Even today the stone carvers of Tamil Nadu begin with aprayer that first begs forgiveness from Mother Earth forcutting the stone. The prayer ends with offerings of sweetsand milk to the earth and a solemn promise never to misuseor waste stone.

The stone cutter starts by locating a good stone quarry.Then begins the process of cutting what he needs from themother rock. Metal pegs are hammered in a straight lineinto the rock at intervals. Water is poured on to the rock towet it. The change in night and day temperatures causescontraction and expansion and the rock gradually slitsalong the straight peg lines into perfect slabs.

The most interesting part of the creative process is whenthe artist chooses the stone piece to work on. How does hedecide which is the perfect piece of rock to use? Whatqualities of the rock does the artist look for ó colour orgrain or texture, or the softness or hardness of the stone?Can he ëseeí the image within the rock piece? Can heimagine what its form will be or can he tell by touch how itwill feel when it is completely carved?

Types of Stone

There are myriad varieties of stone to be found in India.Soft soap stone contrasts with the hard granite, an igneousrock of the Deccan. Sedimentary rocks of the northern plainsof India produce a variety of coloured sandstones; andmetamorphic rocks, hardened over centuries under the soilform marble and limestone.

Rocks acquire their properties from minerals that givethem colour, lustre, and strength. Depending on how therock was formed, igneous or sedimentary, its molecularstructure enhances it with a grain, layers and patterns.

Each type of rock, be it granite or sandstone, hasintrinsic qualities that the sculptor explores when hecreates a work of art.

3 STONE

Relief sculpture, Halebid,Karnataka

26 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA

The nature of the stone will determine how the sculptureis made and also its possibilities. Soft soap stone allowsfor delicate, intricate carving whereas sandstone, a fragilesedimentary rock with layers of fine compressed sands andgrains, has to be handled with extreme care as it breaks easily.

Within each category of stone there is enormous variety.Sandstone ranges from the golden yellow of Jaisalmer tothe soft pitted and speckled stone of Mathura and FatehpurSikri. The sculptors of India have been using these stonesfor the past five thousand years.

The difference in treatment of one stone from another inthe hands of an artist can be seen in the granite sculpturesof Mahabalipuram and the sandstone figures of Khajuraho.Hard granite stone was used in South India to make templesand household items like grinding stones. The quality ofstone available in each region of India distinguishes thestyle and form that can be created.

Carving

Once the stone is selected the measurements for rough-hewing and cutting of the sculpture are taken. Carving is adifficult process, requiring skill, concentration and extremecaution. It is a process in which forms are cut away orsubtracted from the original solid material.

Carving is a process inwhich forms are cut awayor subtracted from theoriginal solid material.

Descent of Ganga in granite, Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu

27STONE

A block of stone is carved by chiselling away tiny chips inorder to create the desired shape. Once the stone has beencarved the chips cannot be put back or replaced. This meansthe artist has to have a precise and accurate idea of how farto carve and what to remove. One cannot afford to makemistakes in this process for once the stone is cut away orcarved it cannot be put back. Imagine the acumen neededto plan in advance the shape of the face, the size of thesmile and the right angle of the jewel that will adorn acarved image. Once the rough work is over, details are carvedwith finer tools and then the stone is polished. Some stonescan be polished to shine like a mirror.

Types of Stone Works

Stone objects include household objects like bowls, plates, grindingstones, and pillars, beams and brackets for construction of houses.Figures made in solid materials like stone are further classified intocategories that explain their technical dimensions:

♦ Relief-sculptured panels♦ Three-dimensional figures in the round.

Low relief: Mahakapi Jataka,Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh

Relief-sculptured Panels: A relief has carvings only onone side. The carving can be shallow or deep while the otherside is flat and is usually embedded into the masonry workof the building. A low relief can be 1ñ3 cm deep and high.Relief can almost look like a three-dimentional sculpture.

Three-dimensional Figures: Such figures can be viewedfrom all sides. They can also be used to create free-standingpillars like those erectedby Ashoka throughouthis empire in the thirdcentury BCE.

