
5. The Three-Box Model Of Memory
Sensory register: Fleeting impressions
o Includes separate memory subsystems for each sense
o Stores information as visual images (up to 1/2 sec.) and auditory images (up to 2 sec.)
o Acts as a holding bin until we select items for attention
o Pattern recognition occurs during transfer of information from sensory memory to short-term
memory
o Information that does not go on to STM is lost forever
Short-term memory: Memorys scratch pad
o Holds information up to about 30 seconds as an encoded representation
o Transfers information to LTM or information decays and is lost
o Holds information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary use, which is why this
part of memory is often referred to as working memory
o Holds seven (plus or minus two) chunks of information
o Memory limitations may be overcome by chunking--grouping small bits of information into
larger units, using our knowledge
Long-term memory: Final destination
o Organization in long-term memory
▪ By semantic category
o Research has shown that people recall information by category
o Clinical data supports semantic organization
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
74www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Network models assume that information is organized
semantically
▪ By sound and form of words--evidence from tip-of-the-tongue states
o Contents of long-term memory
▪ Procedural memories--knowing how
▪ Declarative memories--knowing that
o Semantic memories--internal representations of the world,
independent of context
o Episodic memories--representations of personally experienced
events
o Serial position effect provides evidence for the existence of short- and long-term memories
▪ The three-box model has been used to explain recency and primacy
effects
o Primacy effect--tendency to remember items that occur early on a
list--thought to be due to transfer of items to LTM
o Recency effect--tendency to remember items that occur near the
end of a list--thought to be due to items still being in STM at time
of recall
▪ Cannot fully explain the recency effect
Changes in neurons and synapses
o In STM, changes within neurons temporarily alter neurotransmitter release
o LTM changes involve permanent structural changes in the brain
▪ Long-term potentiation occursincreases synaptic responsiveness
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
75www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Consolidation is the time required for physical changes to occur in LTM;
until this occurs, memories in LTM are vulnerable to disruption
Locating memories
o STM tasks frontal lobes
o Formation of long-term declarative memories hippocampus
o Encoding of pictures and words prefrontal cortex, association areas of cortex
o Procedural memories of classically conditioned responses to unpleasant stimuli cerebellum
o Many more brain areas associated with memory are currently being investigated
Hormones and memory
o Adrenalin connectionhormones released during stress enhance memory, but high levels of
those hormones interfere with ordinary learning (especially with females)
o Sweet memoriesthe effect of these hormones may be due to glucose
o Still many unknowns about the connection between hormones and memory
6. How We Remember
Some kinds of information are encoded automatically (e.g., location of objects in space),
while others require effort (e.g., learning information from a textbook)
Rehearsal--review or practice of to-be-remembered material
Techniques
o Maintenance rehearsal (rote repetition)--maintains information in STM but does not lead to
LTM retention
o Elaborative rehearsal (elaboration of encoding)--associating new items of information with
information that has already been stored in LTM
o Deep processing--processing the meaning of what you are trying to remember
o Mnemonics--strategies for encoding, storing, and retaining information
7. Why We Forget
The decay theory--holds that memories fade with time if they are not used; does not apply
well to lapses in LTM
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
76www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Replacement--new memories for old--new information sometimes wipes out old information
Interference
o Retroactive interference--new information interferes with old
o Proactive interference--old information interferes with new
Cue-dependent forgetting--forgetting due to lack of retrieval cues
o Retrieval cues are important for remembering
o Context or mental/physical states (state-dependent memory) can be retrieval cues
o We remember better when the material matches our current mood
The repression controversy
o Repression--pushing upsetting information into the unconscious mind (a controversial
proposition)
▪ False memories of sexual abuse can arise as a result of the use of
"recovered memory" techniques
▪ A court has ruled that recovered memories are not admisssible
▪ In some cases, it is posible to distiguish false from true memories of
abuse
8. Autobiographical Memories
Childhood amnesia: The missing years--the inability to remember things from the first years
of life
o May occur because brain areas involved in formation or storage of events are not well
developed until a few years after birth
o Several cognitive explanations have been offered for childhood amnesia
▪ Lack of a sense of self
▪ Impoverished encoding
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
77www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ A focus on the routine
▪ Differences between early and later cognitive schemas
Memory and narrative: The stories of our lives
o Narratives are a unifying theme to organize the events of our lives
o Narratives rely on memory, which is constructed
Memory and myth
Topic : Emotion
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the three main biological components of emotion
Understand the evidence is there that facial expressions of primary emotions have a universal
quality
Understand the four reasons why people from different cultures might disagree about the
meaning of a facial expression of emotion
Understand the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex each play a role in the experience of
emotions
Understand the attributions for an event shape our emotional reactions to that event
Understand the display rules
Understand who is likely to engage in emotion work as a requirement of a job or social status
Understand the evidence is there that people can discern emotional states from body language
other than facial expressions
Understand the five main areas in which the sexes differ in emotional experience
Understand the five factors that contribute to the ability to accurately read the emotional
signals of another person
Understand the North American women and men differ in their emotional expressiveness
Understand the overall conclusion can be drawn regarding the question, Which sex is more
emotional
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
78www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Definition/Overview:
Emotion: An emotionis a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of
feelings, thoughts, and behaviours. It is a prime determinant of the sense of subjective well-
being and appears to play a central role in many human activities. As a result of this
generality, the subject has been explored in many, if not all of the human sciences and art
forms. There is much controversy concerning how emotions are defined and classified.
Key Points:
1 .Elements Of Emotion 1: The Body
The face of emotion
o Certain facial expressions are hard-wired
▪ Ekmans cross-cultural work identified seven universal expressions:
anger, happiness, fear, surprise, disgust, sadness, and contempt
▪ Neuro-cultural theory--universal face muscle physiology and cultural
variations contribute to the facial expression of emotion
▪ Facial expressions that convey genuine emotions may use different sets
of muscles and last for different durations than faked facial
expressions
▪ Facial expressions have evolved to express internal states and
communicate with others
▪ Facial expressions of parents have important impact on infants
o Facial-feedback hypothesis suggests that ones own facial expression influences the
experience of emotion
▪ Studies of mimicry and contagion stem from this line of research
o Facial expressions occur in a social and cultural context
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
79www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Familiarity affects the ability to decode facial expressions
▪ Expressions can mean different things at different times for different
posers
▪ Cultures differ in the amount of attention paid to expressions
▪ Expressions can be used deceptively
The brain and emotion
o The amygdala plays a crucial and central role in emotional experience
▪ Source of fear-related emotions appears to be the amygdala
▪ Cortex allows us to override emotional response triggered by amygdala
o Right hemisphere is activated when processing incoming emotional information and
expressing emotion
▪ Two cerebral hemispheres process different emotions; left = positive
emotions, right = negative emotions
o Mirror neurons play a critical part in empathy and imitation
Hormones and emotion
o Epinephrine and norepinephrine produced by adrenal gland activate the sympathetic nervous
system
o At high hormone levels, we may feel flooded by an emotion, but we can learn to control our
actions
o Both physiological similarities and differences exist between emotions
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
80www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
2 .Elements Of Emotion 2: The Mind
Explanations of events predict emotion better than events themselves
Many emotions distinguished by particular thoughts or perceptions--they cannot be
experienced without a sense of self and an understanding of social expectations (e.g., envy
and jealousy, shame and guilt)
3. Elements Of Emotion 3: The Culture
Cultural differences exist in norms; norm violations lead to the experience of anger
How culture shapes emotions
o Many psychologists believe that it is possible to identify a number of primary emotions that
are experienced universally
o Secondary emotions are culture-specific
o Many think searching for primary emotions is misleading and masks the influence of culture
on all emotions
▪ What is considered basic or primary is influenced by culture
▪ Culture determines much of what people feel emotional about
Communicating emotion
o Display rules--the cultural rules that govern how and when emotions may be expressed--
specify what to do when feeling an emotion
o Body language is important in the communication of emotion
o Some rules tell us how and when we should show an emotion we do not feel called emotion
work
4. Putting The Elements Together: Emotion And Gender
Seeming gender differences in emotionality may be explained by differing expectations for
men and women
o These differences may show up in reactivity, cognition, expression, emotion work
In Section 4 of this course you will cover these topics:
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
81www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Motivation
Theories Of Personality
Development Over The Lifespan
Topic : Motivation
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the psychologists define motivation
Understand the is the bodys set point, and how does it contribute to weight gain and weight
maintenance
Understand the kinds of cultural factors contribute to perceptions of weight .
