Sharing of Best Practices on Integrated coastal management (ICM) in a Context of Adaptation to Climate Change in Coastal Areas

Task B – Background document for Addressing Climate Change adaptation inIntegrated Coastal Management and Marine Spatial PlanningDraft Service Contract No 2012/110905/636177/SER/D2

30 April 2014

Table of ContentAbbreviations............................................................................................................................................5Figures, Tables and Boxes........................................................................................................................6

1 Introduction......................................................................................................................................71.1 Aims of the document and the target audience.........................................................................7

1.2 Brief history of ICM and MSP at EU-level..............................................................................71.3 The need to taking climate change adaptation into account in ICM and MSP.........................8

1.4 Structure of the document.........................................................................................................9Part A: Concepts and Setting the scene....................................................................................................9

1 Introducing Climate change in Coastal and marine areas................................................................91.1 Climate Change Adaptation Principles...................................................................................10

1.2 Overview of existing National/regional adaptation strategies................................................101.3 Integrated coastal management...............................................................................................11

1.3.1 ICM Principles................................................................................................................121.3.2 Benefits of ICM..............................................................................................................13

1.3.3 Overview of existing ICM strategies..............................................................................131.4 Maritime Spatial Planning......................................................................................................14

1.4.1 MSP Principles...............................................................................................................161.4.2 Benefits of MSP..............................................................................................................16

1.4.3 Overview of existing MSPs............................................................................................171.5 Examples of a combined ICM and MSP approach in MS......................................................18

Part B: Step-by-Step Approach for Marine Spatial Planning and Integrated Coastal Management under a changing climate..................................................................................................................................20

1 Step 1 Establish a legal framework and administrative authority..................................................211.1 What is this step about?..........................................................................................................21

1.2 How to achieve this step?.......................................................................................................211.2.1 Task 1: Establish the legal or policy framework............................................................21

1.2.2 Task 2: Establish the administrative authority...............................................................231.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised?....................................................................................24

1.4 Where can I find more information?......................................................................................242 Step 2 Prepare the groundwork......................................................................................................24

2.1 What is this step about?..........................................................................................................242.2 How to achieve this step?.......................................................................................................25

2.2.1 Task 1: Define boundaries and timeframe......................................................................252.2.2 Task 2: Define principles and setting the vision.............................................................26

2.2.3 Task 3: Define the baseline and consider future scenarios.............................................272.2.4 Task 4: Define operational objectives............................................................................34

2.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised?....................................................................................352.4 Where can I find more information?......................................................................................35

3 Step 3: Stakeholder involvement....................................................................................................35

3.1 What is this step about?..........................................................................................................353.2 How to achieve this step?.......................................................................................................35

3.2.1 Task 1: Identify stakeholders..........................................................................................353.2.2 Task 2: Carry out stakeholder consultations...................................................................36

3.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised?....................................................................................373.4 Where can I find more information?......................................................................................37

4 Step 4 Develop the Strategy and/or Plan........................................................................................384.1 What is this step about?..........................................................................................................38

4.2 How to achieve this step?.......................................................................................................384.2.1 Task 1: Develop the plan to encompass economic activities.........................................38

4.2.2 Task 2: Identify and select management options and measures.....................................394.2.3 Step 3 Obtain financial support......................................................................................41

4.2.4 Task 4: Formalize and approve the strategies and plans................................................454.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised in this step?.................................................................46

4.4 Where do I find additional information?................................................................................465 Step 5 Implement and enforce........................................................................................................46

5.1 What is the step about?...........................................................................................................465.2 How to achieve this step?.......................................................................................................46

5.2.1 Task 1: Implementing the strategies and plans...............................................................465.2.2 Task 2: Ensuring compliance with the strategies and plans...........................................47

5.2.3 Task 3: Enforcing the strategies and plans.....................................................................475.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised in this step?.................................................................48

5.4 Where do I find additional information..................................................................................486 Step 6 Monitor and Evaluate performance.....................................................................................48

6.1 What is the step about?...........................................................................................................486.2 How to achieve this step?.......................................................................................................50

6.2.1 Task 1: Develop the performance monitoring programme.............................................506.2.2 Task 2: Evaluate the accuracy of monitoring data..........................................................52

6.2.3 Task 3: Report results of the performance evaluation....................................................526.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised in this step?.................................................................53

6.4 Where do I find additional information?................................................................................537 Step 7 Steps towards a new management cycle..............................................................................54

7.1 What is this step about?..........................................................................................................547.2 How to achieve this step?.......................................................................................................54

7.2.1 Task 1: Reconsider and redesign the coastal and marine management approach..........547.2.2 Task 2: Identify the gaps and areas of improvement......................................................54

7.2.3 Task 3: Start the next round of coastal and marine planning.........................................557.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised in this step?.................................................................55

7.4 Where do I find additional information?................................................................................55

Bibliography...........................................................................................................................................56

Annex 1 Climate change impacts in Coastal and Marine Areas............................................................60Annex 2 Climate change adaptation principles......................................................................................64

Annex 3 ICM Principles.........................................................................................................................65Annex 4 MSP Principles.........................................................................................................................66

AbbreviationsAONB: Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty

BMBF German Federal Ministry of Education and Research

CIP: Competitiveness and Innovation Framework Programme

CCA: Climate change adaptation

EEZ: Exclusive Economic Zone

EMODnet: The European Marine Observation and Data Network

EMS: Coast European Marine Site

EAFRD: European Agriculture Fund for Rural Development

ERDF: The European Regional Development Fund

EMFF: European Maritime and Fisheries Fund

ESF: European Social Fund

EU: European Union

GDP: Gross Domestic Product

GIS: Geo- Information System

ICM: Integrated Coastal Management

ICZM: Integrated Coastal Zone Management

LCA: Life Cycle Assessment

M&E: Monitoring and Evaluation

MS: Member States

MSFD: EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive

MSP: Maritime Spatial Planning

NGOs: Non-governmental Organisations

RDPs: Rural Development Plans

RPNM: Rapid Policy Network Mapping

SEA: Strategic environmental assessment

SME: Small-medium sized enterprises

SST: Increased sea surface temperature

WFD: EU Water Framework Directive

Figures, Tables and BoxesFigure 1 ICM and MSP planning steps..................................................................................................20Figure 2 Example for a compliance cycle showing the main elements of the repetitive process of monitoring and reporting........................................................................................................................49

Table 1 Guiding principles for climate change adaptation.....................................................................10Table 1 Legal basis and strategies for ICM............................................................................................14Table 2 Legal basis and strategies for MSP...........................................................................................18Table 3 Links between coastal management, maritime planning and climate change adaptation principles................................................................................................................................................27Table 5 Indicators to monitor climate change under ICM......................................................................52

Box 1 Joint Framework for ICM and MSP in Croatia...........................................................................21Box 2 Experience in Portugal with integrated coastal management and overlaps between policy areas in coastal and marine areas.....................................................................................................................26Box 3 Vision Statement for ICM/MSP...................................................................................................26Box 4 Mapping Climate change impacts and land-use on the Baltic Sea and its coasts........................29Box 5 Integrated assessment models for coastal areas...........................................................................30Box 6 Sources of uncertainties in future projections..............................................................................31Box 7 Future scenario building in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.........................................................33Box 8 Climate change adaptation and future scenarios..........................................................................34Box 9 Example of a Problem tree for climate change problems in coastal areas...................................34Box 10 of climate change adaptation objectives in an ICM/MSP..........................................................35Box 11 Participation through Climagine to develop a regional ICZM Strategy in Sibenki-Knin, Croatia................................................................................................................................................................37Box 12 Options to integrate adaptation to climate change into zoning and co-location........................39Box 13 Examples of DG Research projects...........................................................................................43Box 14 Example of previous LIFE+ project addressing climate change in coastal and marine areas...43Box 15 Integrating climate change into Strategic Environmental Assessments....................................45Box 16 Examples for indicators to monitor different activities.............................................................51

1 Introduction

1.1 Aims of the document and the target audienceThis document is intended to stimulate the on-going discussions on integrated coastal management (ICM) and marine spatial planning (MSP) from an adaptation to climate change perspective .The aim is not to provide detailed guidance but to stimulate discussion and action on how to further develop approaches for making the coastal and marine environment and economy more resilient to the impacts of climate change. The document does so by providing entry points for climate change adaptation aspects along the policy cycle of ICM and MSP,. Where possible, it provides pratical ‘lessons’ learned from Members States (MS) or pilot projects that have started to deal with ICM, MSP and adaptation to climate changes issues in reality. Due to the different approaches and progress as regards ICM, MSP and CCA implementation, steps in this document may be more or less relevant for individual Member States.Overall, the guidance is targeted to a “professional ICM and MSP” audience with experience in their respective fields.

This version of the document is a draft, provided for discussion by the Member State ICM and MSP expert group in June 2014. Comments are invited on how this paper could be improved, with the goal of supporting officials at different levels of government. This draft also indicates topics where further Member State examples and lessons would be welcome.

!There are some issues that are not covered in the document. For instance, this document does not deal with sector specific aspects or which measures are necessary to implement and to address specific ICM/MSP issues. Rather, the document provides a broad picture of how MS can undertake steps to design or improve ICM strategies or MSPs. It is not a compliance tool and does not ensure legal compliance with any EU directives or regulations.

1.2 Brief history of ICM and MSP at EU-level Coastal and marine areas face a multitude of activities often leading to an unsustainable development. Their water, wind, and waves are all in demand – as a playground for pleasure-seekers and nature-lovers, as a highway for international commerce, as a home for unique communities of wildlife and people. The interests and activities of new and fast growing industries such as renewable energy equipment and aquaculture highlight the need for effective management in order to balance objectives avoid conflicts and identify opportunities for cooperation. Addressing these is complex due to the many sectors at play as well as land-sea interactions and increasing use of these areas. For many years, coastal and marine areas were governed through fragmented sectoral legislations at different government levels. The failure of this sectoral approach in delivering sustainable uses of marine resources led the European Union to develop instruments that take a more integrated planning approach.

In 2002, the Council and the European Parliament adopted a EU Recommendation on ICZM that outlines a strategic approach to the management of land and sea spaces and defines eight principles of sound coastal planning and management that should be followed by Member States when formulating national coastal strategies. Member States have taken a broad range of activities to implement Integrated Coastal Management (see Part A). An important step was the adoption on 4 December 2008 of the ICZM Protocol to the Barcelona Convention (the Convention on the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution), the first legally-binding international instrument specifically dedicated to integrated coastal zone management. The Protocol entered into force on 24 March 2011; the EU is among the Parties that have ratified it.

Over the past 10 years, the implementation of the principles constituting the ICM approach has been reinforced, in particular through the adoption of the Integrated Maritime Policy (IMP) in 2007. The IMP aims to address issues arising from a fragmented management of EU’s marine waters through the implementation of tools such as ICM and introduced the concept of Maritime Spatial Planning. In 2008 a Communication on a Roadmap for Maritime Spatial Planning defined ten common principles, calling for workshops to discuss the principles and for further action on MSP. An important outcome of the workshop series was that the ecosystem approach1 was confirmed as the overarching principle of MSP.

Complementing coastal and maritime planning was the introduction of the 2008 Marine Strategy Framework Directive, which represents the environmental pillar of the IMP. At its core, is the implementation of an integrated, adaptive and ecosystem-based approach to the management of human activities at sea and on the coast to achieve, by 2020, the Good Environmental Status (GES) of all European marine and coastal waters. ICM and MSP are key tools to achieve this ambitious objective by promoting the sustainable use and development of coastal and marine resources.

In order to strengthen the work at EU level, three expert groups - one coastal zone management, one on maritime spatial planning and one on MSFD implementation, were launched to bring together national stakeholders and experts to discuss national approaches and exchange on good practice.

Despite this evolution, it has become clear over the past few years that there is a lack of a more coherent, strategic and perhaps binding approach to integrated coastal management that could ensure detailed plans in all coastal areas of the EU. In 2010, the Commission carried out a public consultation on the way forward with ICZM and MSP in Europe and, in 2011 it launched a review of the 2002 ICZM Recommendation, with a view to follow-up with a legislative proposal.

A Directive on Maritime Spatial Planning, which requires Member States to take land-sea interactions into account in the creation of their Maritime Spatial Plans, was adopted in May 2014. EU Member States have until April 2021 to implement the Directive’s objectives and activities on coastal zone management and maritime spatial planning will continue in the Member States under the mandate of the expert groups and EU level Communications.

1.3 The need to taking climate change adaptation into account in ICM and MSP

In 2013 the European Commission also adopted the EU Strategy on Adaptation to Climate Change 2 which aims to increase Europe´s resilience to climate change. Attached to the strategy a Commission Staff Working Document was published that addresses Commissions work plan on climate change adaptation, coastal and marine issues3. Following these two document, the Commission sees coastal regions as areas where adaptation efforts to climate change are most important. Maritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management are seen therefore as important tools. Climate change impacts on natural and human systems will be varied; however, a European approach is imperative for enhancing regional preparedness and capacity to respond to climate impacts.

1 The official definition of ecosystem based approached according to the Convention on Biodiversity states: “The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention. It is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization which encompass the essential processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their cultural diversity, are an integral component of ecosystems”.2 European Commission (2013): Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. An EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change. COM (2013) 216 final. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2013:0216:FIN:EN:PDF 3 European Commission (2013): Climate change adaptation, coastal and marine issues SWD (2013) 133, available at http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/adaptation/what/docs/swd_2013_133_en.pdf

Integrating CCA into ICM and MSP policies at the European level helps minimize the negative impacts of climate change and increase coping ability through cooperation and sharing of best practices. Specific issues related to addressing climate change such as controlling flooding, mitigating the effects of storm surges and sea-level rise, strengthening disaster preparedness and response mechanisms, and improving the resilience of communities and marine and coastal ecosystems are challenges that do not occur in isolation. In the face of simultaneous challenges including but not limited to fisheries collapse, climate change and increasing human pressure on marine coastal ecosystems, adaptation measures at the European level are vital to conservation and sustainable exploitation of Europe’s coasts and resources, as well as to the well-being and livelihoods of Europe´s communities.