Three-dimensional figure:torso of Vishnu in redsandstone, Mathura,

Uttar Pradesh

28 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA

Stone Sculpture through the Ages

At Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, there are a number ofrock shelters of the Stone Age period. Early inhabitantslived in natural caves and created fine tools and flints ofagate and other natural stones in the area. These tiny flintsand well-carved stone implements are the first examplesin the long story of Indian sculpture.

At Ellora, in Maharashtra, there are Hindu, Buddhistand Jain rock-cut shrines. The Kailash temple at Ellora ofthe ninth century is an entire temple that was carved outof the natural hillside. The temple is really a massivesculpture cut out of a single piece of the hill. The artistsstarted work from the top and carved downwards,beginning with the towering roof, the windows, the doorsthrough which one enters into halls with enormoussculptured panels.

View of Kailashnath Temple, Ellora

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Sandstone panels withgeometric and floral designwere made to decorate palacesand tombs during the medievalperiod. The Mughals in thesixteenth and seventeenthcenturies built some of the mostbeautiful buildings in the worldlike the Taj Mahal in Agra. Thesculptural decorations are ofmany varieties ó marble jalisare made out of a single slab ofstone that is cut to create alattice window that allows forlight and ventilation.

To make inlay marble or sandstone panels the artisthas to carve out the design in the form of compartmentson the flat stone slab. Then precious and semi-preciousstones are cut into exact pieces of the pattern and laidinto the compartments. The inlay work in the Taj Mahal isso extraordinary that over twenty pieces of differentcoloured stones were used to create a single flower.

Marble carving, Taj Mahal

Jali work, sixteenth century, Sidi Sayyid Mosque, Ahmedabad

30 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA

Stoneware

In Madhya Pradesh the softmarble rocks of Bhedaghat onthe banks of the Narmadaprovide craftsmen with excellentraw material to make carvedpanels, figurines and boxes.

The sculptors of Karnataka carveimages, panels of gods andgoddesses, ornaments, bowls, vases,and book-ends from a variety ofstones available in this State.

Rajasthan is famous for delicate jaliwork, for domestic architecture inyellow and pink limestone and whitemarble. Jaipur also produces stonefigurines.

30 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA

31STONE

Uttar Pradesh is one of the leadingproducers and exporters of stoneware inIndia. Soft marble and soft streaked Goraharistone of many shades are inlaid with semi-precious stones. Inlaid table tops, plates anddecorative items are produced in Agra.

In Orissa the stone cutters of Puri workmainly in soapstone. Harder stone isused for temple building. Traditionalstone carvers in Mangalpur make stoneutensils from semi-hard grey stone andadd to it a beautiful polish. Grey stonefrom Khichling are made into items forthe urban market, like boxes andcontainers, bowls and vases.

Tamil Nadu: Famous stonesculpture centres have beenestablished in many places suchas Mahabalipuram, where atraining school has trained anumber of young artists intraditional stone-carving techniquesand in making statues.

31STONESTONE

32 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA

Patrons of Crafts

Ananda K. Coomaraswamy in his book entitled The IndianCraftsman describes the craftsmen of India and Sri Lankathat he had studied in the early twentieth century. Hedivided crafts communities into the following categories.

♦ Those who lived and worked in the village♦ Those who travelled from village to village and towns♦ Those who lived and worked in towns♦ Craftsmen who were employed by the ruler in royal

workshops.

The Village: The potter, carpenter, stone sculptor, masonand goldsmith lived and worked often in their own homesin designated parts of the village. Everyone in the villageknew their local craftsmen and therefore he had no need toautograph his works. The jajmani system ensured thathereditary artisans were bound to the dominant agriculturalgroups through traditional ties. This was a hierarchicaland symbiotic relationship, in which the artists workedunder the protection and hospitality of the landowningclass. When there was a festival, the landowner or thejajman would request the potter to make ceremonial potsand diyas and in return pay him in kind with food for therest of the year. When his household needed a grindingstone, the stone cutter would make one to the specifiedrequirement and size.

Itinerant Craftsmen: Some artisans like the blacksmitheven today are itinerant craftsmen who move from villageto village servicing the community and spending as muchtime as is required in each place. These crafts communitieswere often paid in kind with gifts of grain and food, clothingand money so that they did not have to cultivate land forfood but could pursue their craft to perfection.