Understand the anorexia and bulimia
Understand the three attachment styles
Understand the hormones influence sexual response
Understand the evidence is there that women and men differ in their sex drives
Understand the six motives for having sex
Understand the four motives for rape
Understand the is a sexual script
Understand the three conditions that allow goal-setting to improve motivation and
performance
Understand the is the difference between approach goals and avoidance goals
Understand the is the difference between performance goals and mastery goals
Understand the three kinds of common motivational conflicts
Definition/Overview:
Motivation: Motivationis the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior,
especially human behavior as studied in philosophy, conflict, economics, psychology, and
neuropsychology. These reasons may include basic needs such as food or a desired object,
hobbies, goal, state of being, or ideal. The motivation for a behavior may also be attributed to
less-apparent reasons such as altruism or morality. According to Geen, motivation refers to
the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of human behavior.
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
82www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Key Points:
1. Introduction
Motivation an inferred process within a person or animal that causes that organism to move
toward a goal
Intrinsic motivation enjoyment of an activity for its own sake
Extrinsic motivation pursuit of goals for external rewards (e.g., money, praise)
2. The Hungry Animal: Motives To Eat
The biology of weight
o Set point--the weight one stays at when not consciously trying to gain or lose weight
▪ Basal metabolism rate--the rate at which the body burns calories
▪ Fat cells store fat for energy; they can change in size but not in number
▪ When a heavy person diets, the metabolism slows down; when a thin
person overeats, the metabolism speeds up
o Twin and adoption studies estimate the heritability of body weight and shape at between 40
and 70 percent
o Other studies on humans provide further evidence for the importance of genes
o Researchers have isolated a genetic variation in mice that causes these animals to become
obese
Culture, gender, and weight
o Culture influences when, what, and with whom we eat
o Many people today are eating foods high in fat and not exercising as much as in previous
times
o Culture affects people's notions of what the ideal body should look like
▪ The ideal in the Western hemisphere has been getting thinner, especially
for women
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
83www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ The big-breasted ideal tends to be fashionable in eras that celebrate
women's roles as mothers
▪ In eras when women have entered traditionally males spheres, they have
tried to look boyish and muscular
▪ In men, having a muscular body is a sign of affluence
o An obsession with weight can lead to eating disorders
▪ Evolution has programmed women for a reserve of fat necessary for
menstruation, childbearing, and so forth
▪ Bulimia--sufferer binges and then purges
▪ Anorexia nervosa--sufferer stops eating
▪ Some men abuse steroids and exercise compulsively because of a belief
that their bodies are "puny"
3. The Social Animal: Motives To Love
The biology of love
o Varieties of love
▪ Passionate versus companionate love
o Passionate = romantic love--intense, unstable, fragile, highly
sexualized
o Companionate = characterized by affection and trust
The psychology of love
o Attachment theory of love
▪ Research supports Ainsworths three attachment styles in adults: secure,
avoidant, anxious-ambivalent
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
84www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Adult styles originate in infant-parent relationship
o Sternbergs trianglular theory of love
▪ Three ingredients: passion, intimacy, and commitment
▪ These basic ingredients may be combined in various ways to form new
styles
Gender, culture, and love
o No evidence that one sex loves more than the other
o Men and women differ in how they express love
▪ These differences are influenced by gender role expectations
▪ Gender differences are changing as womens roles change
4 .The Erotic Animal: Motives For Sex
The biology of desire
o Hormones and sexual response
▪ Testosterone promotes sexual desire in both sexes
▪ Testosterones role is a two-way street--testosterone contributes to sexual
arousal and sexual stimulation also produces higher levels of
testosterone
▪ Psychological factors are as important as testosterone
o Arousal and orgasm
▪ Kinsey et al. pointed out that males and females are very much alike in
anatomy and physiology
▪ Masters and Johnsons studies confirmed that male and female orgasms
are remarkably similar
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
85www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Suggested that womens capacity for sexual response might even
surpass that of men (e.g., multiple orgasms)
o Did not do research to learn how sexual response might vary
according to culture and experience
o Physiological responses can be a result of fear, anger, or other
emotions
o Sex and the sex drive
▪ Men and women differ in sex drive, sexual desire, sexual behavior
▪ The origin of these differencesevolution or social learningis debatable
o Evolution and sex
▪ Sex differences in courtship and mating practices evolve in response to a
species's survival needs
o It is adaptive for men to inseminate as many women as possible
o Women are more discriminating, because they can conceive and
bear only a limited number of offspring
o The result is that men are more fickle and promiscuous, whereas
women are more devoted and faithful
▪ Evolutionary psychologists support their views with research that shows
that men are universally more violent than women, more interested in
youth and beauty, more jealous, and so forth
▪ Critics claim that this view is an after-the-fact explanation of a
stereotype; sexual behavior is extremely varied and changeable
The psychology of desire
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
86www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o The many motives for sex--enhancement, intimacy, coping, self-affirmation, partner
approval, peer approval
o Sexual coercion and rape
▪ Men and women differ in their perceptions of coercion
▪ In most cases, the rapist is known to the victim
▪ Fourteen percent of American women have been raped
▪ Rape is primarily an act of dominance and hostility
▪ Rapists may also be motivated by pressure to prove their masculinity
▪ Sexually aggressive males are characterized by a cluster of traits:
insecurity, defensiveness, and hostility toward women
The culture of desire--sexual motivation and behavior occur in a cultural context
o Men and women acquire notions of proper sexual behavior from cultural norms and parental
lessons
o Sexual attitudes, practices, and behavior are highly variable across cultures
o Sexual behavior is shaped by gender roles and sexual scripts
o As women become more self-supporting and able to control their fertility, the differences
between men and women become smaller
Gender, culture, and sex
o Lopsided sex ratios can lead to sex markets in some environments
5. The Competent Animal: Motives To Achieve
The effects of motivation on work
o Goals most likely to improve performance when three conditions are met
▪ The goal is specific
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
87www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ The goal is framed positively
▪ The goal is challenging but achievable
o Performance goals--people may stop trying to improve if they fail at these goals
o Learning and mastery goals--failure is interpreted as another learning experience
o Children acquire learning goals when they are praised for effort rather than ability
Expectations and self-efficacy
o Work harder if success expected; creates a self-fulfilling prophecy
o How hard you work for something depends on how much you want it, which depends on
your values
o Competence results from self-efficacy--conviction that you can accomplish what you set out
to do
The effects of work on motivation
o Working conditions
▪ Meaningfulness, autonomy, variety, rule consistency, support, useful
feedback, and chances for growth increase workers motivation and
satisfaction
▪ High income does not increase work motivation; rather, how and when
money is paid influences work motivation
o Opportunities to achieve
▪ Achievement highly related to opportunity
▪ Stereotypes affect motivation to work in certain fields
▪ Perception of a glass ceiling lowers motivation to succeed
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
88www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
6 .Motives, Values, And Well-Being
Three kinds of motivational conflicts
o Approach-approach--equal attraction to two or more goals
o Avoidance-avoidance--when you dislike two alternatives
o Approach-avoidance--when one activity has a positive and negative aspect
Consequences of high levels of conflict and ambivalence
o Some internal conflict inevitable
o Unresolved conflict has physical and emotional cost
o Associated with anxiety, depression, headaches, and other symptoms
o Being true to one's self leads to greater self-integrity
Maslows hierarchy of needs
o Survival needs at the bottom, self-actualization needs at the top
o Lower-level needs must be met before higher-level needs can be addressed
o Popular theory, but unsupported by research
▪ People experience many needs simultaneously
▪ Those whose lower needs are met do not necessarily go on to meet
higher needs
▪ Higher needs may overcome lower needs
Topic : Theories Of Personality
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the three elements that make up the structure of personality, according to Freud
Understand the are six common defense mechanisms in psychodynamic theory
Understand the five stages of psychosexual development, according to Freud
Understand the is the collective unconscious Understand the are archetypes
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
89www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Understand the are three major shortcomings of psychodynamic theories
Understand the Big Five personality dimensions currently favored by personality researchers
Understand the are temperaments, and how are they related to personality traits
Understand the does heritability refer to
Understand the is reciprocal determinism
Understand the are three lines of evidence that suggest parents have a minor influence on the
development of their childrens personality
Understand the main differences between an individualist culture and a collectivist culture
Understand the basic tenets of humanism
Understand the major shortcomings of humanistic theories of personality
Definition/Overview:
Personality: Personality psychologystudies personality based on theories of individual
differences. One emphasis in this area is to construct a coherent picture of a person and his or
her major psychological processes (Bradberry, 2007). Another emphasis views personality as
the study of individual differences, in other words, how people differ from each other. A third
area of emphasis examines human nature and how all people are similar to one other. These
three viewpoints merge together in the study of personality.
Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a
person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various
situations (Ryckman, 2004). The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which
means mask. Significantly, in the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was
not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but rather was a convention
employed to represent or typifythat character.
The pioneering American psychologist, Gordon Allport (1937) described two major ways to
study personality, the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general
laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization,
or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic psychology is an attempt to understand the unique
aspects of a particular individual. The study of personality has a rich and varied history in
psychology, with an abundance of theoretical traditions. Some psychologists have taken a
highly scientific approach, whereas others have focused their attention on theory
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
90www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
development. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing
with people.
Key Points:
1. Defining Personality
Personality--distinctive and stable pattern of behaviors, thoughts, motives, and emotions that
characterize an individual over time
2. Psychodynamic Theories Of Personality
Freuds psychoanalytic theory was the first psychodynamic theory
Freuds theory and the theories of his followers are called psychodynamic theories
Elements shared by all psychodynamic theories
o Based on movement of psychic forces within the mind (intrapsychic dynamics)
o Adult behavior and problems determined primarily by early childhood experiences
o Psychological development occurs in fixed stages
o Unconscious fantasies and symbols are main influences on personality and behavior
o Reliance on subjective methods of getting at the truth of a persons life
Freud and psychoanalysis
o Freud believed that unconscious forces have more power to control behavior than conscious
thought
o The unconscious reveals itself in free association and through slips of the tongue
o Personality is made up of three systems that balance in a healthy personality
▪ The id--operates according to the pleasure principle and contains the life
(sexual) instinct (fueled by libido) and death (aggressive) instincts.
Energy buildup results in tension
▪ The ego--referee between demands of id and society, obeys the reality
principle, represents reason and good sense
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
91www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ The superego--morality and rules of parents and society, consists of
moral standards and conscience, judges the activities of the id
o Defense mechanisms
▪ Used by ego to reduce anxiety when ids wishes conflict with society
▪ They are unconscious and deny or distort reality
▪ Some defense mechanisms: repression, projection, displacement (and
sublimation), reaction formation, regression, denial
o The development of personality
▪ Occurs in psychosexual stages. Child may remain fixated if too much
anxiety or conflict is present
o Oral stage--focus on the mouth--fixation at this stage may result in
constantly seeking oral gratification
o Anal stage--issue is control--people fixated at this stage become
excessively tidy or excessively messy
o Phallic stage--Oedipus complex emerges, sexual sensation located
in penis or clitoris. Identification with the same-sex parent then
occurs in boys; by the end of
o this stage, personality is formedLatency stage--sexual feelings
subside
o Genital stage--beginning of mature adult sexuality
▪ Criticisms
o Pressured patients to accept his ideas
o Ignored disconfirming evidence
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
92www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Other psychodynamic approaches
o Carl Jung--biggest difference was the nature of the unconscious
▪ Collective unconscious contains universal memories
▪ Archetypes are themes and symbolic images that appear repeatedly in
myths
▪ Two major archetypes are those of maleness and femaleness
o Masculine and feminine psychological qualities appear in both
sexes
o Anima = feminine archetype in men
o Animus = masculine archetype in women
▪ Perceived humans as more positively motivated than did Freud
▪ Identified introversion-extraversion as a central personality orientation
o Object-relations school--emphasizes need for relationships
▪ Object--a representation or complex cognitive schema about the mother
that the child constructs unconsciously
▪ Object-relations reflect numerous representations of self and others and
the psychodynamic interplay among them
▪ Central tension is balance between independence and connection to
others
▪ Children of both sexes identify with mother; males must separate
▪ Males identity is less secure than females
Evaluating psychodynamic theories
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
93www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Problems with psychodynamic theories
▪ Principle of falsifiability violated--cant confirm or disprove ideas
▪ Universal principles drawn from the experiences of selected atypical
patients
▪ Theories based on the retrospective memories of patients--creates illusion
of causality
o Some researchers are trying to study psychodynamic concepts empirically
3. The Modern Study Of Personality
Personality Inventories
o Popular personality tests
▪ Standardized questionnaires that require written responses
▪ Typically include scales on which individuals rate themselves
▪ MMPI, MPQ
o Factor analysis
▪ Statistical method for analyzing intercorrelations among various
measures or scores
▪ Clusters of measures or scores that are strongly correlated are assumed to
measure the same underlying trait or ability
Core personality traits
o Trait--characteristic assumed to describe a person across many situations
o Allports trait theory--individual traits make people unique
▪ Central traits--characteristic ways of behaving
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
94www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Secondary traits--the more changeable aspects of personality
o Cattell--studied traits using factor analysis
o The Big Five traits--supported by research as fundamental traits
▪ Extroversion versus introversion
▪ Neuroticism versus emotional stability
▪ Agreeableness versus antagonism
▪ Conscientiousness versus impulsiveness
▪ Openness to experience versus resistence to new experience
4. Genetic Influences On Personality
Puppies and personality
o Members of other species show reliably discerned trait-like characteristics
Heredity and temperament--temperaments are relatively stable, characteristic physiological
dispositions that appear in infancy and have some genetic basis
o Kagans reactive and nonreactive temperamental styles--detectable in infancy, tend to remain
stable throughout childhood
o Children with reactive temperaments are shy and timid, react negatively to novel situations
o Children with nonreactive temperaments are outgoing and curious
o Reactive children show increased sympathetic nervous system activity during mildly stressful
tasks
o Suomi found similar characteristics in reactive monkeys
Heredity and traits
o Computing heritability
▪ Behavioral geneticists study the genetic bases of ability and personality
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
95www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Heritability tells the proportion of variation in a trait that is due to genes
▪ Heredity is investigated with adoption and twin studies
o How heritable are personality traits
▪ Regardless of the trait, heritability is typically about .50
▪ The only environmental effects on personality come from nonshared
(with family members) experiences--shared environment and parental
child-rearing practices do not seem related to adult personality traits
Evaluating genetic theories
o Not all traits are equally heritable or unaffected by shared environment
o Studies may underestimate the impact of environment
o Even traits that are highly heritable are not fixed
5. Environmental Influences On Personality
Situations and social learning
o People dont have traits--instead, they show patterns of behavior
o Reason for inconsistencies in behavior is that different behaviors are rewarded, punished, or
ignored, depending on the situation
Social-cognitive learning theory
o Habits, beliefs, and behavior
▪ Modern social-cognitive learning theories depart from classic
behaviorism in their emphasis on three things:
o Observational learning and the role of models
o Cognitive processes, such as perception and interpretation of
events
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
96www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Motivating values, emotions, and beliefs, such as expectations of
success or failure and confidence in ability to achieve goals
▪ Habits and beliefs seen as exerting their own effects on behavior
o Perceptions of control--much of human behavior is self-regulated, shaped by our thoughts,
emotions, and goals
▪ Reciprocal determinism is the interaction between aspects of the
individual and aspects of the situation that shape personality
▪ Nonshared enviroment refers to the unique aspects of a persons
enviroment and experience that are not shared by family members
Parental influence and its limits
o Belief that personality is determined by how parents treat their children is challenged by three
lines of empirical evidence:
▪ The shared environment of the home has little, if any, influence on
personality
▪ Few parents have a single child-rearing style that is consistent over time
and that they use with all of their children
▪ Even when parents try to be consistent in the way they treat their
children, there may be little relation between what they do and how the
children turn out
The power of peers
o Peer environment consists of different peer groups, organized by interests,ethnicity, and/or
popularity
▪ Children and adolescents who are temperamentally fearful and shy are
more likely to be bullied
▪ Peers have a stronger influence on academic achievement than parents
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
97www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
6. Cultural Influences On Personality
Culture, values, and traits