1.4 Structure of the documentThe document is separated into two main parts (A and B):

Part A of the document will set the scene by introducing climate change adaptation, coastal management and marine spatial planning. The geographic scope, sectors and stakeholders involved will be presented. Additionally, each principle will be clearly defined in terms of what it means for decision-making and practical implementation of projects.

Part B of the document will focus on the inter-linkages between the three policy areas and how MS can establish processes that cover ICM and MSP in an effective manner. The emphasis of this section is to describe how climate change adaptation should be taken into account when planning the individual steps needed to develop spatial/management plans.

Part A: Concepts and Setting the scene

1 Introducing Climate change in Coastal and marine areas

From 1900-2012, sea level rose around 2mm/year in the North Sea, with the southernmost part experiencing greater change. Similarly, the Baltic Sea has undergone sea level rise of between around 2mm/year and 5mm/year. On the other hand, parts of the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay show a small decrease in mean sea level. The Mediterranean Sea has experienced both increases and decreases depending on the region in the range of -4mm to +6mm/year. Trends in the Black sea point towards increases between zero and around 5mm/year. These trends are most likely to continue.

Sea level rise is not the sole threat for the coastal areas; severe storm surges, resulting from the combination of winds, atmospheric pressure on sea level and high waves could also cause hazardous impacts. Based on modelling using the IPPC A2 and B1 scenarios for 22 EU coastal Member States, the UK, the southern part of the Baltic coast and the north-western Mediterranean coast are most likely highly vulnerable to sea level rise flooding, especially in the extreme A2 climate scenario.

The projections related to sea level rise and frequency of storm surges is likely to cause considerable damage to coast lines through erosion. Coastal erosion occurs during periods of strong winds, high waves and high tides and therein sea level rise. Coastal erosion in Europe could cause significant economic loss in the order of millions of Euros through property losses and damage to infrastructure and beaches.

The impact of increased sea surface temperature (SST), coupled with changes in precipitation, wind and salinity, have on sea ice coverage as well as the diversity and number of marine fishes, which might have impacts on the EU fishery sector.

Climate Change is also likely to increase nutrients run-off and atmospheric nitrogen deposition through increasing precipitation. Nutrient run-off, mainly from agricultural land, causes significant eutrophication problems – including algae blooms – in coastal zones as substances such as nitrogen and phosphorus compounds are transported to the sea via rivers. An overload of nitrogen and phosphorus can cause an excessive growth of algae which can lead to reduced oxygen content of waters. Oxygen depletion impacts aquatic communities and their structures, again having impacts on the EU fishery sector and the depending economies.

48% of the carbon emitted to the atmosphere is absorbed by the ocean. Carbon chemistry of seawater acts as a buffer, enabling the oceans to hold 50 times more CO2 than the atmosphere does. CO2 absorption by seawater decreases in the pH of oceans, leading to acidification. At the same time, carbonate ion (CO32-) levels also decrease, which affects certain marine skeletal species. Reductions in these species may also impact the fish that feed on them.

1.1 Climate Change Adaptation PrinciplesThe current and future climate change impacts on coastal and marine areas call for a coordinated and integrated adaptation action across sectors and involving a multitude of stakeholders.

Adaptation measures can range widely including behavioural, technological, regulatory, knowledge creation, institutional, or financial measures and can be designed and combined to meet the specific conditions of a particular coastal or marine area. Nevertheless, adaptation should be based on common guiding principles to ensure sustainable adaptation results. In 2010, the European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change proposed guiding principles for adaptation to climate change in Europe 4 with the aim to provide such common basis for adaptation activities for all sectors and decision-making levels from local to the European scale.

Table 1 Guiding principles for climate change adaptation

List of Guiding Principles Important to address in following phasesPlanning Implementation Evaluation

1. Initiate adaptation, ensure commitment and management2. Build knowledge and awareness3. Identify and cooperate with relevant stakeholders4. Work with uncertainties5. Explore potential climate change impacts and vulnerability and identify priority concerns6. Explore a wide spectrum of adaptation options7. Prioritise adaptation options8. Modify existing policies, structures and processes9. Avoid maladaptation10. Monitor and evaluate systematically

See Annex 2 Climate change adaptation principles for more information.

1.2 Overview of existing National/regional adaptation strategies

At the beginning of April 2014, 12 EU MS bordering European Seas have developed a national adaptation strategy (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Malta, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, United Kingdom). Croatia is currently in the process of preparing their strategy on adaptation to climate change; it is planned to adopt the amendment in summer 2014. According to the information on CLIMATE-ADAPT, the adaptation strategies for Belgium, Denmark,

4 Prutsch A., Grothmann T., Schauser I., Otto S., McCallum S. (2010) Guiding principles for adaptation to climate change in Europe. ETC/ACC Technical Paper 2010/6

France, Germany, Lithuania, Portugal and Spain highlight that adaptation is especially needed in coastal areas; the upcoming strategy from Croatia makes this distinction as well.

A recent study on adaptation activities at regional level in the EU5 showed that the nature and extent of adaptation at the regional level differs across the Member States. In the larger, more decentralised Member States, regions can provide strategic direction to the lower levels of governance through developing strategic planning documents as a result of national level obligations (e.g. as in France, Belgium and Spain) or on their own initiative (e.g. in Sweden, Germany and Poland). There is a range of experience across the smaller and less populated countries; here regions often have competence for certain areas of environmental policy but do not have a clear mandate for carrying out or coordinating adaptation activities. Meanwhile in some of the Member States there is no clear and defined role for regions in adaptation.

In the Baltic Sea region, for example, several countries (FI, SE, LV, PL) have partially developed strategies at the local (municipal and regional) level. Especially in countries with a de-centralised nature of the political system there can be large differences between municipalities in terms of their commitment to developing climate change adaptation strategies. This varies according to municipality size, vulnerability to climate change and wealth. Sweden for example, has not adopted a national strategy but has a very comprehensive system of policies addressing most CC effects.6

1.3 Integrated coastal management Integrated coastal management is a long-term, iterative process that coordinates and harmonises the array of policies in place for managing natural systems and human activities in the coastal zone 7. Broadly speaking, ICM consists of a cycle of information gathering, policy development, management, implementation and monitoring. The process is a long and gradual one, involving consideration of all relevant stakeholders and sectors interacting in a coastal zone.8

The emergence of ICM stems from the acknowledgement that existing schemes for managing coastal zones have been inadequate, ineffective and produced undesirable outcomes in many areas, such as overexploitation of resources, damage to the environment, or social harm. Historically, coastal zones have been managed on a sector-by-sector basis, where policies for certain issues (e.g. fisheries or tourism) are created in isolation of each other. This kind of ‘siloed’ approach fails to adequately reflect the many dynamic processes and inter-linkages occurring between natural systems and human activities in the coastal zone. The combined result of these independent policies has been a management system that often fails to ensure the sustainable development of coastal zone.

Coastal zones are complex areas that encompass numerous actors, economic drivers and natural systems. Consequently, any attempt to holistically manage these varying activities and processes under ICM will involve a broad thematic perspective. Depending upon the coastal zone in question, sectors that will be involved in the ICM process include:

Fisheries, including aquaculture Shipping and other forms of water-based transport (e.g. ferries and cruise ships). Renewable energy generation (e.g. offshore wind, tidal, and wave). Nature protection (e.g. habitat protection and loss of biodiversity) Protection of landscapes and cultural heritage

5 Milieu and Collingwood (unpublished): The Study of Adaptation Activities at Regional Level in the EU. Prepared for the European Commission, DG Climate Action, 2013.6 For a comprehensive overview of existing regional strategies in the Baltic Sea Region, see Annex C of the BALTADAPT Action Plan, http://www.baltadapt.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=94&Itemid=2257 Generally speaking, the coastal zone consists of the coastal waters and adjacent land (including the bodies of water contained within) that strongly influence each other. It includes islands and transitional areas, like wetlands, beaches and estuaries. 8 For a further overview, please see: EC (2014): Integrated Coastal Management. European Commission, Directorate General for Environment Website. Available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/iczm/home.htm;

Public health (e.g. with concerns to dumping of waste) Agriculture Water management (including flood protection) Industry Dredging and aggregate extraction Tourism and recreational uses of the coast, including water-based activities Transport Urban development Energy (cooling)

Similarly, to produce a truly holistic process, ICM must also actively involve and incorporate the needs and perspectives of many different types of stakeholders, so as to ensure collective agreement and ‘buy-in’ amongst all relevant actors. Without this agreement and buy-in, it is difficult to sustain an ICM process over the long-term. These stakeholders can broadly be divided into two groups: public and private. Public stakeholders serve key roles in facilitating ICM processes, as well as establishing, monitoring, enforcing regulations and financing protection, transformation and development. Private stakeholders, meanwhile, need to be involved through participatory processes, as they often have large economic interests in the coastal zone, as well as the ability to influence political decision making by pressuring public actors. In general, stakeholders that should be involved in the ICM process include:

Coastal municipalities (e.g. elected officials and municipal planners) State and federal governments (e.g. ministries relevant to transportation, maritime affairs,

nature conservation, fishing, urban planning, etc.) Port authorities Business interest groups (e.g. Fishing associations, mineral resources associations, leisure boat

associations, tourism boards.) NGOs (e.g. environmental or social) Research institutions/universities

1.3.1 ICM Principles

From 1996 to 1999, the European Commission operated a Demonstration Programme9 consisting of 35 demonstration projects spread across Europe’s coastal zones, research projects, and workshops. Based on the lessons learned in this programme, eight principles for good ICM were agreed upon in the 2002 European Parliament and Council Recommendation on ICZM in Europe10. Recognizing the threats facing coastal areas, Member States should emphasize the ecosystem approach, take into account climate change, implement measures to protect the environment and encourage sustainable economic growth. The 8 principles of the Recommendation are (see Annex 3 ICM Principles for more information):

1. A broad overall perspective, both thematic and geographic;

2. A long-term approach, taking into account the precautionary principle;

3. Adaptive management;

4. Local specificity and diversity;

5. Working with natural processes and respecting the carrying capacity of ecosystems;

6. Involvement of all parties concerned;

9 For more on this programme, see: EC (2014): The Commission's demonstration programme on Integrated Coastal Zone Management 1996 – 1999. European Commission, Directorate General for Environment website. Available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/iczm/demopgm.htm 10 EC (2002): Council Recommendation concerning the implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe. 2002/413/EC.

7. Support of relevant administrative bodies and improved coordination;

8. Use of a combination of instruments.

In 2006, a review of progress made by Member States in implementing the 2002 Recommendation on ICZM found that the 8 principles had been useful in raising awareness and preparedness at the regional level for addressing long-term coastal challenges.11 The usefulness of these 8 principles was further reaffirmed in the European Commission’s 2013 proposal for a Directive on maritime spatial planning, where it was stated that MS should draw upon these principles when taking land-sea interactions into account.12

1.3.2 Benefits of ICM

The ultimate goal of ICM is to ensure the sustainable long-term development of coastal zones and their resources, so as to optimise environmental, economic and social conditions. If undertaken effectively, the benefits of ICM related to climate change include:

By aligning strategies and expectations, ICM can create a more stable long-term policy environment, which can increase certainty and predictability for private investments, including improved certainty to obtain financing for offshore investments.

ICM can improve use of the marine and territorial space, reduce pressure on the environment, and facilitate the best possible coexistence of uses in coastal zones amongst competing interests. ICM can produce processes that improve data collection and gathering of information through monitoring and participatory processes, thereby enhancing management analysis, as well as the knowledge base on interaction and complementarity between uses and marine environment.

The long-term and iterative nature of ICM provides an opportunity to incorporate climate change considerations, including improved resilience to risks and/or mitigation of climate change. These can be achieved, for example, by enhancing the resilience of natural systems in coastal zones, or by facilitating the development of renewable energy sources.

The nature of the ICM process can contribute to improved engagement of the population and stakeholders and an improved climate for political cooperation. The active involvement of stakeholders in a transparent ICM process can create a sense of ownership, and increase the chance of policies being adequately implemented.

ICM contributes to economic growth and jobs. This can be achieved especially in emerging sectors, such as renewable energy production, by reducing long term certainty for investment and permitting processes.

1.3.3 Overview of existing ICM strategies

Member States have implemented integrated coastal management through a range of policy instruments. Several have established national legislation specifically for this area: examples include Spain’s 1988 National Law on Coasts, amended in 2013, and Portugal’s 2012 Decree-law on Coastal Zone Management Plans. Coastal management is often linked closely to spatial planning on land and many Member States address it in their town and country planning legislation: this includes, among others, Bulgaria, Denmark, Latvia and Slovenia. (In many cases, MSP also addressed via land spatial legislation.) Environmental legislation can also be relevant for ICM. And in the Netherlands ICM (and also MSP) are addressed under the Water Act.