In the Town: While the artists in the village worked as afamily, individual artists in the towns formed guilds to protecttheir interests and to ensure the quality of their work. Theguild protected the group and its occupational interests,punishing the wrong doer, negotiating prices and enforcingstandards of work. The artist in the town was also paid inkind and with land grants or produce from land.

In the Court: Through the ages rulers tried to attract well-known performing artists and craftsmen like sculptors towork in their court. It is the creations of such artists thatprovide an idea of cultures and eras gone by. Rulersunderstood that having brilliant architects and sculptors

Much of Indiaís architecturalheritage, like the Ajantacaves, was created byartisansí guilds.

Detail of an ornate pillar ina landlordís house,Chettinad, Tamil Nadu

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would enhance their empire in many ways. They knew thatthe creation of magnificent buildings, shrines and sculptureswould carry the message of their grandeur to distant placesand countries. This is why there are many royal records ofgrants and gifts to artists who excelled in their work.

The artist who attached himself to the court foundemployment in the royal workshops and was often aprivileged person, given payment for an assignment not onlyin kind but also in land. The Jetavanarama Sanskritinscription (first half of the ninth century) of a Buddhistmonastery records that:

There shall be clever stone-cutters and skilled carpenters in thevillage devoted to the work of temple renewal. They allÖ shall beexperts in their respective work. To each of them shall be givenone-and-a-half kiri (in sowing extent) for their maintenanceÖ anenclosed piece of land. And one hena (or a plot of dry land) shall begranted to each of them for purposes of sowing fine grain.

ñ Ananda K.Coomaraswamy, The Indian Craftsman

Emperor Akbarís royal diary records that payment wasgiven to artists for their work and special awards forexcellence were given on pleasing the emperor with thecreation of a rare object.

The practice of gathering skilled artisans in the palaceworkshops and homes of rich landlords continued rightinto the nineteenth century.

In the east the princes and great nobles and wealthy gentry, whoare the chief patrons of these grand fabrics, collect together intheir houses and palaces all who gain reputation for special skillin their manufacture. These men receive a fixed salary and dailyrations, and are so little hurried in their work that they have plentyof time to execute private orders also.

ñ George C.M. Birdwood, Industrial Arts of India

Who are the patrons of stone artists today? Is there adifference in how they are paid in rural areasand urban centres? Is there any recognition oftheir work? What are the problems that craftcommunities face today? These are some of thequestions that have to be asked to understandthe health of the crafts sector in India.

Growing Up as an Artist

Living and growing up in a family of artistsenables a young child to acquire skills andsensibilities from his/her parents andgrandparents. The child growing up in a potteríshome knows how to mix clay from childhood and

Chaitya Prayer Hall, Ajanta,Maharashtra

Tomb of Salim Chisti inmarble commissioned by

Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra

34 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA

is sensitive and familiar with the qualities of clay, knowing,for example, by its scent whether it is dry or wet or readyfor firing. The sensitivities developed through suchfamiliarity would seem almost natural and effortless.

Critics of Indian art and craft have remarked that Indianartists rarely invented or experimented with tool-makingto improve their work, or to develop labour-saving devices.Tools were kept to the minimum, while the process ofachieving perfection was as important as the job itself.Skills practised for over 5000 years are still in use in India.Today artists, whether they are stone or wood carvers,potters or weavers, continue to work with the technologyand methods used by their forefathers.

It appears that once a simple way of making somethingwas developed it lasted for centuries and became the mostuncomplicated way of achieving the real goal of crafts.Perhaps finding time-saving devices, effort-savingtechnologies was not the goal of crafts communities as isillustrated by the experience of a well-known wood carverfrom Kerala (see box below).

He had studied with his father and has narrated how long and difficultthe training was. His family made wooden masks for Krishnattam, anancient danceñdrama of Kerala. He said that as a child he worked withhis fatherñteacher who instructed him on how to carve the mask forthe character of Krishna. He used simple tools, the chisel and thehammer, and different types of scrappers. His teacher kept telling himto do it again and again. This went on for seven years! Finally, one day,his teacher looked at his work and saw that his son had captured theëidea of Krishnaí, the bhava or inner expression of the deity in hiswooden mask. Through this lengthy process the son acquired not onlymastery over woodcarving but was able to express deep philosophicideas through his craft.