o Two kinds of cultures
▪ Individualist--individual needs take precedence over group needs
▪ Collectivist--group harmony takes precedence over individual wishes
o Cultures norms and values vary
▪ Conversational distance
▪ Tardiness
o In monochronic cultures, people do one thing at a time; value
promptness (e.g., northern Europe, Canada,United States)
o In polychronic cultures, people do several things at a time;
promptness not valued (e.g., southern Europe, Middle East, South
America, Africa)
Evaluating cultural approaches
o Cultural psychologists describe cultural influences on personality, avoiding stereotyping
o Regional variations occur in every society
o Many cultures share many human concerns (e.g., need for love, attachment, family, work,
religion)
7. The Inner Experience
Humanist approaches
o Developed as a reaction against psychoanalysis and behaviorism
o Abraham Maslows approach
▪ Emphasized good side of human nature, peak experiences
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
98www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Emphasized movement toward state of self-actualization
o Carl Rogerss approach
▪ Interested in the fully functioning person--requires congruence between
self-image and true feelings
▪ Fully functioning--means a person is trusting, warm, and open to new
experiences
▪ Becoming fully functional requires unconditional positive regard
▪ Conditional love results in incongruence and unhappiness
o Rollo May--brought aspects of existentialism to American psychology
▪ Emphasized the burdensome aspects of free will
▪ The burden of responsibility can lead to anxiety and despair
Narrative approaches
o Whats your story holds more truth than may appear at first glance
Evaluating humanist and narrative approaches
o Many assumptions of humanism cannot be tested
o Humanist concepts are difficult to define operationally
o Both humanism and the narrative approach balance psychologys traditional view of
personality
Topic : Development Over The Lifespan
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the six harmful influences that can disrupt the development of an embryo or fetus
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
99www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Understand the three forms of attachment that can develop between a child and a caregiver
How is the Strange Situation used to reveal these attachment styles
Understand the evidence is there for or against the idea that the first three years of life are
critical for shaping later development
Understand the language develop between 6 months and 6 years of age
Understand the four stages of cognitive development, according to Piaget
Understand the is object permanence and Understand the does a lack of it reveal about
cognitive development
Understand the two defining characteristics of childrens thinking during the preoperational
stage of cognitive development
Understand the five major challenges to Piagets view of cognitive development
Understand the stages of moral development, according to Kohlberg
Understand the four problems with stage theories of moral development
Understand the is the distinction between authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles, and
how are these styles related to power assertion and induction in the development of moral
behavior
Understand the do gender typing, gender identity, and gender schemas refer to
Understand the major physiological changes that girls and boys undergo during adolescence
Understand the eight stages or crises of development over the lifespan that were proposed by
Erik Erikson
Understand the kinds of intellectual changes take place as people reach adulthood and old age
Do decrements in performance or ability necessarily have to take place
Definition/Overview:
Development over the Lifespan: Developmental psychology, also known as human
development, is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that occur in human
beings over the course of the life span. Originally concerned with infants and children, the
field has expanded to include adolescence and adult development, aging, and the entire life
span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and
other psycho-physiological processes; cognitive development involving areas such as
problem solving, moral understanding, and conceptual understanding; language acquisition;
social, personality, and emotional development; and self-concept and identity formation.
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
100www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Developmental psychologists investigate key questions, such as whether children are
qualitatively different from adults or simply lack the experience that adults draw upon. Two
important issues concern the nature of development. One concerns whether development
occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge or through shifts from one stage of
thinking to another. The other concerns whether children are born with innate knowledge or
figure things out through experience. A third significant focus of research involves the
interaction between social context and development.
Developmental psychology informs several applied fields, including: educational psychology,
child psychopathology, and forensic developmental psychology. Developmental psychology
complements several other basic research fields in psychology including social psychology,
cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and comparative psychology.
Key Points:
1. From Conception Through The First Year
Prenatal development
o Maturation--the sequential unfolding of genetically influenced behavior and physical
characteristics
o Three stages of prenatal development
▪ Germinal stage--0-14 days: fertilized egg (zygote) divides and attaches to
the uterine wall; outside becomes placenta, inner part becomes embryo
▪ Embryonic stage--after implantation (about 2 weeks) to eighth week:
embryo develops, organs and limbs develop, testosterone is secreted in
males
▪ Fetal stage--after eighth week, further development of organs and
systems: marked increase in nervous system development and brain
weight
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
101www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Harmful influences that can cross the placental barrier -- include German measles, radiation,
toxic chemicals, sexually transmitted diseases, cigarette smoking, heavy alcohol
consumption, prescription and nonprescription drugs
The infants world
o Physical abilities
▪ Newborns have functional motor reflexes
▪ Newborns are able to see, but are nearsighted
o Will show evidence of depth perception within a few months
o Prefer faces over other stimuli in the environment
▪ Many aspects of development depend on cultural customs
o Attachment--provides a secure base from which children can explore
▪ The Harlows demonstrated the importance of touching, or contact
comfort
▪ Between 7 and 9 months, babies may show stranger anxiety and
separation anxiety until the middle of the second year or later
▪ Ainsworth devised an experimental method called the Strange Situation
in which the babys behavior is observed when the mother leaves the
baby with a stranger
o Securely attached children are clearly more attached to the mother
o Insecurely attached children show avoidance or anxiety and
ambivalence
▪ Factors affecting attachment
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
102www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Neglect, abuse, and deprivation adversely affect attachment;
however, differences in normal child-rearing practices have no
effect
o Day care does not affect attachment
Temperament, chronic stress, and rejection can affect attachment
o Cultural expectations also play a role
How critical are the early years
o Eh.
▪ Stimulating development is good, but not as gaspingly critical as
popularly believed
2. Cognitive Development
Language
o From cooing to communicating
▪ In first months, babies responsive to pitch, intensity, and sound of
language; people talk to babies with more varied pitch and intonation
▪ By 4 to 6 months, babies have learned many basic sounds of their
language, and over time lose the ability to perceive speech sounds in
another language
▪ Between 6 months and 1 year, babies enter the babbling phase; infants
become more familiar with the sound structure of their native language
▪ Starting at around 11 months, babies develop repertoire of symbolic
gestures; gestures spur language learning
▪ Between 18 months and 2 years, two- and three-word combinations are
produced; first combinations have a telegraphic quality
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
103www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Thinking
o Piaget proposed that children must make two types of mental adaptations
▪ Assimilation--fitting new information into present system of knowledge,
beliefs, and schemas (categories of things and people)
▪ Accommodation--must change or modify existing schemas to
accommodate new information that doesnt fit
o Piagets cognitive stages
▪ Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years old)
▪ Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 7)
▪ Concrete operations stage (ages 7 to 11)
▪ Formal operations stage (ages 12 to adulthood)
o Current views of cognitive development
▪ Shifts from stage to stage not as sweeping or clear-cut as Piaget implied
▪ Children understand more than Piaget gave them credit for
▪ Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought
▪ Childrens cognitive development depends on education and culture
▪ Piaget overestimated the cognitive skills of many adults
▪ Most psychologists accept Piagets major point, that new reasoning
abilities depend on the emergence of previous ones
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
104www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Most people agree that children actively interpret their worlds
3. Learning To Be Good
Moral reasoning
o Kohlberg developed a theory that states that there are three levels of moral reasoning that are
universal and occur in invariant order--moral stages determined by answers people give to
hypothetical moral dilemmas
▪ Levels and stages
o Level 1--preconventional morality
o Level 2--conventional morality, typically reached around 10 or 11
years of age
o Level 3--postconventional (principled) morality
▪ Limitations
o Stage theories tend to overlook cultural and educational influences