Table 2 Legal basis and strategies for ICM

11 EC (2008): Rupprecht Consult (2006): Evaluation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in Europe. Final Report. 12 EC (2013): Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for maritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management. COM(2013) 133 final

Member State

ICMLegal basis Strategy(ies) in place Active

BE No No: integrated in local planning PartiallyBG Via spatial planning leg. No, via regional planning PartiallyCY Via planning leg. Work reportedly underway PartiallyDE Partial: in one Land Federal strategy + state action

DK Via spatial planning leg. In preparation

EE Via spatial planning leg. no Largely inactiveEL Via spatial planning leg. Key spatial plans for ICM + marine PartiallyES New law in 2013; Med Prot. Rat. in

fully In preparation Yes

FI Via spatial planning and env. leg. strategic document (2006)

FR Via national environ. Code & spatial planning

Joint maritime & coastal national strategy in prep.

HR Via spatial planning and env. leg. Joint national marine & coastal strategy in prep.

IE Via planning legislation A few local plans Partially (coastal flooding more so)

IT Med Prot: Signed; No national leg. A few regional plans LowLT Under development Yes, via territorial planning Plans do not cover

full scope of ICMLV Via planning legislation Strategy in place

MT Med Prot: signed; ICM via spatial planning leg. Now via local plans; national plan in prep. Yes

NL Via planning and water legislation Plans in place YesPL Partially, under spatial and maritime

leg. Partially, in national spatial ‘Concept’ Two regional ICM strategies

PT Yes National strategy + coastal plans YesROSE Partially , covered by sector

legislation Partially , covered by sector legislation

SI Via planning legislation Via a regional plan on coast PartiallyUK

No specific legal basis A range of coastal planningVaries; greatest

attention to coastal flooding

- Dark grey is positive, light grey is fairly positive, and red is negative

Climate change is also addressed at regional and local scales. In the UK, adaptation is an element of several planning instruments for coastal areas, and notably the Flood Schemes. In Portugal, municipalities including Sintra and Cascais have addressed coastal issues in local adaptation plans.

1.4 Maritime Spatial PlanningSimilar to the challenges identified in section 2.5 for coastal zone management, maritime policy faces a challenge in adequately addressing the dynamic processes and deep inter-linkages between natural systems and human activities occurring in the marine environment. Historically, maritime policy in the EU has been undertaken in a sectoral fashion (e.g. fishing, shipping), with each issue area being addressed in isolation. This has resulted in fragmented policy characterised by gaps, duplicated work, inefficiencies, problems with coordination, negative externalities and failures of prioritisation across the numerous responsible authorities.13 For example, competing spatial demands can be seen in the 13 For more on the issues related to sector-based policies in the EU, see: Markus, T., Schlacke, S., & Maier, N. (2011) Legal Implementation of Integrated Ocean Policies: The EU‘s Marine Strategy Framework Directive. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 26, pp. 61-62; Juda, Lawrence (2007): The European Union and ocean use management: the marine strategy and the maritime policy. Ocean Development & International Law, 38, No 3, p. 261. Douvere, D. (2008): The

marine environment for fisheries, transportation, offshore renewable generation and other natural resource exploitation activities. With each activity falling under the survey of a different authority, resolving these demands can be a difficult process.

Maritime Spatial Planning 14 seeks to address this problem through a public process that analyses and plans human activities in the marine environment and the related land actions, so as to distribute them over space and time in a way that meets established environmental, economic and social objectives.15 MSP can take multiple forms. At a basic level, MSP can take the form of an information system available to aid decision makers and other stakeholders to support their planning by providing spatial data and policy information. A more complex form of MSP would be the establishment of a informal (non-binding) or formal (binding) plan to integrate the needs of different sectors and stakeholders and determine their most effective spatial development.16 The European Commission identified this more advanced form as “the ultimate aim” of MSP in its 2013 proposal for a Directive on MSP.17

As in the case of coastal zones, there is a large and growing number of sectors with activities occurring in the marine environment. As such, the various and often conflicting interests and needs of these sectors must be considered collectively and coordinated with the related infrastructure in coastal zones for MSP to be successful. Depending upon the marine area in questions, MSP may need to involve the following sectors:

Environmental protection

Tourism (e.g. marine sports, leisure and cruise ships).

Maritime transportation (e.g. ferries)

Shipping

Military

Exploitation of seabed resources

Energy production (e.g. wind and wave)

Fisheries, including aquaculture

Blue biotechnology

Similarly, as in the case of ICM, the integrated and broad nature of MSP requires involvement from all relevant stakeholders to ensure the maximum acceptance, implementation and input of specialised knowledge. Such input should be sought as early in the MSP process as possible. Stakeholders that should be involved include:

Coastal Municipalities/local government

State and federal governments (covering transportation, maritime affairs, nature conservation, fishing, urban planning)

Stakeholder groups

importance of marine spatial planning in advancing ecosystem-based sea use management. Marine Policy. Vol 32, 5, pp. 762-771. 14 Also referred to by some as Marine Spatial Planning. 15 For more, see: EC (2013): Maritime Spatial Planning. European Commission, Directorate General for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries website. Available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/maritimeaffairs/policy/maritime_spatial_planning/index_en.htm 16ABPmer (2006): Marine Spatial Planning Pilot. Available at: http://www.abpmer.net/mspp/docs/finals/MSPFinal_report.pdf17 EC (2013): Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for maritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management. COM(2013) 133 final

o Business interest groups (e.g. fishing associations, Mineral resources associations, Leisure boat associations etc.)

o Port Authorities

o Environmental NGOs

o Users

Research Institutions/Universities

1.4.1 MSP Principles

In a 2008 Communication18, the European Commission identified 10 key principles as being relevant for MSP practice in the EU (see Annex 4 MSP Principles for more information):

1. Using MSP according to area and type of activity

2. Defining objectives to guide MSP

3. Developing MSP in a transparent manner

4. Stakeholder participation

5. Coordination within Member States

6. Ensuring the legal effect of national MSP

7. Cross-border cooperation and consultation

8. Incorporating monitoring and evaluation in the planning process

9. Achieving coherence between terrestrial and maritime spatial planning – relation with ICM

10. A strong data and knowledge base

Two years later, the usefulness of these principles was reaffirmed in a European Commission Communication on the achievements and future direction of MSP.19 The ecosystem approach was identified as the key overarching principle under which MSP should be undertaken, meaning that planning should integrate consideration of land, water and living resources to promote sustainable development and socially just outcomes20.

1.4.2 Benefits of MSP

MSP aims to address the numerous issues stemming from sectoral-based management. To this end, a key benefit of MSP is in addressing the clear inadequacies of existing siloed approaches to maritime policy. If effectively implemented according to the principles identified above, MSP may produce a number of benefits related to climate change, including:

Through a coordinated approach to temporal and spatial planning (considering also land/sea interactions side), MSP can reduce conflicts between sectors, improve efficiency, and create synergies between different activities where possible.

The more efficient and optimal spatial and temporal distribution of activities under MSP may lead to increased long-term economic growth and jobs through enabling growth maritime sectors and employment in the maritime economy. This can have significant social benefits for coastal communities and others in the wider hinterland behind the coast.

18EC (2008): COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION: Roadmap for Maritime Spatial Planning: Achieving Common Principles in the EU. COM(2008) 791 final.19

20

MSP can increase cross-border cooperation between EU Members and third countries, including on cables, pipelines, shipping lanes, wind installations, etc, that would otherwise be more difficult to address under traditional sectoral approaches.

Through the use of MSP, adaptive management can be practiced via a system for regular monitoring, evaluation and revision. This means that the management of activities in marine space can better reflect current knowledge about the state and impacts of natural systems and human activities in a marine environment.

MSP can better protect the environment through early identification of impacts and opportunities for multiple uses of same spaces.

The collection of data and information through MSP monitoring and participatory knowledge can have larger benefits, such as improved data collection, better management analysis, as well as an enhanced knowledge base on interaction and complementarity between different uses and the marine environment.

1.4.3 Overview of existing MSPs

An assessment of MS activities in the field of MSP highlights that the implementation of MSP in the EU is currently uneven across and within regions, and the activities of Member States in this regard are highly varied; it does not represent a final comprehensive overview but current state of play at the time of the adoption of the Directive in 2014. In some cases, clear legal bases have been established and MSP is in place in different forms. In other cases, Member States are still in process of designing and adopting these legal bases, while in a small number of cases progress on implementing MSP is minimal.

Table 3 Legal basis and strategies for MSP

Member State

MSPLegal basis MSP in place Active

BE

BG In preparation

CY Via planning legislation Reportedly in preparation

DE National and state planning

DK In preparation Partially

EE In preparation In preparation

EL Via spatial planning leg. Key spatial plans for ICM + marine PartiallyES Only for MSFD planning No; some work on wind & TPEA PartiallyFI No Bothnia Plan a pilot; national MSP in prep.

FR Mentioned in national environ. code To be addressed in maritime & coastal strategy

HR Joint national marine & coastal strategy in prep.

IE Under consideration To be prepared

IT No No LowLT Partially as part of spatial planning Under development

LV Under development

MT Via spatial planning leg. Now via local plans; national plan in prep. YesNL Via planning and water legislation N Sea planning document YesPL In place Under development

PT Via spatial planning leg. In preparation UnclearROSE Under development Plan Bothnia a pilot; national MSP after law

SIUK Yes In preparation

- Where dark grey is positive, light grey is fairly positive, and red is negative

1.5 Examples of a combined ICM and MSP approach in MSSeveral countries are preparing policy documents that address both ICM and MSP. For example, both Croatia and France have a joint ICM/MSP strategy in preparation. In France, this work follows the 2009 Blue Book on National Strategy for the Sea and Oceans, which calls for coherence among maritime strategies, coastal strategies and sustainable development.

Croatia is preparing a combined national strategy for ICM and MSP. Malta is preparing a Strategic Plan for the Environment and Development, which will provide a framework for integrated planning on land, in the coastal zone and in waters up to 25 nautical miles from the coast, and thus will address both ICM and MSP approaches.

In some countries, spatial and development policies cite both ICM and MSP: this is the case for Poland’s National Spatial Development Concept 2030, approved in 2013, which calls for integrated land/sea spatial planning. In Greece, spatial planning legislation has specific provisions for both coastal areas and maritime areas. Special Frameworks for Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development, under this legislation, have addressed common policy issues: aquaculture (2011); tourism, including marine and coastal tourism development (2009); renewable energy, covering marine wind parks (2008).

In other cases, ICM and MSP are addressed through parallel processes. Denmark, for example, is preparing national implementation strategies for ICM and MSP, following the country’s 2010 Marine Policy Strategy, which addresses coastal zones and the importance of climate adaptation.

Part B: Step-by-Step Approach for Marine Spatial Planning and Integrated Coastal Management under a changing climateThis part of the document will focus on the practical steps for setting up ICM and MSP considering adaptation to climate change. The document will follow a seven step approach(see figure below).

Figure 1 ICM and MSP planning steps

As this document is not looking at ICM, MSP and climate change as stand-alone issues, the focus is on the interaction between ICM/MSP planning with existing, ongoing or planned activities on climate change adaptation. It should be noted that the kind of interactions and the level of detail that can be provided on these interactions varies widely among each step in particular as experiences gained are often rather limited. However each step has been structured as follows:

Step 1: Establishing the legal framework and administrative authority

Task 1.1: Establish the legal frameworkTask 1.2: Establish the administrative authorityStep 2: Prepare the groundworkTask 2.1: Define boundaries and timeframeTask 2.2: Define principles and setting the visionTask 2.3: Define the baseline and future scenariosTask 2.4: Define operational objectivesStep 3: Stakeholder InvolvementTask 3.1: Identify StakeholdersTask 3.2 Carry out stakeholder consultationStep 4: Developing the PlanTask 4.1: Develop the plan to allocation econ activitiesTask 4.2: Identify and select management options and measuresTask 4.3 Obtain financial support Step 5: Plan ImplementationTask 5.1 Implement the strategy/planTask 5.2 Ensure complianceTask 5.3: Enforce the strategy/planStep 6: Monitoring and EvaluationTask 6.1 Develop the performance monitoring programmeTask 6.2: Evaluate the accuracy of monitoring dataTask 6.3: Report results of performance evaluationStep 7: Planning for next phaseTask 7.1: Reconsider and redesign the strategy/planTask 7.2: Identify gaps and areas of improvementTask 7.3: Start next round of planning

Strategy/Plan

- What is the step about? Explain the aim of each step and what potential outcomes should be achieved when completed.

- How to achieve this step? Identify different approaches and methodologies for achieving the outcomes of each step

- Who/What needs to be involved/mobilised in this step? This covers allocation and mobilisation of necessary human and financial resources

- Where do I find additional information?

As far as possible practical examples from MS or regions will be provided in order to illustrate certain aspects of importance

1 Step 1 Establish a legal framework and administrative authority

Ü Task 1: Establish a legal framework – to give legal authority to develop a strategy or plan

Ü Task 2: Establish an administrative authority – to determine who is responsible to develop the strategy or plan

1.1 What is this step about?A pre-condition for coastal management and marine planning is the established of a legal authority or policy framework or both. Legal authority can take the form of dedicated legislation on ICM or MSP, or via sectoral legislation that incorporates them – for example, spatial planning or water legislation or indeed several, separate pieces of legislations. Non-binding approaches take the form of strategic documents that provide a framework for more detailed plans and programmes.

Box 1 Joint Framework for ICM and MSP in Croatia

Croatia is developing a joint marine and coastal management strategy that will implement both ICM and MSP, as decided by the Ministry of Environmental and Nature Protection in 2012. This document will link Croatia’s obligations under the Mediterranean ICZM Protocol, to produce a national strategy, with those under the Marine Strategy Framework Directive: the result will be a single strategic document for the Croatian Adriatic area. The goal is to ensure better coordination and coherence of actions for sustainable coastal and marine area management, applying ecosystem-based management of human activities and the sustainable use of ecosystem goods and services. Climate adaptation measures are to be an integral part of the process, addressed both at the strategic level as well as in the preparation of coastal plans on national and local levels. For the strategy , Croatia will use and develop the Integrative Methodological Framework used by the UNEP/MAP Priority Action Programme’s Regional Activity Centre (PAP/RAC).