In every region of India adistinctive style ofarchitecture developed.Lakshmi Narayan Temple,Chamba, Himachal Pradesh

At the turn of the nineteenth century when machinesand technical training were overrunning the old system,many scholars like Coomaraswamy wrote about the loss ofthis parental education and the discontinuity of cultureand living craft traditions.

Ö for in the East there is traditionally a peculiar relation of devotionbetween master and pupil, and it is thought that the masteríssecret, his real inward method, is best learnt by the pupil in devotedpersonal service, so we get a beautiful and affectionate relationbetween the apprentice and the master, which is impossible in thecase of the busy professor who attends a class at a Technical schoolof a few hours a weekÖ

ñ ANANDA K. COOMARASWAMY, The Indian Craftsman

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Coomaraswamy believed that by living and working withthe family the child acquired valuable trade secrets, anunderstanding of the culture and customs to which theybelonged, the rituals and festivals for which their craft wasrequired and the philosophic traditions that transformed theirwork into art. By attending festivals and rituals, listening tograndmothersí legends and stories, the child learnt the contentof sculptures that he would make later in life. Such aneducation is not available in technical or art schools of today.It was this guruñshishya and parentñteacher system that ledto the continuity and excellence of Indian art.

Contemporary Demands

In Mahabalipuram the sculptors make certain figures whichthey feel have a demand. They also execute orders receivedfrom various organisations, like temples. There is apreponderance of the so-called traditional iconographic forms:gods, goddesses, the elephant god Ganapathy and the wholegamut of religious figurines. The background to this is theCollege of Traditional Art and Architecture where traditionaliconography and architecture is taught. They take on variouskinds of contracts for both the local and the export market,especially tombstones for Korea and Japan.

There exists now a burgeoning construction industryalmost all over the country. People are demanding more interms of ëfinishí to their houses than just plain cementand concrete. They like to beautify houses with objects ofart both functional and aesthetic, traditional and modern.Carved stone lends itself to both interior and exterior spaces.It can be used in construction work, objects of art,traditional and modern designs. Stone can be used in avariety of combinations with other materials.

Innovation comes in when there is an active interactionbetween customer/designer and the craftsman. Thecraftsman needs to understand the requirements of theclient and the customer/designer needs to understand thematerial, its capabilities and the capacity of the craftsman.

Another important factor is cost. The craftsman wouldobviously like to make and sell something that can be madeas cheaply as possible and sold as dearly as possible. It isimportant that the price worked out should be such thatthe craftsman gets the maximum benefit at an affordablecost to the client. A simple example would be carved pillarsfor a portico. A range of styles should be available fromsimple columns to carved ones so that they can suit thetaste and budget of the client.

Contemporary pillar base(above) and sculpture (below),

Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu

36 LIVING CRAFT TRADITIONS OF INDIA

1. What are the inherent qualities of stone as comparedto clay? How do such qualities determine the techniquesthat can be used on one material and not on the other?

2. Compare the patronage structure of the past with thepresent. How does this affect the objects created?†

3. Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic are differentvarieties of stone, each having its own properties. Howdoes the craftsman use these properties to advantagein his craft? (Example: Granite, because of its hardness,has been used to create temples of lasting value inMahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu.)

4. Coomaraswamy makes a distinction between classroomlearning and apprenticeship with a traditionalcraftsperson. Compare your practical work in the fieldwith crafts communities with your experience of classroomteaching. Do you agree with Coomaraswamyís views?†

5. What do you think are the occupational health hazardsand environmental concerns around the use of stonein crafts and buildings?

6. The boom in the construction industry, with everymiddle-class house boasting of marble floors and granitecounters, has led to depletion of stone resources. Drafta Bill or write an article for the local newspaper keepingin mind the following:

� protecting forest lands from quarrying and mining� protecting the rights of the craftsmen to access the

stone� suggesting alternative materials to replace stone in

buildings.

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E X E R C I S E.............................