on reasoning
o Peoples moral reasoning is often inconsistent across situations
o Moral reasoning and behavior are often unrelated
o Parents enforce moral standards
▪ Power assertion
▪ Induction
▪ Authoritative versus authoritarian styles
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
105www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
4. Gender Development
Terminology
o Gender identity--fundamental sense of maleness or femaleness regardless of what one wears
or does
o Gender typing--society's expectations governing male and female attitudes and behavior
o Sex and gender have lost their previous biological and cultural distinctions
Influences on gender development
o Biological influences--toy and play preferences may have a biological basis
o Cognitive influences
▪ Children develop gender schemas (mental network of beliefs and
expectations about what it means to be male or female) as they mature;
these schemas influence their behavior
▪ At 9 months most babies can discriminate male and female faces
▪ Once children can label themselves as boys or girls, they begin to prefer
same-sex playmates and sex-typed toys
▪ Ages 2 to 4 important for development of gender schemas, which expand
into many areas
▪ Boys express stronger preferences for masculine toys and activities than
girls do for feminine ones; differences appear to be related to gender
differences in status
▪ As abilities mature, children understand exceptions to gender schemas
▪ Gender schemas change throughout our lives, but continue to influence
us
o Learning influences
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
106www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Differences between boys and girls are also the result of gender
socialization
▪ Assertiveness is rewarded more in boys; verbal behavior is rewarded
more in girls
▪ Children learn to adjust their behavior, making it more gender-typed
▪ Parents stereotypical expectations influence childrens performance and
feelings of competence in math, English, and sports
▪ Gender over the life span--gender development has become a lifelong
process
5. Adolescence
Definition: Period of development between puberty (the age at which a person becomes
capable of sexual reproduction) and adulthood
Physiology of adolescence
o Males produce higher levels of androgens than females; females produce higher levels of
estrogens than males
o In males, reproductive glands stimulated to produce sperm from the testes; in females,
reproductive glands stimulated to produce eggs from the ovaries
o In females, menstruation (menarche) begins and breasts develop; in males, nocturnal
emissions, growth of testes, scrotum, and penis occur
o Hormones are responsible for secondary sex characteristics in both sexes
o Age of puberty has been declining in developing countries
o Growth spurt occurs in both sexes; occurs earlier for girls than for boys
o Timing of puberty significant; early and late maturers may have special problems
Psychology of adolescence
o Studies find that extreme turmoil and unhappiness are the exception
o One's peer group is particularly influential during adolescence
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
107www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o During adolescence externalizing problems become more common in boys, internalizing
problems become more common in girls; suicide rates increasing in boys
o Preteens who encounter problems are often reacting to specific changes in the environment;
conflicts often stem from their need to individuate
o The extent to which parents and teens quarrel depends on cultural norms
6. Adulthood
Stages and ages
o Eriksons psychosocial theory says that all people go through eight stages in their lives,
resolving an inevitable crisis at each one
▪ Trust versus mistrust (during first year)
▪ Autonomy versus shame and doubt (toddlerhood)
▪ Initiative versus guilt (preschool years)
▪ Competence versus inferiority (elementary school age)
▪ Identity versus role confusion (adolescence)
▪ Intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood)
▪ Generativity versus stagnation (middle adulthood)
▪ Ego integrity versus despair (old age)
o How easily one passes between stages depends on cultural and economic factors
o Erikson showed that development is an ongoing process that is never finished
o Eriksons stages are not universal; they do not occur in the same order for everyone
The transitions of life
o Todays theories of adult development emphasize the transitions that mark adult life, rather
than a rigid developmental sequence
o Starting out: The social clock
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
108www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Most people still unconsciously evaluate their transitions according to a
social clock
▪ Adjusting to anticipated transitions is easier than adjusting to
unanticipated transitions or nonevent transitions
▪ People who wish to do things on time and are not able to do so may feel
depressed and anxious
o The middle years
▪ The years between 35 and 65 are considered the prime of life for most
Americans
▪ Menopause--midlife cessation of menstruation; ovaries stop producing
estrogen and progesterone
▪ Only about 10 percent of all women have severe physical symptoms
▪ Most postmenopausal women view menopause positively
▪ Menopause itself has no effect on most womens mental and physical
health
▪ Men lack biological equivalent of menopause
▪ For both sexes, physical changes of midlife and the biological fact of
aging do not predict how people will feel about aging or how they will
respond to it
o Old age
▪ The definition of old has gotten older
▪ Various aspects of mental functioning decline with age
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
109www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ In aging, fluid intelligence tends to decline, but crystallized intelligence
remains stable or improves--may compensate for the brains declining
efficiency late in life
▪ Many problems in old age are not inevitable and are correctable
▪ Short-term training programs can boost memory and other cognitive
skills dramatically
▪ People who have complex or challenging occupations and interests and
who are flexible are most likely to maintain their cognitive abilities in
later life
▪ Many people get happier and calmer with age
▪ In extreme old age rates of cognitive impairment and dementias rise
dramatically
7. The Wellsprings Of Resilience
Traumatized children are more likely to have emotional and behavioral problems
Evidence from the following suggests that negative effects are not inevitable
o Recovery from war
o Recovery from abusive or alcoholic parents
o Recovery from sexual abuse
Resilience can come from one's personality, other supportive people, and meaningful
activities
In Section 5 of this course you will cover these topics:Health Stress And Coping
Psychological Disorders
Approaches To Treatment And Therapy
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
110www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Topic : Health Stress And Coping
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the four common sources of stress
Understand the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome
Understand the HPA axis prepare the body to respond to stressors
Understand the components of the Type A personality pose a threat to health and wellness
Understand the evidence is there that positive emotions contribute to health and wellness
Understand the evidence is there that negative emotions contribute to poor health and illness
Understand the onfession, forgiveness, and optimism contribute to improved health
Understand the some examples of how a sense of control confers health benefits to an
individual
Understand the is the distinction between primary control and secondary control
Understand the four effective cognitive coping strategies
Understand the women and men differ in seeking social support or asking for help
Definition/Overview:
Health stress: Stress is a biological term which refers to the consequences of the failure of a
human or animal body to respond appropriately to emotional or physical threats to the
organism, whether actual or imagined. It includes a state of alarm and adrenaline production,
short-term resistance as a coping mechanism, and exhaustion. It refers to the inability of a
human or animal body to respond. Common stress symptoms include irritability, muscular
tension, inability to concentrate and a variety of physical reactions, such as headaches and
accelerated heart rate.
The term "stress" was first used by the endocrinologist Hans Selye in the 1930s to identify
physiological responses in laboratory animals. He later broadened and popularized the
concept to include the perceptions and responses of humans trying to adapt to the challenges
of everyday life. In Selye's terminology, "stress" refers to the reaction of the organism, and
"stressor" to the perceived threat. Stress in certain circumstances may be experienced
positively. Eustress, for example, can be an adaptive response prompting the activation of
internal resources to meet challenges and achieve goals.
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
111www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
The term is commonly used by laypersons in a metaphorical rather than literal or biological
sense, as a catch-all for any perceived difficulties in life. It also became a euphemism, a way
of referring to problems and eliciting sympathy without being explicitly confessional, just
"stressed out". It covers a huge range of phenomena from mild irritation to the kind of severe
problems that might result in a real breakdown of. In popular usage almost any event or
situation between these extremes could be described as stressful.
Coping: The coping is the process of managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to
solve personal and interpersonal problems, and seeking to master, minimize, reduce or
tolerate stress or conflict.
In coping with stress, people tend to use one of the three main coping strategies: either
appraisal focused, problem focused, or emotion focused coping.
Appraisal-focused strategies occur when the person modifies the way they think, for
example: employing denial, or distancing oneself from the problem. People may alter the way
they think about a problem by altering their goals and values, such as by seeing the humor in
a situation.