1.2 How to achieve this step?1.2.1 Task 1: Establish the legal or policy framework

Considering the existing framework

An important step in the process of developing legislation or policy that includes climate change adaptation as a consideration is to take stock of the existing framework, if any, applicable to coastal and marine areas. There may be legislation or policies at national and regional level that influence planning in coastal and marine areas (e.g. through objectives and targets relevant for coastal and marine management), such as EU Directives or regional sea conventions, in the field of water management, ports and shipping, nature protection etc. (see Annex 1 for more information on relevant EU policies). Rapid Policy Network Mapping (RPNM) 21 is a tool to help non-specialists understand the policy context of a given legislation. The results of the RPNM highlight the complex inter-linkages among policies. In the policy mapping of the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive, for example, policy instruments are aggregated into six categories: general-water/marine specific; general-linked to Directive; Environmental and Biota related; Fisheries; Pollution-source/sink and Planning. Policy instruments are also categorised according to policy lifecycle: creation; interpretation, transposition and implementation.

Such an analysis is important for identifying key gaps and as well as overlaps with other policies in the case of developing new legislation or policies or for identifying which legislation to adapt provide a framework for integrated coastal management or maritime spatial planning.

Define the new legal framework

To overcome the limits of administrative boundaries and facilitate transboundary cooperation, a stand-alone legislation or by streamlining existing legislation should be established.

Stand-alone legislation – like the approach in Croatia and Portugal, comprises legislation for the sole purpose of ICM, MSP or both. There are advantages and disadvantages to establishing a standalone legislation for ICM and MSP if climate change adaptation aspects are to be included:

Potential advantages: Potential disadvantages: Clear authority in legislation: existing

legislation comes with existing authorities, rules and customs, which could positively or negatively affect the implementation of coastal and marine management

Time consuming

Inflexible: Cannot be amended so easily

Undesired outcome: legislation does not guarantee the desired outcome

Does not encourage an integrated approach addressing cross-sectoral issues

Clear leadership: new legislation will define the administrative authority mandated with implementation, thus providing continuity in roles and responsibilities

Streamlining ICM/MSP and climate change into existing legislation is suitable if there is no appetite for more significant legislative reform Many Member States have chosen to incorporate integrated coastal management and maritime spatial planning into existing legislation with multiple purposes. Most often, this extends the area covered by an existing terrestrial planning regime and may be in the form of a spatial planning law that includes other sectors like agriculture and land-use planning, not just coastal and maritime areas. The advantages and disadvantages of adapting existing legislation are:

21 For more information refer to: Bainbridge JM, Potts T, O'Higgins TG (2011) Rapid Policy Network Mapping: A New Method for Understanding Governance Structures for Implementation of Marine Environmental Policy. PLoS ONE 6(10): e26149. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026149

Potential advantages: Potential disadvantages: Less Administrative burden: legislation

can often be interpreted or modified to provide authority for ICM or MSP

May be a faster approach

Using existing legislation, for example spatial legislation, can provide a single framework for land/sea interactions (i.e. ICM and MSP)

Stakeholders are forced to consider present or future spatial planning into their work.

On macro-regional level, potential implementers of spatial plans have to seek coordinated action, e.g. with regional sea conventions

The private sector could be included into the whole process which is normally quite difficult to realise.

Requires significant inter-agency cooperation

Both ICM and MSP cover a broad range of sectors and activities; using existing legislation may not provide a satisfactory framework to encompass them all.

If no strong framework for integration of effective spatial management, monitoring and the cyclic nature of the production of management plans is in place, the whole process can be blocked

Some existing legislation may no longer be 'fit for purpose' and beyond adaptation to reflect new uses and considerations.

In cases where binding legislation in either form does not exist – and there is no plan to create it – there still needs to be a framework under which planning in coastal and marine areas can operate. Non-binding strategies – as is often the case – would comprise a set of guiding principles or a guidance document.

1.2.2 Task 2: Establish the administrative authority

For integrated coastal management and maritime spatial planning processes to be set up and made operational at a later stage, a clear mandate is needed in the form of a core management team. Responsibilities need to be clearly defined and may differ depending on the administrative level decided on. The team should be responsible for drafting the strategy and the corresponding plans for implementation. The team should consist of relevant experts from the main sectors affected.

An integrated team tasked with integrating climate change and adaptation in coastal and/or marine management should take into account22:

Intra-governmental integration (vertical co-ordination)

Inter-sectoral Integration (horizontal co-ordination)

Spatial Integration (vertical/horizontal co-ordination)

International Integration (vertical/horizontal)

Science-Management Integration (different disciplines)

Adaptation and mitigation experience)23

An additional steering committee with scientific experts to guide the process may also be relevant.

22 Ibid23 European Commission (2013): Commission Staff Working Document. Guidelines on developing adaptation strategies. Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committe of the regions. An EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change {COM (2013) 216 final}.

The management team should include administrators from various national and regional ministries and agencies including nature conservation, freshwater management, maritime affairs, fisheries, urban planning, nature protection and energy (renewable and non-renewable) sectors. For cross-sectoral issues like climate change adaptation, it is essential that environmental/climate authorities and experts are closely involved in the design as well as in the implementation, monitoring and evaluation of strategies and plans. Experts on adaptation should play an active role in this process.24

1.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised? Relevant ministries or agencies at national/regional level: maritime affairs, environment,

transport

Lawyers

Parliament

Climate experts

1.4 Where can I find more information? UNESCO IOC (2009): Marine Spatial Planning – A Step-by-Step approach toward

Ecosystem-based Management. Available at: http://www.unesco-ioc-marinesp.be/msp_guide

Shaping an Holistic Approach to Protect the Adriatic Environment between coast and sea (SHAPE project): http//:shape.ervet.it

PLANCOAST project http://www.plancoast.eu

Knowledge-basedSustainable Management for Europe’s Seas (KnowSeas) project http://www.knowseas.com/

Multi-level Governance in Maritime Spatial Planning through the Baltic Sea Region (PartiSEApate): http://www.partiseapate.eu

2 Step 2 Prepare the groundwork Ü Task 1: Define boundaries and timeframe – to delineate spatial and temporally the

borders of the strategy/plan

Ü Task 2: Define principles and set the vision – the establish an overarching framework on what needs to be achieved

Ü Task 3: Define the baseline and future scenarios – to understand the current state and potential future of coastal and marine areas in the context of climate change in order to focus efforts

Ü Task 4: Define operational objectives - to be able to measure and assess results

2.1 What is this step about?This step organizes the process for objective-based ICM and MSP. It prepares the groundwork for the actual plan development phase.

24 EMFF document

Prior to developing a strategy or plan, a number of steps need to taken to allow the management group to prioritize economic activities, identifying where they can take place in coastal or marine zones, and develop management options. Boundaries need to be defined, principles established, information needs to be collected to understand the state of the art and future scenarios, upon which goals and objectives for the strategy and plan can be defined.

2.2 How to achieve this step?2.2.1 Task 1: Define boundaries and timeframe

The starting off point in the pre-planning process is to define the boundaries and timeframes of the intended integrated coastal management strategies and maritime spatial plans. Coastal zone delimitation is important pre-requisite for determining the baseline, setting objectives and developing management options. Boundaries of coastal zone and marine areas are often set by law and are based on administrative units.

When defining a coastal zone under coastal management, two boundaries need to be set: the boundary on the land-side and the boundary on the sea-side. Boundaries should be defined for different levels of governance25:

At the strategic planning level (e.g. national administration): a coastal area could be defined by the border of the exclusive economic zone (up to 200 miles) on the sea-side and the national border on the land-side.

At the operational planning level (e.g. regional and/or local administration): a coastal area could be defined by the border of the territorial waters (up to 12 miles) on the sea-side and the land side could either be defined according to region or municipality.

A boundary also needs to be defined for the coastal management strategy or plan. If the document is a strategic document – for example a strategy – the jurisdiction is often nation-wide. If the document is a coastal plan, the boundaries should be determined not only by administrative unit but also taking into account environmental characteristics. In maritime spatial planning, borders are often delimited on national boundaries of a given maritime area26; usually the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) boundaries of a given country are used as the boundaries for a maritime spatial plan27.

Not only do ICM strategies/plans and MSPs overlap with each other, they also often overlap with other EU or national legislation such as the EU Water Framework Directive and the EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive. The Water Framework Directive has jurisdiction over surface, ground and coastal waters28 within a given national territory and which are administrated according to naturally defined river basin districts. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive applies to all marine waters, defined as waters, the seabed and subsoil on the seaward side of the baseline up to the EEZ, including coastal waters as defined by the WFD. The overlaps between ICM and MSP and with the WFD and MSFD represent an opportunity for linking the directives, along with the goals, objectives and management options.

25 http://www.coastalwiki.org/wiki/Coastal_zone_delimitation26 There are a few examples of transnational cooperation on MSP like the MASPNOSE project in the North Sea; BaltSeaPlan and Plan Bothnia in the Baltic Sea; and UNEP/MAP activities in the Mediterranean Sea.27 The EEZ is a seazone defined by the United National Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), which stretches 200 nautical miles from the coast. A Maritime spatial plan will, therefore, include territorial waters, thus overlapping with a designated coastal zone.

28 ‘Coastal water’means surface water on the landward side of a line, every point of which is at a distance of one nautical mile on the seaward side from the nearest point of the baseline from which the breadth of territorial waters is measured, extending where appropriate up to the outer limit of transitional waters

Box 2 Experience in Portugal with integrated coastal management and overlaps between policy areas in coastal and marine areas

In Portugal, a coastal zone is defined as up to 500meters inland and 30 meters offshore. The boundaries of its coastal zone management plans (CZMPs) have been defined based on regional characteristics and territorial administrative boundaries; there are 9 coastal segments each with its own CZMP. Regional Hydrographic Administrations – set up in response to the WFD – manage the five river basin districts in Portugal and are also tasked with implementing CZMPs. Local authorities (municipalities) continue to develop and implement their own plans, but in the 500-m strip from the waterline, they must implement CZMP regulations. At the strategic level, the boundaries of the national strategy for integrated coastal zone management (ENGIZC), are 2km from the sea on the landside and the territorial waters (12 nautical miles). covers the whole coastal territory, from 2km from the sea, up to 12 nautical miles. The Portuguese maritime spatial plan includes the EEZ, the territorial waters, and coastal waters below the maximum high water mark of equinox tides (MHWMET).

CW – Coastal Waters, TS – Territorial Sea, EEZ – Economic Exclusive Zone, CS- Continental Shelf (outer limit), MHWMET – Maximum High Water Mark of Equionox Tides, BL- Baseline, EMP – Estuary Management Plans

2.2.2 Task 2: Define principles and setting the vision

The starting off point for integrated coastal management strategies and maritime spatial plans is setting the vision. A vision statement sets the overall concept and overarching ‘goal’ of the document.

Box 3 Vision Statement for ICM/MSP

[Geben Sie ein Zitat aus dem Dokument oder die Zusammenfassung eines interessanten Punktes ein. Sie können das Textfeld an einer beliebigen Stelle im Dokument positionieren. Verwenden Sie die Registerkarte 'Textfeldtools', wenn Sie das Format des Textfelds 'Textzitat' ändern möchten.]

In order to make the vision more concrete and operational and to shape operational goals, principles for climate change adaptation, which have been defined at EU level (see 1.3.1, 1.4.1 and 1.1), should be taken into account. Many of the climate change principles identified at the EU level overlap with the principles of ICM and MSP. The table below shows some of the links between the principles of ICM, MSP and CCA.

Table 4 Links between coastal management, maritime planning and climate change adaptation principles

Integrated Coastal Management Principles

Maritime Spatial Planning principles

Climate change adaptation principles

Principle 1: A broad overall perspective, both geographically and thematically

Principle 2: Defining objectives to guide MSP

Principle 1: Initiate adaptation, ensure commitment and management

Principle 2: A long-term perspective, taking into account the needs of present and future generations.

Principle 5: Explore potential climate change impacts, vulnerabilities and identify priorities

Principle 3: Use adaptive management to adjust problems and develop knowledge develop through monitoring

Principle 8: Incorporating monitoring and evaluation in the planning process

Principle 10: A strong data and knowledge base:

Principle 2: Build knowledge and awareness

Principle 3: Monitor and evaluate systematically

Principle 4: Work with uncertaintiesPrinciple 4: Take into account the specific needs of local contexts

Principle 5: Work with natural processes and respect the carrying capacity of ecosystems

Principle 1: Using MSP according to area and type of activity

Principle 6: Explore a wide spectrum of adaptation options

Principle 6: Involve all the parties concerned

Principle 3 : Developing MSP in a transparent manner

Principle 4 : Stakeholder participation

Principle 10: Identify and cooperate with relevant stakeholders

Principle 7: Coordination between different decision making levels

Principle 5: Coordination within Member States

Principle 7: Cross-border cooperation and consultation

Principle 8: Use a combination of instruments designed Principle 8: Modify existing policies,

structures and processes

Principle 2 - Defining objectives to guide MSP

Principle 6: Ensuring the legal effect of national MSP:

Principle 9: Achieving coherence between terrestrial and maritime spatial planning – relation with ICM

Principle 9: Avoid maladaptationPrinciple 7: Prioritise adaptation options

2.2.3 Task 3: Define the baseline and consider future scenarios

Setting a baseline or describing the present state of the coastal area is a necessary stock-taking step that enables the further planning steps and goal setting. Baseline data are important for:

Characterizing the prevailing conditions that inform planning and implementation of actions and measures;

Describing average conditions, spatial, and temporal variability and anomalous events, which can also affect the planned interventions;

Creating a reference with which to compare future changes; and Identifying knowledge and data availability and gaps - helpful for the improvements of

monitoring systems.