Key Points:
1. The stress-illness mystery
Hassles are hassling, but stressors can be sickening
o Uncontrollable, chronic, and durable stressors are particularly nasty
Some sources of stress
o Work-related problems
▪ Increase one's chances of catcing a cold
▪ Workers who have little control are most at risk from a variety of
illnesses
o Noise is an unhealthy stressor if it is chronic and cannot be controlled
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
112www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Bereavement and loss
▪ Loss of a loved one or close relationship is one of the most powerful
stressors in life
▪ Widowed and divorced married people are more susceptible to a variety
of diseases and their mortality rate is higher than average
o Poverty, powerlessness, and racism
▪ Poor people cannot afford good medical care and healthy food
▪ Poor people are exposed to many continuous stressors such as high crime
rates and run-down housing
▪ Urban blacks have a higher incidence of hypertension
▪ Racial discrimination is a major stressor
o Everyone does not react to stressors in the same way; it is necessary to take perceptions into
account
2. The physiology of stress
Stress and the body
o Stressors force the body to respond by mobilizing its resources--prepare the individual to
fight or flee
o Hans Selye concluded that stress consists of a series of physiological reactions that occur in
three phases:
▪ Alarm phase--organism mobilizes to meet the threat with a package of
biological responses
▪ Resistance phase--organism attempts to resist or cope with a threat that
cannot be avoided
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
113www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Exhaustion phase--occurs if the stressor persists--bodys resources
become overwhelmed--body becomes vulnerable to fatigue, physical
problems, and illness
o Not all stress is bad
o The immune system is affected by stress--prolonged stress can suppress cells that fight
disease and infection
▪ The HPA-axis is implicated in these processes
The mind-body link
o Psychoneuroimmunology explores the links between mind and body in a health context
3. The psychology of stress
Hostility and depression
o Type A personality characteristics--determined to achieve, have a sense of time urgency, are
irritable, are impatient with anybody who gets in their way
o Type B characteristics--calmer, less intense
o Recent research shows that Type As who are characterized by cynical or antagonistic
hostility are at increased risk for heart disease
o Clinical depression may put people at increased risk for heart disease
Positive emotions: Do they help
o Yes, they do
Managing negative emotions
o Confession confers a range of health benefits on an individual
o Forgiveness confers a range of health benefits on an individual
o Optimism and pessimism
▪ Optimism--associated with greater longevity
▪ Health and well-being may depend on having positive illusions
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
114www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Several programs and strategies have been developed to help overcome
pessimism
o The sense of control
▪ Locus of control
▪ People with internal locus of control tend to believe that they are
responsible for what happens to them
▪ People with external locus of control tend to believe that they are victims
of circumstance
▪ The most debilitating aspect of chronically stressful situations is feeling
out of control
▪ Sense of control affects the immune systems
o The limits of control--ideas about control are strongly influenced by culture
▪ Primary control--more Western approach--people try to influence
existing reality by changing other people, events, circumstances
▪ Secondary control--more Eastern approach--people try to accommodate
reality by changing their own aspirations or desires
▪ Both primary and secondary control have benefits--people who are ill can
combine these two forms of control by taking responsibility for future
actions while not blaming themselves for past ones
4. Coping with stress
Cooling off--stress reduction strategies include relaxation techniques, exercise, and massage
Solving the problem
o Emotion-focused coping concentrates on the emotions the problem has caused
o Problem-focused coping involves learning as much as possible about the problem from
professionals, friends, books, and others in the same predicament
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
115www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Problem-focused coping tends to increase a persons sense of self-efficacy, control, and
effectiveness
Rethinking the problem
o Reappraisal--when people cannot eliminate a stressor, they can choose to reassess its
meaning
o Learning from the experience--finding useful lessons in it
o Social comparisons--successful copers often compare themselves both to those less fortunate
and those more fortunate
Drawing on social support
o Friends can help by providing concern, affection, evaluation, ideas for planning, and other
needed resources
o Social support is medically beneficial, but stressful relationships can create more stress
o People who give support are healthier and happier than those who are self-involved
5. How much control do we have over our health
The public wants simple messages, but sometimes the answers arent so simple
o Nonetheless, making sensible choices, and recognizing the benefits of some actions and the
harmfulness of others, goes a long way toward improving health
Topic : Psychological Disorders
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the three primary considerations in defining a behavior as disordered
Understand the four concerns with using the DSM to diagnose psychological disorders
Understand the main differences between objective tests and projective tests
Understand the three disorders that are characterized by feelings of anxiety and panic
Understand the phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder classified as anxiety disorders
Understand the two types of mood disorders Understand the do they have in common
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
116www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Understand the three contributing factors in the vulnerability-stress model of depression
Understand the four kinds of personality disorders
Understand the three lines of evidence that suggest antisocial personality disorder has a
strong physiological component
Understand the four kinds of research evidence that illustrate the psychological, social, and
cultural contributions to understanding drug addiction
Understand the evidence is there for or against the existence of multiple personality disorder
as a well-defined psychological disorder
Understand the are four active or positive symptoms of schizophrenia In general, how do
these differ from negative symptoms
Understand the hallucinations and delusions differ from one another
Understand the five factors that contribute to the onset of schizophrenia
Definition/Overview:
Psychological Disorders: Psychological disorder or illness is a psychological or behavioral
pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not
expected as part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of
mental disorders have changed over time and across cultures. Definitions, assessments, and
classifications of mental disorders can vary, but guideline criteria listed in the ICD, DSM and
other manuals are widely accepted by mental health professionals. Categories of diagnoses in
these schemes may include dissociative disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders,
psychotic disorders, eating disorders, developmental disorders, personality disorders, and
many other categories. In many cases there is no single accepted or consistent cause of
mental disorders, although they are often explained in terms of a diathesis-stress model and
biopsychosocial model. Mental disorders have been found to be common, with over a third of
people in most countries reporting sufficient criteria at some point in their life. Mental health
services may be based in hospitals. Mental health professionals diagnose individuals using
different methodologies, often relying on case history and interview. Psychotherapy and
psychiatric medication are two major treatment options, as well as supportive interventions.
Treatment may be involuntary where legislation allows. Several movements campaign for
changes to mental health services and attitudes, including the Consumer/Survivor Movement.
There are widespread problems with stigma and discrimination.
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
117www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Key Points:
1. Defining and Diagnosing Disorder
Mental disorders are not the same as abnormal behavior
Insanity is a legal term that depends on whether the person is aware of the consequences of
behavior and is able to control it
Several criteria for defining mental disorders are currently in use
o Violation of cultural standards--behavior that conforms to norms in one culture might be seen
as abnormal in another setting
o Emotional distress--when people suffer from anxiety, fear, anger, depression, or guilt
o Maladaptive or harmful behavior--either for the individual or for the community
Mental disorder (text definition)--any behavior or emotional state that causes an individual
great suffering or worry; is self-defeating or self-destructive; or is maladaptive and disrupts
the persons relationships or the larger community
Diagnosis: Art or science
o Cultural factors and subjective interpretations still affect the process of diagnosis
o The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is the bible of
psychological and psychiatric diagnosis
▪ Primary aim of the DSM is descriptive--to provide clear criteria for
diagnostic categories
▪ Classifies each disorder on five axes or factors
o Primary clinical problem
o Ingrained aspects of the individuals personality
o General medical conditions relevant to the disorder
o Social and environmental problems that can make the disorder
worse
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
118www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Global assessment of the clients overall functioning
o Limitations of the DSM
▪ It may foster overdiagnosis
▪ It may increase the risk of creating self-fulfilling prophecies
▪ It may confuse serious mental disorders with normal problems in living
▪ Diagnoses reflect prevailing attitudes and prejudice
Psychological tests
o Projective tests
▪ Rely on the projection of unconscious conflicts and motivations onto
ambiguous stimulus materials
▪ Good for establishing rapport with clients
▪ These tests have low reliability and validity
o Objective tests or inventories
▪ Standardized questionnaires--typically multiple choice or true-false
▪ Have better reliability and validity than projective tests, but remain far
from perfect
o Conclusions concerning diagnoses and testing
▪ Advocates say when the DSM is used correctly, diagnoses are more
accurate
▪ Correct labeling of a disorder may help people identify the source of their
unhappiness and lead to a proper treatment
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
119www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Some disorders are recognized as such in all societies; the fact that some
diagnoses reflect cultural biases does not mean that they all do
2. Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety is adaptive in certain situations, but some individuals are prone to irrational fears or
chronic states of anxiety
Anxiety and panic
o Generalized anxiety disorder
▪ Symptoms
o Continuous, uncontrollable anxiety or worry
o Feelings of foreboding and dread
o Duration of at least 6 months
o Restlessness, difficulty concentrating, irritability, and jitteriness
▪ Predisposing factors
o Physiological tendency
o Unpredictable environment in childhood
▪ Have mental habits that produce anxiety and keep it going
o Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
▪ Can occur as a result of uncontrollable and unpredictable danger such as
rape, war, or natural disasters such as earthquakes or hurricanes
▪ Symptoms
o Reliving the trauma in thoughts or dreams
o Psychic numbing
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
120www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Increased physiological arousal
▪ Reaction may be immediate or delayed with PTSD
▪ Symptoms of PTSD may recur for 10 years or more
o Panic disorder
▪ Characterized by sudden attacks of intense fear, with feelings of
impending doom
▪ Symptoms of panic attacks include heart palpitations, dizziness, and
faintness
▪ Panic attacks are often related to stress, prolonged emotion, exercise, or
traumatic experiences
▪ Panic attacks are not uncommon; whether it develops into a disorder
depends on how the bodily reactions are interpreted
▪ Culture influences the particular symptoms of a panic attack
Fears and phobias
o Unrealistic fear of a specific situation, activity, or thing
o Social phobia--persistent, irrational fear of situations in which one will be observed by others
o Agoraphobia--fear of being alone in a public place from which escape might be difficult or