A baseline is also required in various legislative management frameworks (e.g. the MSFD, the WFD and the Floods Directive).The baseline data gathered in compliance with the abovementioned legislation combined with other relevant data and information can provide a valuable starting point for developing the baseline for coastal and marine management.

A baseline is only complete if also the future trends are described and taken into account. The major trends to be considered are the environmental conditions and their natural fluctuations and changes, human impacts, including demographic and economic trends as well as climate change. A defined baseline is also important for the evaluation of the effectiveness of climate change measures29.

Collect and map information on the current status

Collecting and mapping all available relevant information that describes the current status of the coastal zone and marine sea region is the first step in developing the reference baseline. In the context of the MSFD and the WFD some guidance documents have been developed, which also might be used here. The most relevant are:

Economic and Social Analysis for the Initial Assessment for the Marine Strategy Framework Directive: A Guidance Document – A Non-Legally Binding Document, 21 December 201030

Economics and the environment - The implementation challenge of the Water Framework Directive31

The information and data should be collected to cover three major aspects:

1. Current ecological, environmental and oceanographic conditions, including the identification of ecologically and biologically significant areas. Existing marine data bases, such as EMODnet32 (The European Marine Observation and Data Network) or the upcoming WISE-Marine33 can be useful for accomplishing this task.

2. Human activities, their spatial and temporal scope, including land-use change also demographic change, the economic value of the coastal zone and economic developments. In addition to mapping the human activities and uses of the coastal zones and marine environment, it is important to assess the economic value of these activities and installations, also keeping in mind the economic value of coastal ecosystems. Possible metrics for the economic assessments are asset values, turnover, employment, numbers of beneficiaries, contribution to GDP, significance within supply chains and similar. Ecosystem services valuation methods can be applied to understand the economic value of marine and coastal ecosystems. For details on ecosystem services valuation methods, please see the two guidance documents mentioned in the beginning of the step.

3. Past and current climate conditions and variability as well as observed climate change impacts.

29http://adaptation-fund.org/sites/default/files/Results%20Framework%20and%20Baseline%20Guidance%20final%20compressed.pdf30 http://www.dredging.org/documents/ceda/downloads/2010-12-final_report_wg_esa_guidance_document_no_1.pdf31 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/facts_figures/guidance_docs_en.htm32 http://emodnet.eu33 https://webgate.ec.europa.eu/maritimeforum/category/554

In order to better understand the potential impacts of future climate change on the coastal area, first the past and current climatic characteristics need to be collected and mapped. That includes:

1) Meteorological data sets describing past up to current conditions, specifically as regards:

air and water temperatures, precipitation, wind speeds and storm frequencies, wave height, and extent of sea ice;

2) as well as data describing the already observed secondary impacts of changing climatic conditions, such as:

sea level rise, coastal erosion, water salinity and acidity, oxygen content in water, flooding and storm surges, salt intrusion, observed changes in fish stocks, changing extent of invasive species in the sea and coastal areas, and any other relevant impacts in the area being investigated.

3) Where climate change impacts are being observed already, it is also important to document the ongoing adaptation activities mitigating these impacts, looking at their effectiveness, costs and impacts on other activities and uses of the coastal zone (co-benefits or conflicts). Consider all current adaptation measures, also those undertaken by the private sector.

Box 4 Mapping Climate change impacts and land-use on the Baltic Sea and its coasts

Recognising that climate change will influence precipitation amounts and patterns, and lead to an increase in terrestrial and ocean temperatures and a rise in sea level jeopardizing the integrity of the ecosystem and increase risks caused by natural disasters in the coastal area of the Baltic Sea, BaltAdapt project was set up by Baltic Sea Region Programme 2007–2013 in order to develop a Baltic Sea Region-wide climate change adaptation strategy.

One of the first tasks of the project was to compile the knowledge base of regional climate information, the Baltic Sea ecosystem and the coastal zone.

The resulting BaltAdapt Climate Info Bulletins serve as a concise, policy and decision-making relevant information tools covering 14 climate related parameters: air temperature, precipitation, wind climate, sea level rise, oxygen content, salinity, water temperature, biodiversity and habitats, biological production, wind waves, river discharge, nutrient loads, eutrophication and sea ice. The bulletins provide the most up-to-date observation information for each parameter and elaborate on the projected impacts of climate change.

http://www.baltadapt.eu/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=55&Itemid=269

As part of another Baltic Sea Region Programme project BaltSeaPlan, a methodology has been developed for mapping and visualising land-use and human activities of the Baltic Sea coast. It covers such activities as fisheries, extraction, shipping, military use, shipping, tourism, wind farms, protected areas. Several pilot spatial plans have been created based on the results alongside a common vision for a sustainable cross-border planning of the Baltic Sea space.

http://www.baltseaplan.eu

The information can be collected and communicated in various formats. A good approach is to structure the information collected in a cadastre or database where spatially relevant information can be housed. Maps can then be generated based on the information in the database. These maps not only serve as a blueprint for decision-making but they are an important information tool during stakeholder involvement activities. Databases help to present information in a clear, up-to-date way. It is a strong information tool when deciding on measures to implement.

The data collection and mapping exercise may expose data and knowledge gaps which can then be addressed in planned improvements of monitoring and assessment. The gaps may be related to the lack or discontinuations of hydro-meteorological monitoring data or lack of statistical socio-economic data on the local level and their assessment as well as due to limited understanding of the ecological and biological conditions of the area.

Project current trends and future demands on marine and coastal areas and manage future projection uncertainties

In order to complete the baseline, the collected data of the current state of the coastal zone need to be complemented with the assessment of current trends in order to understand how the current situation is likely to develop under the ‘business as usual’ conditions, that is without significant changes in coastal zone management. Following the same approach as for mapping the current state, the projection of current trends should be done for all three characteristics’ groups: natural conditions, human activities and climate change impacts. The assessments can be carried out by statistically assessing the trends based on available past and current data and describing them or alternatively integrated assessment models may be used. The integrated assessment models usually cover socio-economic developments, climate change impacts and adaptation, as well as cross-sectoral interactions, thus providing a more holistic assessment; however, their use requires specialised expertise and the model limitations need to be considered. Currently the most widely used integrated assessment models include DIVA (Dynamic and Interactive Vulnerability Assessment)34, SimCLIM35, FUND36 (the Climate Framework for Uncertainty, Negotiation and Distribution) and others.

Box 5 Integrated assessment models for coastal areas

DIVA (Dynamic and Interactive Vulnerability Assessment) model has been specifically designed and developed to support policy and decision makers in interpreting coastal vulnerability to climate change and in assessing related measures. It is an integrated, global model of coastal systems that assesses biophysical and socio-economic consequences of sea-level rise and socio-economic development taking into account coastal erosion, coastal flooding, wetland change and salinity intrusion into deltas and estuaries. DIVA also allows assessing such adaptation measures as raising dikes and nourishing beaches. More information: http://www.diva-model.net

SimCLIM 2013 is a computer-based modelling system for examining the effects of climate variability and change over time and space. It can be used to describe baseline climates, examine current climate variability and extremes, assess risks - present and future, ivestigate adaptation - present and future, create scenarios of climate and sea-level change, conduct sensitivity analyses, project sectoral impacts of climate and sea level change, examine risks and uncertainties, and facilitate integrated impact analyses. IPCC 5 th Assessment Report emissions scenarios (Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)) are integrated in the model. The assessment data are presented visually as maps and graphs. More information: http://www.climsystems.com/simclim/

FUND (the Climate Framework for Uncertainty, Negotiation and Distribution) is an integrated assessment model that links scenarios and simple models of population, technology, economics, emissions, atmospheric chemistry, climate, sea level, and impacts for 16 major world regions. It can also be used to study equity of climate change and climate policy. More information: http://www.fund-model.org/

34 http://www.diva-model.net/35 http://www.climsystems.com/simclim/36 http://www.fund-model.org/

For climate change impacts, projections are mostly derived from climate modelling and downscaled to the local scale of a coastal zone. The most likely climate change impacts in the European coasts are sea-level rise, increase in sea surface temperature, increase in ocean acidity, northward expansion of fish and plankton species, changes in phytoplankton communities and increasing risk for fish stocks37. These impacts in turn increase the risks to human health and well-being as well as human-made infrastructure and activities. All relevant impacts need to be accounted for and as far as possible expressed in economic terms (e.g. creating an inventory of assets under risk and documenting their economic value, also taking into account the related costs, such as evacuation costs and the economic value of lost future opportunities) in order to quantify the potential damage. The current adaptation measures need to be assessed in terms of their effectiveness to mitigate the projected climate change impacts. (Various guidance on international, national and local levels provide advice on assessing adaptation measures, for example see the EU Guidelines on developing adaptation strategies38 or the information provided on Climate-ADAPT Platform39.) As a result the remaining future risks caused by climate change can be identified.

The climate change projections themselves are based on scenarios of socio-economic developments on a global scale and due to the inherent level of uncertainties represent varying degrees of confidence of the projected impact. Similarly, the socio-economic trends within a coastal zone are based on assumptions of varying certainty. Uncertainties inherent in the future scenarios of climate, socio-economic, land-use and other changes stem from various sources.

Box 6 Sources of uncertainties in future projections

I. Uncertainties related to incomplete knowledge about the system under investigation.

They stem from the lack of full understanding of the processes within a system (e.g. integrated functioning of a coastal system) or the impacts of external processes (human-induced influences on the coastal systems). Or they arise due to the lack of past or current observation data on the key parameters or processes, temporal or spatial gaps in data sets.

II. Uncertainties inherent to the system under investigation itself

These uncertainties arise, for example, due to a certain degree of unpredictability of the global climate or the socio-economic system or due to varying time-scales of processes within the system.

III: Methodological uncertainties

Data can be interpreted in several different ways and that leads to methodological uncertainties. Likewise the models used for projecting future changes are mostly simplified descriptions of a system thus giving only a generalised picture of the situation, models may also include errors that are not accounted for.

IV. Uncertainties be caused by the subjective influence of players involved in the process of scenario development

These uncertainties arise when experts and stakeholders are invited to provide their input in future scenario development and their subjective views and assumptions influence the results.

Dealing with uncertainty

37 http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/adaptation-in-europe38 http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/adaptation/what/docs/swd_2013_134_en.pdf39 http://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/adaptation-support-tool/step-4-1

The inherent uncertainties result in ranges of predicted scales and rates of changes, which ICZM decision-making should take into account and communicate. There is various guidance available on how to deal with uncertainties in decision-making (Visit Climate-ADAPT Section How to deal with uncertainties?40 for guidance and further information).

The approaches that can be applied for managing uncertainties are:

1. Quantification of the uncertainties can help for understanding the levels and characteristics of the uncertainty and is done with the use of statistical methods41.

2. Using a range of scenarios and models in order to account for different possible futures - requires expertise on climate change modelling and statistical methods. Several future scenarios (for example a set of widely used scenarios such as IPCC Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)42 other pre-defined sets of scenarios or self-developed socio-economic scenarios) can be used for future projections calculated by one climate change assessment model.

3. Applying decision-making approaches that enable successful management in uncertainty-laden decision fields. The decision-making approaches that work best in the light of the described uncertainties are 1) Adaptive management - the selection of a strategy that can be modified in the light of new information or more solid future projections; 2) Scenario Planning – analysis of how well different decisions may perform in different future scenarios; and 3) Robust or Resilient Strategies – the use of strategies that would bring reasonably good results in all or most futures considered, they mostly include implementation of ‘low-regret’ measures.

Often the future trends in natural environment, human activities and climate change are interlinked and may reinforce or dampen each other. For example, increased coastal erosion caused by climate change may impede coastal tourism development and therefore reduce the economic activity in the coastal area and the availability of jobs further causing out-migration while leaving more space for unmodified natural areas. If not already included in integrated assessment, these inter-linkages need to be accounted for.

Identify possible alternative futures for the planning area

The identification of alternative futures allows the investigation of the possible outcomes of planning and policy options. Several alternative future scenarios should be considered to account for various different courses of action and their likely results.

Box 7 Future scenario building in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany43

40 http://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/adaptation-support-tool/step-2-541 such as 1) probability analyses that aim to describe the likelihood of the projected outcomes; or 2) sensitivity analyses that describe the sensitivity of the results to specific input parameters42 http://tntcat.iiasa.ac.at:8787/RcpDb/dsd?Action=htmlpage&page=welcome43 PLANCOAST (2008): Handbook on Integrated Maritime Spatial Planning. Experience, Tools & Instruments, Case Studies. S.Pro sustainable projects: Berlin. Available at: http://www.plancoast.eu/files/handbook_web.pdf

“Zukunft Küste – Coastal Futures”, a research project in Schleswig-Hostein, assessed economic, environmental and social risks and opportunities within a socio-economic trade-off analysis to develop different scenarios for potential “futures” for the coast in 2030. In addition to other economic activities and uses of the area, offshore wind farming and mariculture played a prominent role in the scenario development. Within the project, five scenarios were developed that examined the potential impact of new activities or spatial uses along the coast. Driving forces, societal preferences and economic activities were given different weighting in each of the scenarios, which resulted in describe different patterns of spatial use. For each scenario, a different economic activity was given greater preference.

Coast and sea (primarily) as natural space, Coast and sea (primarily) as tourism and recreation space, Coast and sea (primarily) as a source of renewable energies, Coast and sea (primarily) as industrial space, Coast and sea (primarily) as transport space.

A baseline (from 1995-2005) was used to partially model ecological and regional economic effects for each scenario.

In order to draw the possible desirable end states it firstly needs to be understood what are the most important issues that may be influenced through ICM and MSP planning and implementation and to what extent. The range of possible influence is described by the level of attention devoted to the issue in the coastal or maritime management - starting from neglecting the issue to giving it the highest priority. When all planning-responsive issues and their possible ranges of change are known, they can be combined in several scenarios that are built through the assumptions of policy choices for each policy area. Trade-offs and synergies across the issues being addressed need to be accounted for as well as any constraints outside of the influence of the planning authority in order for the alternative futures to remain in the limits of the possible.

The alternative futures represent different distribution of emphasis on the various issues or policy areas and they can be developed based on maximising the benefits in one policy are, for example ‘achieving the best ecological status of the are’ or ‘maximising the economic activity of the coastal zone’ or balancing the focus between several issues in varying degrees.

A second step in developing alternative futures after identifying the possible end states is to describe what decisions, changes and planning interventions will be necessary to achieve this alternative future and with what degree of effort, investment and costs. These characteristics will be essential for the implementation of the next task, which aims to arrive at a choice of a narrow set of alternative futures to work with.

Agree on the future scenarios to be further used

An evaluation and stakeholder consultation of the alternative futures developed in the previous task serves to identify one or few scenarios to be used for further planning of coastal zone management.

The following factors can be applied for the evaluation and comparison of the future scenarios: Physical, chemical, and biological effects over time, including cumulative effects; Economic effects and their distribution, e.g., direct and indirect costs and benefits, who wins

and who loses; Timing considerations, e.g., time required to achieve results; Political considerations, e.g., acceptability to public; relation to other management plans; and

Feasibility of financing, e.g., financial requirements for implementation.

Stakeholder involvement and consultation can provide valuable input in the process and ensure that the chosen alternative future correspond to the desired results of a wide range of interested parties.

Box 8 Climate change adaptation and future scenarios

[Geben Sie ein Zitat aus dem Dokument oder die Zusammenfassung eines interessanten Punktes ein. Sie können das Textfeld an einer beliebigen Stelle im Dokument positionieren. Verwenden Sie die Registerkarte 'Textfeldtools', wenn Sie das Format des Textfelds 'Textzitat' ändern möchten.]

2.2.4 Task 4: Define operational objectives

Once the principles have been agreed upon, concrete, measurable objectives related to climate change and adaptation should be defined to focus the work on developing the strategy or plan. Objectives should be based on the data obtained for defining the baseline.

For objectives to be measurable, key mechanisms and actions should be defined for each identified objective with defined targets and ways of assessing achievement through indicators.

The logical framework approach as part of goal oriented planning is a highly effective tool for defining objectives and performance indicators related to climate change adaptation. The aim is undertake participatory, objectives-oriented planning at project or policy level. To define climate related objectives, the first step is to understand the key problems at hand. Starting from a problem analysis – data collected during Task 3 on defining the baseline can serve as a basis – objectives are set and management decisions are developed (this part will be discussed in more detail under Step 4, Task 2). The problem analysis analyses the existing situation and identifies the major problems (e.g. loss of coastline due to sea-level rise affects tourism and other economic activities); such an activity should be done in cooperation with stakeholders (this will discussed in more detail under Step 3). It is important to consider climate change and future potential problems at this stage. Problems should be visualized, highlighting their cause-effect relationships through the problem tree approach to help identify the core problems. In a next step, these identified causes be fixed’ be converting them into positive achievements or objectives.

Box 9 Example of a Problem tree for climate change problems in coastal areas

Once climate related objectives have been defined, key mechanisms or management options to achieve the vision and defined objectives, as well as responsible stakeholders, should be identified. Timescales to achieve a given objective should be set, categorizing objectives into short term, medium term and long-term goals. 44

Box 10 of climate change adaptation objectives in an ICM/MSP

[Geben Sie ein Zitat aus dem Dokument oder die Zusammenfassung eines interessanten Punktes ein. Sie können das Textfeld an einer beliebigen Stelle im Dokument positionieren. Verwenden Sie die Registerkarte 'Textfeldtools', wenn Sie das Format des Textfelds 'Textzitat' ändern möchten.]

2.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised? Management Team

Scientists

2.4 Where can I find more information? Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (1991): Methods and Instruments for

Project Planning and Implementation. Eschborn: Germany.

3 Step 3: Stakeholder involvementÜ Task 1: Identify Relevant Stakeholders – to understand which actors to involve

Ü Task 2: Carry out stakeholder consultations – to include stakeholder viewpoints at each planning stage

3.1 What is this step about?Coastal and marine areas are home to a multitude of economic interests/sectors and biodiversity. Meaningful stakeholder consultation at key stages in planning, address all needs of the coastal and marine environment, economic and environmental under a changing climate, improves the transparency of the process and acceptance of the product.

Effective consultation builds relationships to achieve planning objectives. In the context of climate change adaptation, new stakeholders may need to be brought into the process if they have not been involved before.

44 Department of Environment (2006): An Integrated Coastal Zone Management Strategy for Northern Ireland 2006-2026.

3.2 How to achieve this step?3.2.1 Task 1: Identify stakeholders

To fully identify the relevant stakeholders (or actors), a so called “stakeholder-analysis” or “stakeholder-issue mapping”45 can be performed - this reduces the risk of forgetting an important actor. Such an analysis highlights the inter-relationships and potential conflicts among stakeholders and their interests and communicates to the stakeholders the needs and interests of all interested parties46.

Once the stakeholder analysis has been carried out, check the result:

Did we check all the steps of the process?

Did we identify the people most affected by climate change?

Have we identified all future stakeholders in light of future climate change?

Have we identified all the inter-linkages between stakeholders?

3.2.2 Task 2: Carry out stakeholder consultations

Stakeholders should be consulted through key steps of integrated coastal management and maritime spatial planning processes (see Figure 1 ICM and MSP planning steps)47.

A helpful tool to facilitate stakeholder engagement is “Imagine”48, a “process which provides tools to describe, assess and examine the level of sustainability of an eco-socio-system in the past, present and future by means of indicators and based on a participatory approach considering local stakeholders as experts within their own areas”. It is a participation-based tool to support decision-making by engaging stakeholders to define management actions towards a more sustainable spatial planning.

45 For more information on the process please contact: Contact: Jean-Paul Vanderlinden (jean-paul.vanderlinden@uvsq.fr)46 Vanderlinden, J-P., Stojanovic, T., Schmuëli, D., Bremer, S., Kostrzewa, C. and McFadden, L. (with others) (2011) The SPICOSA Stakeholder-Policy Mapping Users’ Manual, Spicosa Project Report, Guyancourt: Paris, Université de Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines.47 Adapted from: Pomeroy and Douvere (2008): The engagement of stakeholders in the marine spatial planning process, Marine Policy 32: 816-82248 For more information see: http://planbleu.org/en/outils-et-methodes/methode-imagine and Élisabeth Coudert and Mohamed Larid, «IMAGINE: un ensemble de méthodes et d’outils pour contribuer à la gestion intégrée des zones côtières en Méditerranée», VertigO-la revue électronique en sciences de l’environnement, Volume 7 Numéro 3, December 2006. http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/upload/files/Imagine_VertigoUk.pdf

Box 11 Participation through Climagine to develop a regional ICZM Strategy in Sibenki-Knin, Croatia

Taking the Imagine tool forward, the project „Integrated of climate variability and change into national strategies for the implementation of the ICZM Protocol in the Mediterranean“ incorporated climate change in the participatory process and linked it to the DIVA and RiVAMP models. Three workshops were held involving key representatives from national and local authorities, institutions, scientists, NGOs and local business people.

Workshop 1 focused on identifying the driving forces and pressures of the coastal area, including the effects of climate change, to select priority issues in the coastal area. An inventory of available data was made. Workshop 2 focussed on discussing and selecting environmental, economic and social indicators and filling out a matrix to rank issues and indicators. Scenario assumptions were defined to feed into the DIVA model. The final workshop focused on exploring the future scenarios developed by the models and elaborating recommendations for the ICZM action plan.

Preconditions identified to successfully carry out the process are: Analyse the availability of data, their accessibility and their format in order to feed the

associated model. Experienced facilitator. Target a good local moderator/coordinator and define a motivated

local team made up with 2 or 3 national experts. Full engagement of key stakeholders in all workshops. List of invited participants has to be

highly arranged. Take care to invite all representatives for institutions and people who play a role in the area. On the other hand, maintaining contact between workshops is essential for the success of the workshops; people have to be motivated with mails and calls. They have to feel that their regular attendance is necessary for the success of the whole process.

For more information on the process please contact: Daria Povh Skugor, Senior Programme Officer, United Nations Environment Programme, Mediterranean Action Plan, Priority Actions Programme Regional Activity Centre (PAP/RAC) Split, Croatia.http://www.pap-thecoastcentre.org

Evidence from stakeholder participation processes confirms that engaging stakeholders can increase, among others, understanding of key issues and build trust and improve relationships between different stakeholder groups, the effectiveness of networks between actors as well as promote active management of boundaries. Importantly, participation can result in improved environmental outcomes by encouraging more sustainable behaviour due to increased awareness.

3.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised? Management Team

Relevant Stakeholders

3.4 Where can I find more information? Pegaso FP7 Project wiki on participatory processes for coastal management:

http://www.pegasoproject.eu/wiki/PEGASO_participation_methods

Climagine method: http://planbleu.org/en/activites/littoral/methode-climagine

4 Step 4 Develop the Strategy and/or Plan Ü Task 1: Develop the plan to allocate economic activities – to identify how to zone

different coastal and marine uses

Ü Task 2: Identify and select management options and measures – to achieve the defined objectives

Ü Task 3: Obtain funding – to ensure management options and measures can be carried out

Ü Task 4: Formalize and Approve the strategies and plans – to bring together all the previous steps and summarize into a document and carry out an impact assessment of activities

4.1 What is this step about?The preparation and approval of strategies and plans in coastal and marine areas signifies the final stage of planning. Strategies and plans should be developed to implement the vision and to take forward management decisions based on the information of the previous steps, taking into account stakeholder interests. The Strategy and/or Plan should present an integrated approach to linking the various economic and environmental interests of a coastal or marine area.

4.2 How to achieve this step?4.2.1 Task 1: Develop the plan to encompass economic activities

In order to plan the economic activities and avoid potential conflicts, a plan or spatial map of the coastline or marine area should be developed that plots different uses. To this end, an approach should be agreed that takes into account the characteristics for the area and the limitations to the intended economic uses. There are two types of approaches to designate space to economic activities: zoning and co-location.

Zoning categorizes different areas based on an analysis of their topography (for coastal areas), oceanography (for marine areas), abotic and biotic communities as well as the suitability of an area to certain uses. A case-by-case assessment needs to be carried out on different economic activities to consider whether they are in the most appropriate area or whether their presence causes undue impacts on other activities.

The zoning process comprises two steps49:

1. Collecting and mapping information: Information on national and regional legislation and regulations relevant to economic activities needs to be gathered as well as information on the environmental conditions of the area. Information collected during Step 1, Task 1 on the policy mapping as well as information collected during Step 2, Task 3 on setting the baseline can be used in this step. This information should be mapped using GIS software.

2. Deriving and characterising a zoning scheme: Based on the information collected, areas should be designated areas in terms of whether they are multiple use, exclusive or partial use. Categories can, for example, be: Priority areas: reserved for a specific use and conflicting users are excluded; Reserved areas: certain users are prioritized over others; or Protected areas: e.g. Marine Protected Areas or NATURA 2000 sites where economic activities may be considerably limited.

49 Multiple use zoning in the Irish Sea – reference? Is this what's referred to in the next text box?

Co-location or co-existence refers to the placement of multiple activities or uses within the same marine area50. Co-location takes into account the potential vertical use of an area (addressing activities (a) on the sea bed; (b) in the water column; and (c) on the surface). In seas with especially high use, co-location can alleviate some issues with space as some economic activities can co-locate without any negative effects. Temporal zoning can also be a part of co-location, where one space is used differently throughout the year.

There are a number of tools that can aid administrators develop a co-location method for their maritime space. These include51:

Compatibility matrices: identify the potential compatibility between different economic activities

Interaction tables: identify the types of interaction between economic activities;

Impact assessment tools: quantify interactions between economic activities as well as their impact on the environment;

Appraisal and economic evaluation tools: present information on the relative costs and benefits of ‘co-existence’ and ‘no co-existence’ options.

Whether choosing zoning or co-location, climate change is an important consideration that should be incorporated in the decision-making for locating economic activities and also conservation areas. Climate change will bring new challenges and its impacts could shift uses. Coastal erosion could shift the location of ports or spawning grounds for fish may shift, requiring marine protection areas to be more flexible in the areas they protection. Static planning is no longer an option, and it is necessary to include climate change adaptation to improve ICM and MSP on the long run. A number of options are available to “climate proof” zoning and management decisions in Europe’s seas; see the box below.

Box 12 Options to integrate adaptation to climate change into zoning and co-location52

“Anticipatory zoning”, which is based on observed trends in the ecological response to climate impacts, predicts future management needs. In practical terms, this could mean anticipating the shift in fish species further north and pre-emptively designing fish quotas or closing areas to commercial fishing until more information becomes available. Such an action was taken by the U.S., for example, in the Arctic Ocean near Alaska, where the zoning closed off the area to commercial fishing until sufficient information is available to better plan fishing in the area.