help unavailable
o The most disabling phobia--most common phobia for which people seek treatment
o May begin with panic attacks--sudden onset of intense fear, then avoiding situations that
might provoke another attack
Obsessions and compulsions
o Obsessions
▪ Recurrent, persistent, unwished-for thoughts
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
121www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ May be frightening or repugnant
o Compulsions
▪ Repetitive, ritualized behaviors that the person feels must be carried out
to avoid disaster
▪ People feel a lack of control over the compulsion
▪ Common compulsions include repeated hand washing, counting,
touching, and checking things
o Most OCD sufferers do not enjoy the rituals and realize the behavior is senseless, but if they
try to break off the ritual, they feel mounting anxiety
o Several parts of the brain are overactive in OCD sufferers, resulting in the person
experiencing a constant state of danger
3..Mood Disorders
Clinical depression is more severe than normal sadness over lifes problems; however, serious
depression is so widespread that it is referred to as the common cold of psychiatric
disturbances
Depression
o Major depression--disrupts ordinary functioning for at least six months; symptoms include
emotional, behavioral, and cognitive changes
▪ Despair and hopelessness: thoughts of death or suicide, loss of pleasure
in usual activities
▪ Unable to do everyday activities (e.g., takes tremendous effort to get up
and get dressed)
▪ Exaggerate minor failings, discount positive events, interpret things that
go wrong as evidence that nothing will ever go right, low self-esteem,
losses interpreted as sign of personal failure
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
122www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Person may stop eating or overeat, have difficulty falling asleep or
staying asleep, have trouble concentrating, feel tired all the time
o Bipolar disorder--depression alternates with mania
Origins of depression
o Biological explanations--focus on genetics and brain chemistry
▪ Low norepinephrine and/or serotonin levels implicated in depression
▪ Mania may be caused by excessive production of norepinephrine
▪ Drugs help to bring the levels of neurotransmitter into balance
▪ Brain scans show reduced frontal lobe activity in depressed people
o Social explanations--focus on stressful conditions of peoples lives; may explain gender
differences in depression rates
▪ Marriage and employment associated with lower rates of depression
▪ In women, having more children is associated with higher rates of
depression
▪ A history of exposure to violence is related to depression
o Attachment explanations--focus on disturbed relationships and separations and a history of
insecure attachments
▪ Disruption of a primary relationship most often sets off a depressive
episode
▪ Direction of cause and effect is not clear
o Cognitive explanations--propose that depression results from particular habits of thinking and
interpreting events
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
123www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Depression involves three negative habits of thinking
o Internality
o Stability
o Lack of control
▪ Learned helplessness theory held that people become depressed when
their efforts to avoid pain or control the environment fail--however, not
all depressed people have actually experienced failure
▪ Ruminating response style may also lead to longer, more intense periods
of depression
o Women more likely to adopt this style than men
o May account for sex differences in depression
▪ Negative thinking may be both a cause and a result of depression
4 Personality Disorders
Personality disorders--characterized by rigid, maladaptive traits that cause great distress
orinability to get along with others or (DSM-IV definition) an enduring pattern of inner
experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individuals
culture
Problem personalities
o Narcissistic personality disorder--exaggerated sense of self-importance, preoccupation with
fantasies of unlimited success; demands for constant attention and admiration
o Paranoid personality disorder--pervasive, unfounded suspiciousness and mistrust of others;
irrational jealousy and secretiveness
Criminals and psychopaths - Antisocial personality disorder
o Characterized by a lack of conscience, morality, emotional attachments, empathy, and guilt
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
124www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Individuals may be superficially charming, but form no emotional connections to others and
do not feel guilt about wrongdoing
o Occurs in 3 percent of males, less than 1 percent of females
o May account for more than half of serious crimes committed in the U.S.
o Begin with serious problem behaviors in childhood which continue through adulthood
Biological and social factors
o Do not respond physiologically to punishments that would affect other people
o Show a lack of emotional arousal which may suggest a central nervous system abnormality
o Problems with impulse control--an inherited characteristic shared by those who are antisocial,
hyperactive, addicted, or impulsive
o Vulnerability-stress model--holds that brain damage can interact with social deprivation and
other experiences to produce individuals who are impulsive or violent
5. Drug Abuse And Addiction
Substance abuse (DSM-IV definition)--maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to
clinically significant impairment or distress
The biological model
o Jellinek argued that alcoholism is a disease over which people have no control--complete
abstinence is the only solution
o Biological model of addiction--when alcoholism begins in adolescence, linked to impulsivity,
antisocial behavior, and violent criminality; does seem to have a hereditary component
o It may be that consumption of alcohol causes biological dependence, inability to metabolize
alcohol, and psychological problems
Learning, culture, and addiction
o Learning model says that addiction is not a disease, but a central activity of an individuals life
o Arguments in support of the learning model include:
▪ Addiction patterns vary according to cultural practices and the social
environment
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
125www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Alcoholism more likely to occur in societies that forbid children to
drink but condone drunkenness in adults
o Rates of alcoholism may increase when people move from culture
of origin into a culture that has different drinking rules
▪ Policies of total abstinence tend to increase rates of addiction rather than
reducing them, perhaps by denying people the opportunity to learn to
drink moderately
▪ Not all addicts go through withdrawal symptoms when they stop taking a
drug
▪ Addiction does not depend on the drug alone, but also on the reason the
person is taking the drug
o Persons taking drugs for chronic pain may be able to discontinue
their use without any proble
o People who drink to cope with uncomfortable feelings are more
likely to become addicted than those who take drugs to enhance
positive feelings
Debating solutions to addiction
o A central issue in the debate between biological and learning theories of alcoholism has been
the debate over controlled drinking
a. According to the disease model, total abstinence is the only way to manage the
disease of addiction
b. According to learning theory, controlled drinking is possible
o Alcoholics Anonymous (disease) model has helped many people, but does not work for
everyone
o Best predictors of an addicts ability to learn to control excessive drug use are:
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
126www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Previous severity of dependence on drug,
▪ Social stability
▪ Beliefs about the necessity of maintaining abstinence
o Drug abuse and addiction appear to reflect interactions of physiology and psychology,
person, and culture
6.Dissociative Identity Disorder
Dissociative disorders--disorders in which consciousness, behavior, and identity are severely
split or altered
o Dissociative states are intense, long lasting, and seem out of ones control
o Often occur in response to shocking events
Dissociative identity disorder (Multiple personalityor MPD)
o The appearance of two or more identities within one person
o Two opposing views of MPD exist among mental health professionals
▪ A real disorder, common but often underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed--
believed to develop in childhood as a response to trauma
▪ A creation of mental health clinicians who believe in it
o Research used to support the diagnosis, including claims of
physiological differences between personalities, is seriously
flawed
o Clinicians are creating it through the power of suggestion--MPD
may be the result of unwitting collusion between clinicians and
suggestible clients
o The influence of the media
o The sociocognitive explanation
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
127www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Seen as an extreme form of a normal human process: the ability to
present different aspects of our personalities to others
▪ May be a way for troubled people to understand and legitimize their
problems
▪ Rewarded by clinicians with attention
7. Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia--a psychosis or mental condition involving distorted perceptions of reality and
an inability to function in most aspects of life
Symptoms of schizophrenia
o Active or positive symptoms--involve exaggerations or distortions of normal processes and
behavior
▪ Bizarre delusions--false beliefs about reality
▪ Hallucinations and heightened sensory awareness
▪ Disorganized, incoherent speech--illogical jumble of ideas
▪ Grossly disorganized and inappropriate behavior ranging from childlike
silliness to violent agitation
o Negative symptoms--involve loss of former traits and abilities
▪ Loss of motivation
▪ Poverty of speech--brief, empty replies reflecting diminished thought
▪ Emotional flatness--unresponsive facial expressions, poor eye contact,
diminished emotionality
▪ Tend to occur before and last after positive symptoms
▪ Severity and duration of symptoms vary; onset can be abrupt or gradual
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
128www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Prognosis is unpredictable when onset is gradual
Origins of schizophrenia
o Biological factors that have been studied
▪ Genetic predispositions
o Risk of schizophrenia for general population is 1-2 percent
o No specific genes for schizophrenia have been identified
o 88 percent of people with a schizophrenic parent do not develop
schizophrenia
▪ Structural brain abnormalities
o May have decreased brain weight, reduced volume in specific brain
areas, or reduced number of neurons in certain brain areas
o May have enlarged ventricles
o Schizophrenics are more likely to have abnormalities in the
thalamus
o Antipsychotic medications might affect the brain
▪ Neurotransmitter abnormalities--schizophrenics may have low levels of
serotonin and high levels of dopamine activity
▪ Prenatal abnormalities--damage to fetal brain may increase likelihood of
schizophrenia--possible causes of prenatal damage include:
▪ Adolescent abnormalities
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
129www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Topic : Approaches To Treatment And Therapy
Topic Objective:
At the end of this topic students will be able to:
Understand the four general classes of drugs used to treat psychological disorders
Understand the four cautions regarding drug treatments for psychological disorders
Understand the main differences between psychosurgery and electroconvulsive therapy
Understand the basic principles of psychodynamic therapy
Understand the four main techniques of behavioral therapy
Understand the behavioral and cognitive therapies generally focus on in the treatment of
psychological disorders
Understand the basic principles of rational-emotive behavior therapy
Understand the client-centered therapy and existentialist therapy both representatives of the
humanist approach to treatment
Understand the scientist-practitioner gap
Understand the therapeutic alliance predict the successfulness of therapy outcomes
Understand the evidence is there that therapy helps alleviate psychological disorders
Understand the four ethical risks to clients in therapy
Understand the three important considerations when deciding to enter therapy
Definition/Overview:
Approaches to Treatment and Therapy: Psychotherapy is an interpersonal, relational
intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living. This usually
includes increasing individual sense of well-being and reducing subjective discomforting
experience. Psychotherapists employ a range of techniques based on experiential relationship
building, dialogue, communication and behavior change and that are designed to improve the
mental health of a client or patient, or to improve group relationships (such as in a family).