Dynamic Zoning enables zoning plans to be amended more easily using the principles that all ocean zoning is dynamic. For example, marine protection areas could continually shift locations throughout the year to taken into account movements of key specific. Fishermen in Hawaii experience shifting restrictions (based on the movement of a migration pathway linked to sea temperature) where long-line fishing can take place to avoid by-catches of turtles.

4.2.2 Task 2: Identify and select management options and measures

After the previous steps, when future scenarios, vision and aims have been defined through stakeholder participation processes, the question, “How to achieve the aims and implement the vision?” needs to be answered. This leads to the necessity to identify concrete climate change adaptation management interventions or options down to specific sectoral measures.50 MMO (2013) Potential for co-location of activities in marine plan areas. A report produced for the Marine Management Organisation, MO Project No: 1010. ISBN: 978-1-909452-08-451 MMO (forthcoming) Scoping of a Robust Strategic Assessment Tool for Co-existence of Activities in Marine Plan Areas. A report produced for the Marine Management Organisation by ABP Marine Environmental Research Ltd in association with eftec and Ichthys Marine Ecological Consulting Ltd , pp 123. MMO Project No: 1049. ISBN: 000-0-000000-00-0 (This will be added by the MMO).52 Craig, R. (2012): Ocean Governance for the 21st Century: Making Marine Zoning Climate Change Adaptable, Harvard Environmental Law Review 36(2): p.305-350.

The available adaptation management options to consider can largely be attributed to one two groups: providing economic or market-based incentives and non-economic management interventions.

The economic and market-based incentives

These instruments guide stakeholder behaviour through putting an explicit price to activities whose impacts are considered negative or counter-productive to the management aims; or provide financial benefit for those activities that are conductive to the achievement of management aims. They may include pollution charges based on the 'polluter pays' principle, permit and licence fees, taxes and surcharges, user fees, penalties, elimination of distorting subsidies, grants and beneficial subsidies.

Non-economic management options

A range of non-economic management options can be considered in these main four categories:

1. Regulations

Regulations can specify and set limits to human activities, their spatial, temporal extent and technologies used. For example, regulations can define when, where and with what methods it is permitted to fish specific fish species and to which maximum amounts or in another example thy can regulate waste discharge, treatment, recycling and storage limitations and technologies.

2. Technical assistance

Technical assistance management interventions aim to provide guidance, advice and expertise on specific topics that strengthens the individual and institutional capacities. It can take the form of guidance documents, help-desks, consultation points and similar.

3. Public education and information

Managing public behaviours towards more sustainable choices can also be achieved through informing and educating the public. Information campaigns, publications, information events and workshops, competitions rewarding beneficial behaviour, involvement of schools and other educational institutions, NGOs and media are some of the possible activities.

4. Enforcement sanctions

Enforcement sanctions are most often linked to the regulations and include administrative procedures, such as cancelling of licenses or permits, injunctions precluding certain actions, prohibition of participation in public procurement; and fines.

Concrete management measures can then be assigned to each of the abovementioned management options. Further sectoral grouping of the measures is advisable due to the institutional arrangements often being sector-based.

In order to choose a set of the most appropriate management measures for implementation, all eligible ones should be characterized as concretely as possible. The following points guide the comparison of the identified management measures:

- General aim of the management measure- Direct and indirect effects- Spatial scope- Social, economic and ecological context- Interplay between other measures and sectors (e.g. potential conflicts and synergies)- Necessary steps of implementation and maintenance- Responsible actors and supportive actors for implementation of the measure- Financial resources required/costs- Time frame for planning and implementation

Climate change adaptation should be integrated into existing management options or new adaptation specific measures should be developed. To integrate adaptation into measures the following elements should be considered:

How will climate change impact the different types of supported projects and measures?

Which measures ensure the long term sustainability of the various sectors in a context of climate changes?;

Which measures help to increase the resilience of the environment and associated ecosystem service?

Establishing which measures should be supported to deliver the identified climate change adaptation objectives is one of the most important parts of the planning process. It is important to make sure that climate adaptation considerations are taken into account when identifying the measures to be supported. When prioritising measures, it is also important to identify and prioritise specific adaptation actions that fit together with national and regional adaptation strategies.

For several sector policies catalogues of measures have been developed on the EU level, which provide initial characterisation according to the attributes mentioned above. The EU Adaptation portal Climate-ADAPT53 provides a collection of adaptation measures, including those relevant for coastal zones. There you can also find links to other external adaptation measures catalogues.

Additionally a multi‐criteria analysis can prove useful for ranking and selecting preferred options. This analysis should include a set of criteria, such as:

- urgency with respect to already existing issues, conflicts and threats,- early preparatory action (to avoid future damage costs),- range of effect (options covering multiple issues might be favoured),- cost-benefit ratio/cost effectiveness analysis- time-effectiveness,- robustness under a broad range of likely future scenarios, - flexibility for adjustments or reversibility in case of diverging developments,- political and cultural acceptability, and- enhancement of learning and autonomous adaptive capacity, etc.”54

The final agreed set of management options and measures as well as the description of planned institutional arrangements form the basis of the marine and coastal zone management plan.

4.2.3 Step 3 Obtain financial support

ICM and MSP strategies will require financial resources. Beyond national budgets, funding is available from various EU sources as well as alternative funding options, e.g. through user fees, permit fees etc. When considering which funding sources to take forward, consideration should be made on55:

What is the yearly or multi-annual financial budget foreseen to support ICM and MSP activities?

How much revenue is likely to be generated each year by user charges or permit fees (e.g. port fees, fishing licences, admittance to nature/marine conservation parks?

What other sources of funds might be available, either on a long term or a one-time basis?

Possible eligibility criteria related to climate change adaptation when approving financing for projects could be:

53 http://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/web/guest/adaptation-measures54 CCA strategies guidance55 UNESCO IOC (2009): Marine Spatial Planning – A Step-by-Step approach toward Ecosystem-based Management. Available at: http://www.unesco-ioc-marinesp.be/msp_guide

The applicant must demonstrate understanding of the way in which climate change may impact upon the planned activities.

The application should be in line with the national/regional climate change adaptation strategy or national climate change risk assessment (where a strategy is not available).56

4.2.3.1 EU funding options

There are wide range of EU financing instruments that MS and regions can apply for to support ICM and MSP projects.

European Structural and Investment Funds

There are five funds support economic development in the EU with different priority and focus areas:

European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) (http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/thefunds/regional/index_en.cfm)

European Social Fund (ESF) (http://ec.europa.eu/esf/home.jsp?langId=en)

Cohesion Fund (http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/thefunds/cohesion/index_en.cfm)

European Agriculture and Rural Development Fund (EAFRD) (http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/cap-funding/funding-opportunities/index_en.htm)

European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFF) (http://ec.europa.eu/fisheries/reform/emff/index_en.htm)

Member States should reflect climate change adaptation as a priority in their national Partnership Agreements and Operating programmes when applying for funding in coastal and marine areas.

Programme for the Competitiveness of Enterprises and Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (COSME)

With small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) as its main target group, the Competitiveness and Innovation Framework Programme (CIP) supports innovation activities (including eco-innovation), provides better access to finance and delivers business support services in the regions. Its objectives are to: improve access to financing for SMEs in the form of equity and debt; improve access to markets, particularly inside the Union but also at global level; improve the framework conditions for the competitiveness and sustainability of Union enterprises, particularly SMEs, including in the tourism sector; and promote entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial culture. The Commission has committed to mainstream climate action into Union spending programmes and to direct at least 20% of the Union budget to climate-related objectives. The 2014-2020 work programme includes the emphasis on enterprises adapting to a low-carbon, climate-resilient, energy and resource efficient economy.

Horizon 2020

Horizon 2020 is a research fund that focuses on three priorities: 1) Strengthening the science base in Europe, 2) fostering industrial leadership to support business, including micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and innovation, and 3) tackling societal challenges to address the challenges identified in the Europe 2020 strategy.

Each year, research institutions, local administrations and businesses can partner up to apply to undertake research projects focussing on of the three themes. Work programmes are published for different topics, including marine and maritime research as well as climate action.

Box 13 Examples of DG Research projects

56 EMFF and adaptation document

The EU research project "Bottom-Up Climate Adaptation Strategies for a Sustainable Europe" (BASE) supports action for sustainable climate change adaptation in Europe. BASE makes experiential and scientific information on adaptation meaningful, transferable and easily accessible to decision-makers at all levels. Case studies are being carried including in coastal zones. http://base-adaptation.eu/

LIFE+ funds – life funds for climate change adaptation

Under the new LIFE+, sub-programmes will change and now be split between Environment and Climate Action. Allocating specific funds for Climate Action is a new feature of 2014-2020 LIFE+.

LIFE+ covers both the operational expenditure of DG Environment and the co-financing of projects. Five main categories of activities are proposed for co-financing under this instrument:

Knowledge sharing - building capacity through sharing good or best practice solutions;

Collaborative action - building capacity through working together;

Pilot projects to test and demonstrate solutions - policy, technology, technical and financial;

Studies to support policy development and implementation; and

Communication and awareness-raising.

LIFE+ provides financial support through action grants with most projects funded at the rate of around 50%. It also includes operating grants for NGOs that are ‘primarily active in protecting and enhancing the environment at European level and involved in the development and implementation of Community policy and legislation’. For these organisations, the EU Budget contribution varies from 15% to 70%.

Box 14 Example of previous LIFE+ project addressing climate change in coastal and marine areas

The RESPONSE project (LIFE03 ENV/UK/000611) developed a regional-scale mapping method to assess current and future risks along the coast in the UK, Italy and France. The methodology should how local stretches of coast could be categorised into “Coastal Behaviour System”, focussing on behaviour, sensitivity the climate change as well as risks and consequences. Risk maps were produced to assist local administrations and other sectors in decision-making related to shoreline management.

The VACCIA project (LIFE07ENV/FIN/000141) in Finland analysed the vulnerability and adaptability of nine ecosystems, including coastal areas, to climate change.

4.2.3.2 Identify alternative funding sources

In addition to EU funding, alternative funding sources may also be available for ICM and MSP projects through national, regional or local authorities as well as private initiatives. Decentralising funds to regional or local authorities as well as private actors can help to ensure buy in into the ICM MSP process and support its long-term success.

National funding initiatives come from national ministries or departments, such as those focusing on research or the environment, as well as other established bodies. For example:

In Germany the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) supports projects and ideas in research through targeted funding programmes. BMBF funding is generally based on research fields, and the goals of funding are stipulated by research programmes. There is also a series of crosscutting, interdisciplinary measures.

In the Netherlands, the Wadden Fund has funded efforts in regard to ICM MSP. Most notably, the Wadden Academy works to identify and fill knowledge gaps concerning geoscience, ecology, society, cultural history, social and spatial economics, climate and water.57

Regional funding examples also exist:

In the Azores Islands of Portugal the project Coastal Zone Management Plans for islands was funded by the Regional Government. The project aimed to develop and implement Coastal Zone Management Plans to four islands and promote a decision support methodology with the involvement of the local communities, while integrating ecological and socio-economic aspects.58

Local funding sources for ICM and MSP are also in place and are often combined with regional or national funding sources.

In the UK the management of two designated areas, the Northumberland Coast Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) and the Berwickshire and North Northumberland Coast European Marine Site (EMS), has been brought together to facilitate funding. Previously these two adjacent areas were managed separately; however increased awareness of the importance of managing land and sea in a consistent and integrated way led to this initiative, which is believed to be the first of its kind in the UK. The AONB and EMS benefit from funding from UK and Scottish Government agencies, as well as local government funding, for core team support and an operational programme, according to a Memorandum of Agreement.59

In addition to funding from government institutions, other types of funding also exist. A review of ICM and MSP literature provides very few examples of market based methods to finance projects. In the future, such methods are likely to become more important to allow ICM and MSP projects funding from multiple sources, expanding beyond government financing. Several general forms of private financing for ICM and MSP funding were identified (Cummins et al 200360, citing Thia-Eng et al 2003).

Public private sector partnerships are cooperative ventures between local governments and the private sector.

Revolving funds involves a type of ‘pay-back’ mechanism and is often used in projects to improve the environment. This type of funding can increase the responsibility of the participants at the national or sub-national level and help to ensure the sustainable use of funds. Such types of funding are commonly used in Asia.

Private sector funds are those which include co-financing from coastal users, in an effort to increase responsibility and cost-effectiveness.

57 European Commission (2014) OURCOAST, The Wadden Academy, managing multi-disciplinary knowledge of the Wadden Sea on a national scale – NL http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/index.cfm?menuID=7&articleID=138 accessed 24.03.2014

58 European Commission (2014) OURCOAST, Coastal Zone Management Plans for islands Azores, PT. http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/index.cfm?menuID=7&articleID=126 accessed 24.03.2014.

59 European Commission (2014) OURCOAST, The joint management of an area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and a trans-boundary European Site - UK http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/index.cfm?menuID=9&articleID=69 accessed 24.03.02014

60 Cummins, V., Mahony, O., and N. Connolly (2003) Review of Integrated Coastal Zone Management and Principals of Best Practice, The Heritage Council

http://www.heritagecouncil.ie/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/Marine/coastal_zone_review.pdf accessed 24 March 2014

An investment fund is capital for ICM MSP projects generated through investment funds.

4.2.4 Task 4: Formalize and approve the strategies and plans

The final product in coastal management and maritime spatial planning is a strategy or plan..