Psychotherapy may be performed by practitioners with a number of different qualifications,
including psychologists, marriage and family therapists, licensed clinical social workers,
counselors, psychiatric nurses, music therapists, and psychiatrists.
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
130www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Key Points:
1. Biological Treatments for Mental Disorders
Biological (organic) approach regards mental disorders as diseases that can be treated
medically
The question of drugs
o Main classes of drugs used for treatment of mental and emotional disorders
▪ Antipsychotic drugs or neuroleptics have transformed the treatment of
schizophrenia and other psychoses
o Although they may lessen the most dramatic symptoms, they
usually cannot restore normal thought patterns or relationships
o Allow people to be released from hospitals, but individuals may be
unable to care for themselves or may stop taking medication
o Overall success is modest
▪ Antidepressant drugs--used primarily to treat depression, anxiety,
phobias, and obsessive-compulsive disorder--come in three classes:
o Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors--elevate levels of
norepinephrine and serotonin by blocking or inhibiting the
enzyme that deactivates these neurotransmitters
o Tricyclic antidepressants--also elevate levels of norepinephrine and
serotonin, but by blocking reabsorption or reuptake of these
neurotransmitters
o Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)--e.g., Prozac,
specifically elevate levels of serotonin by preventing its reuptake
▪ Tranquilizers are often incorrectly prescribed for panic, anxiety, and
unhappiness
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
131www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o These are the least effective drugs for above symptoms
o Many people develop problems with tolerance and withdrawal--in
particular, cessation of Xanax can result in rebound panic attacks
▪ Lithium carbonate--prescribed for bipolar disorder; must be administered
in the correct dose or can be dangerous
o Psychologists cannot currently prescribe drugs, but are lobbying for prescription privileges
o Cautions about drugs
▪ Placebo effects may account for much of the apparent effectiveness of
drugs; recent evidence suggests that drugs are not very effective
▪ High drop-out rates from side effects of drugs
▪ People who take antidepressant drugs without learning how to cope with
their problems are highly likely to relapse on discontinuing medication
▪ Dosage problems--challenge is to find the therapeutic window (the
amount that is enough, but not too much); race, gender, and age all
influence dosage
▪ Long-term risks
o Some drugs have known risks when taken long term
o Long-term risks of taking other drugs, such as antidepressants, are
not known
o Because a disorder may have biological origins does not mean the only appropriate treatment
is medical
o There is considerable pressure for physicians to prescribe drugs as a result of pressure from
drug companies and managed-care organizations
o Many psychotherapies work as well or better and teach people how to cope
Direct brain intervention
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
132www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
o Psychosurgery--surgery to destroy selected areas of the brain thought to be responsible for
emotional disorders
▪ Most famous form of psychosurgery is the prefrontal lobotomy
o Never assessed scientifically
o Left patients with personality changes and/or unable to function
▪ Rarely used today
o Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) or shock therapy
▪ Used for treatment of the suicidally depressed, who cannot wait for
antidepressants to take effect; not effective with other disorders
▪ Critics claim that it is often used improperly and can cause brain damage
o Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) offers a new alternative
2. Kinds Of Psychotherapy
Common goal of psychotherapies--to help clients think about their lives in new ways and find
solutions for problems that plague them
Psychodynamic therapy
o Probes the past and the mind to produce insight and emotional release which eliminates
symptoms
o Freuds original method was called psychoanalysis--has evolved into psychodynamic
therapies
o Psychodynamic therapies considered depth therapies because they explore the unconscious
by using techniques such as free association and transference
o Does not aim to solve an individuals immediate problem
o Many psychodynamic therapists use Freudian principles, but not methods
o Brief psychodynamic therapy does not go into whole history, but focuses on main issue, as
well as self-defeating habits and recurring problems
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
133www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
Behavior and cognitive therapy
o Behavioral and cognitive therapies focus on changing current behavior and attitudes rather
than striving for insight
o Behavioral techniques--derived from behavioral principles
▪ Systematic desensitization--a step-by-step process of desensitizing a
client to a feared object or experience; based on counterconditioning
▪ Aversive conditioning--substitutes punishment for the reinforcement that
has perpetuated a bad habit
▪ Flooding or exposure treatments--therapist accompanies client into the
feared situation
▪ Behavioral records and contracts identify current unwanted behaviors
and their reinforcers
▪ Skills training--practice in specific acts needed to achieve goals
o Cognitive techniques
▪ Aim is to identify thoughts, beliefs, and expectations that might be
prolonging a persons problems
▪ Albert Ellis and rational emotive behavior therapy--therapist challenges
illogical beliefs directly with rational arguments
▪ Aaron Beck's approach encourages clients to test their beliefs against the
evidence
o Cognitive-behavior therapy--combines the above two approaches; most common treatment
Humanist and existential therapy
o Humanistic therapies--assume that people seek self-actualization and self-fulfillment
o Do not delve into the past; help people to feel better about themselves here and now
o Client-centered or nondirective therapy by Carl Rogers
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
134www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Therapist offers unconditional positive regard to build self-esteem
▪ No specific techniques, but therapists must be warm, genuine, and
empathic; client adopts these views and becomes self-accepting
o Existential therapies--help clients explore the meaning of existence and utilize the powe to
choose a destiny and accept responsibility for their life predicament
Family and couples therapy
o Problems develop in a social context; therefore, the entire context (usually the family) is
treated
o Observing the family together reveals family tensions and imbalances in power and
communication
o Some use genograms--family tree of psychologically significant events--identifies repetitive
patterns across generations
o Family systems approach--recognizes that if one member in the family changes, the others
must change too
Psychotherapy in practice
o Most psychotherapists use techniques from different approaches
o Group therapy
▪ Clients learn that their problems are not unique
▪ Often used in institutional settings, but also in other settings
▪ Different from self-help or personal growth groups
o A common process in all therapies is to replace self-defeating narratives or life stories with
ones that are more hopeful and attainable
3. Evaluating Psychotherapy
The therapeutic alliance
o Successful therapy depends on the bond between client and practitioner
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
135www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Personality traits of the client contribute to this relationship
▪ Cultural context contributes to this relationship
The scientist-practitioner gap
o Conflict between scientists and practitioners about the relevance of research findings to
clinical practice
▪ Practitioners believe it is very difficult to study psychotherapy
empirically
▪ Scientists want the effectiveness of psychotherapy scientifically
demonstrated
o Short-term treatment is usually sufficient
Which therapy for which problem
o Problems of assessing therapy
▪ Placebo effect
▪ Justification of effort principle
o Empirically validated treatments must meet stringent criteria
o For many specific problems and emotional disorders, behavioral and cognitive therapies are
the method of choice--particularly effective for anxiety disorders, depression, health
problems, and anger and impulsive violence
o Depth therapies may be more appropriate for less clearly defined therapeutic issues
o Cognitive-behavior therapies do not succeed well with personality disorders and psychoses,
or people who are not motivated to carry out a cognitive and behavioral program
o Combined approaches
▪ For certain problems, combinations of medication and psychotherapy
work best
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
136www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN
▪ Other types of problems require use of a combination of
psychotherapeutic approaches
When therapy harms
o Coercion by the therapist to accept the therapists advice, sexual intimacies, or other unethical
behavior
o Bias on the part of a therapist who does not understand some aspect of the client
o Therapist-induced disorders--unconsciously inducing the client to produce the symptoms they
are looking for
www.bsscommunitycollege.in www.bssnewgeneration.in www.bsslifeskillscollege.in
137www.onlineeducation.bharatsevaksamaj.net www.bssskillmission.in
WWW.BSSVE.IN