Following the formalization of the strategies and plans, an environmental impact assessment or strategic environmental assessment (SEA) should be carried in line with the EU Directives 61. Guidance is available from the European Commission (see for example: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/pdf/030923_sea_guidance.pdf) to help MS fully understand the obligations in the directive. The SEA process should be viewed as an opportunity to address climate change within the plan and evaluate management options and measures against each other. This step will help to ‘climate proof’ the coastal strategies or maritime plans.

Box 15 Integrating climate change into Strategic Environmental Assessments62

Tools and approaches that can be used to support the SEA of a strategy or plan as regarding adaptation to climate change include:

Critical Factors for decision-making: identify aspects regarding the design and implementation of the strategy or plan and provide the structure to analysis and assess the opportunities and risks across the SEA. For more information refer to:

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): is a tool that seeks to consider all environmental impacts of participation actions over their lifetime. It can include a full assessment of all impacts in detail quantitatively or it can be done qualitatively as well. LCA is useful for providing a way to think about strategic options, rather than help to concretely select them.

Network analysis: a method to analyse complex systems by linking causes and impacts via a chain of causation. Can be used to determine the probable impacts and benefits on climate change of various elements of the strategy or plan. It is dependent on expert knowledge and judgment to link drivers and impacts.

Risk management: when taking climate change into account one should frame the potential impacts according to probability and magnitude of impacts to better understand vulnerability.

Vulnerability assessment: a process of identifying, quantifying and ranking vulnerabilities in a system including cataloguing assessing, assigning value and identifying threats. Helpful when taking a resilience approach to climate change and to evaluation alternative management options. For more information visit: http://www.theclimatechangeclearinghouse.org/Resources/TechBrief/default.aspx

The draft strategies and plans should be made publically available for comments and stakeholder meetings should be held to discuss the document and its implications on the various sectors (see Step 3 for more information stakeholder participation options) before the strategies and plan are formally approved.

4.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised in this step? Management Team

External consultants for SEA

61 EC Directive 2001/42/EC on the Assessment of the Effects of Certain Plans and Programmes on the Environment requires an environmental assessment for certain plans and programs at various levels (national, regional and local) that are likely to have significant effects on the environment.62 European Commission (2013): Guidance on Integrating Climate Change and Biodiversity into Strategic Environmental Assessment. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/pdf/SEA%20Guidance.pdf

4.4 Where do I find additional information? do Rosário Partidário, Maria (2007): Strategic Environmental Assessment Good Practices

Guide. Methodological Guidance. Portuguese Environment Agency. http://www.sea-info.net/files/events/SEA_guide_Portugal.pdf

For LCA: http://www.dantes.info/ToolsMethods/Software/enviro_soft_SW.hmtl.

For Risk Management: http://www.iaia.org/iaiawiki/ra.ashx

For Vulnerability Assessment: http://www.theclimatechangeclearinghouse.org/Resources/TechBrief/default.aspx

5 Step 5 Implement and enforce Ü Task 1: Implement the strategy or plan – carry out the intended management options

and measures

Ü Task 2: Ensure compliance –

Ü Task 3: Enforce the strategy or plan –

5.1 What is the step about?Environmental enforcement is nothing new to authorities: they have been using a range of laws to tackle environmental blight for many years. However, from time to time new pieces of legislation are brought forward, new laws are made and new powers are given to authorities and others. In such cases often new ways of implementation and changes in the enforcement procedures are needed.

The focus on this chapter will be on implementation (carrying out activities and measures) rather than enforcement (ensuring the activities and measures are being carried out). Enforcement will be touched upon but it is a topic for future work.

5.2 How to achieve this step?5.2.1 Task 1: Implementing the strategies and plans

Once the strategies and plans are formally approved by government institutions, implementation can start, i.e. the zoning plan and the spatial and temporal measures identified.

ICM/MSP and adaptation should not be performed decoupled from existing policies (e.g.the WFD, the MSFD and the Floods Directive), management structures (e.g. networks) and processes (e.g. in decision making). .

Important steps for implementation are:

Appoint roles and responsibilities (including the private sector) for implementing your policy´s objectives and concrete measures.

Agree with all relevant stakeholders responsible for implementation on the timetable for action including a timeframe for revision.

Allocate sufficient budget to secure resources needed for implementation.

There are a number of ways in which implementing bodies can support the implementation process and the delivery on adaptation. These include providing support, guidance and assistance to local administrations and private stakeholders via:

Technical Resources: These can aim at general awareness-raising or specific technical information. National studies, adaptation strategies and other resources on impacts, adaptation options and their implementation are useful. This information is readily available on the Climate ADAPT website but they can also be provided through a national level website;

Training: Training sessions, bringing together stakeholders, can improve awareness raising for climate change adaptation and also build technical capacity.

Good practices: Provide examples of good practices in integrating climate change adaptation.63

5.2.2 Task 2: Ensuring compliance with the strategies and plans

In the context of coastal management, plans identify the purposes and conditions of use, entry and management of an area. Compliance will require all responsible single-sector management institutions not only to implement these plans while carrying out their own responsibilities, but also to generate their own plans and programmes in accordance with the spatial management plan.

Such compliance points might establish precise conditions relating to a particular activity or area or define broad conditions for a wide range of areas and activities. The activities may be conducted in accordance with specific plans under many laws provided those plans are consistent with the overarching regulatory provisions. “Compliance points” might be specified, such as:

allowed as of right any person may undertake that activity allowed subject to conditions generally defined in the plan or related regulations including

compliance with requirements under other legislation any person who meets the conditions may undertake the activity allowed subject to a specific permission with conditions to ensure compatibility with the

objectives for the relevant area (for example, taking limited numbers of fish, or fish of only a specific size)

a person must be covered by and abide by the conditions of a permit not allowed no one may undertake the activity although there may be carefully specified exceptions

relating to safety of life and property, management and monitoring.

These “compliance points” might be further elaborated and specified in technical documents which help planners, authorities and stakeholder to better understand the matter and to give them direction.

5.2.3 Task 3: Enforcing the strategies and plans

Enforcement refers to the set of actions that governments take to achieve compliance with regulations involving human activities in order to correct or halt situations that endanger the environment or the public.

An increased active involvement of the parties in implementing the ICM/MSP plan should enhance sustainability and lead to a more effective compliance with regulations.. AN ICM/MSP strategy or plan can consider the inclusion of non-compliance provisions, but with a view to assisting parties having compliance problems and addressing individual cases of non-compliance. This means that it is important to tailor compliance provisions and mechanisms to particular circumstances. The following considerations could be considered:

63 EMFF and adaptation document

The establishment of a body, such as a compliance committee, to address compliance issues. Members of such a body could be representatives from the different authorities concerned or -nominated experts, with appropriate expertise on the relevant subject matter;

Agencies must maintain a strong, credible threat of enforcement. Strong enforcement motivates many regulated parties to strengthen their internal regulatory systems and promotes voluntary compliance by assuring firms that voluntarily comply that other firms cannot gain a competitive advantage by not complying with applicable laws and regulations.

Non-compliance mechanisms could be used to provide a vehicle to identify possible situations of non-compliance at an early stage and the causes of non- compliance, and to formulate appropriate responses including, addressing and/or correcting the state of non-compliance without delay. These responses can be adjusted to meet varying requirements of cases of non-compliance, and may include both facilitative and stronger measures as appropriate and consistent with applicable law;

To encourage regulated entities to develop voluntary compliance programs, firms that conduct audits or carry out other self-policing efforts should be rewarded with benefits like less frequent inspections or lower fines. But these self-policing systems should supplement, not replace, traditional enforcement activities.

5.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised in this step? Management Team

Stakeholders

5.4 Where do I find additional information

6 Step 6 Monitor and Evaluate performanceÜ Task 1: Develop the performance monitoring programme – to allow the strategy or

plan to be evaluated

Ü Task 2: Evaluate the accuracy of monitoring data –

Ü Task 3: Report results of the performance evaluation –

6.1 What is the step about?There are often many potential causes for changes in the planning process over time. Monitoring, including spatial and temporal monitoring, plays a key role in the evaluation of the effectiveness of measures taken. A comprehensive and effective coastal and marine monitoring programme must work on setting the enabling conditions, for example through adequate policies, strategies, orders or laws, to facilitate progress and enhance the monitoring of changes in institutional and individual behaviour as well as the results achieved.

Ideally, the monitoring and evaluation of spatial and temporal management measures to improve planning and decision-making follows a compliance cycle, see Figure 2.

Figure 2 Example for a compliance cycle showing the main elements of the repetitive process of monitoring and reporting 64

Monitoring should follow a strict sequence of repetitive scientific investigations, and its results should be verified. To evaluate the effectiveness of an ICM/MSP plan, a range of ecological, socio-economic and institutional indicators need to be developed and monitored.65 As a starting point, work can build upon the work on indicators elaborated by the European Environment Agency.66 Additionally, some relevant indicators have been developed by Member States for their implementation of the MSFD, and could be used within the planning process.67 The evaluation of the strategies and plans and the extent to which they incorporate climate change adaptation should take place during multiple phases of the overall process of implementation. Interim evaluations should focus on assessing progress in terms of the agreed upon objectives, and anticipating the impacts that implementation of projects and measures may entail.

More specifically, keeping in mind the overall desired outcomes, the evaluation processes should consider the following questions68:

Have the collectively agreed upon adaptation objectives been achieved? If not, what are the reasons for the current outcomes falling short of the objectives? What barriers or constraints

64 Source: changed according to the Monitoring and Reporting Regulation (MRR) Guidance document No. 1, Version of 16 July 2012.65 Douvere, F., and C. N. Ehler (2010). The Importance of Monitoring and Evaluation in Adaptive Maritime Spatial Planning. Journal of Coastal Conservation 14(1). 66 For the most recent EEA report on environmental indicators, see: EEA, (2013): Environmental Indicator Report 2013: Natural resources and human well-being in a green economy. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Available at: http://www.eea.europa.eu//publications/environmental-indicator-report-2013 ; For general environmental indicators related to coasts and seas, see: http://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/#c5=coast_sea&c7=all&c0=10&b_start=0 67 For the specific indicators and targets that Member States have developed so far, see: http://rod.eionet.europa.eu/obligations/608 68 PLANCOAST (2008): Handbook on Integrated Maritime Spatial Planning. Experience, Tools & Instruments, Case Studies. S.Pro sustainable projects: Berlin. Available at: http://www.plancoast.eu/files/handbook_web.pdf

have contributed to the current outcomes (e.g. technical, financial, human issues)? In particular, have the desired outcomes and benefits identified by all stakeholder been achieved (or are on track to be achieved)?

Is the plan still appropriate or have the underlying circumstances changed since earlier in the process? Specifically, are there new driving forces external to the plan, or have new trends in climate change emerged?

Do the climate change adaptation objectives of the strategy or plan need to be adapted, as a result of new information or changing priorities?

6.2 How to achieve this step?6.2.1 Task 1: Develop the performance monitoring programme

Monitoring activities should cover two aspects: 1) climate change adaptation activities and sectors relevant for the coastal and/or marine region should be observed and 2) climate related objectives (as defined in under Step 2, Task 4) should be measured to ensure targets are met. Indicators to measure these two aspects need to, therefore, be selected. Box 16 provides some suggestions on climate change activities in coastal and marine areas could be monitored.

Box 16 Examples for indicators to monitor different activities69

69 Changed according to Plan Bothnia, 2012

ISSUE INDICATOR proposals (examples)

Fishing activities: 1. Changes in spatial distribution of fisheries

2. Changes in fisheries catch

3. Status of fish stocks

4. Levels of participation in recreational angling?

Wind power: 1. Status of wind projects

2. Emerging new projects related to changing policies

3. Development of related infrastructure?

Nature protection: 1. Conservation status within existing protected area designation

2. Shift in potential new designations due to CC

3. De-designations required due to change in status of features caused by climate change?

Shipping: 1. Changes in spatial distribution of shipping

2. Alien species introductions

New uses: 1. Spatial distribution of new uses

Maritime related economy 1. Increase of regional jobs/GDP creation

in the region 2. Increase/Decrease in tourism activities due to CC

In order to develop a performance monitoring programme (i.e. analysing the achievement of objectives), a limited number of key performance indicators related to climate change should be identified collectively with relevant stakeholders through participatory processes. These should consist of ‘headline indicators’ and ‘specific indicators’. The headline indicators should be those capable of communicating trends to a non-technical audience with regards to sustainability, impact and performance.

In light climate change impacts already being experienced or expected in coastal and marine areas, indicators should also be defined that link objectives of the strategy/plan with future potential change.

Table 5 Indicators to monitor climate change under ICM70

Climate related indicators for selected years

70 Source: http://www.vliz.be/wiki/CC_ICZM_Process/Analysis_and_Future

Pop. flood risk

Pop. at heat-wave risk

Property at risk

Water balance

Ecosystems under stress

Tourist Visitor #’s

Broad Indicators

Sub Objectives

A Healthy and Productive Economy

Maximising economic development

x x x x

Increase employment x

Foster diversification x

A Healthy and Productive Environment

Minimize habitat destruction

x x

Reduce volume of all pollutions x x

Public Health and Safety

Protect human life and public and private property

x x x

Social Cohesion

Maintain a sense of equity and social justice

For indicators where long term monitoring and data collection is in place, this information can be used as the basis for determining the most accurate baselines. In other cases, it will be necessary to undertake new monitoring programs to establish these baselines.

In a next step outcome targets will be selected. This refers back to the selected objectives and indicators and should be ideally developed jointly with the involved stakeholders.

6.2.2 Task 2: Evaluate the accuracy of monitoring data

In general, data should be comparable and reliable to avoid gaps due to a lack of statistically based monitoring. Dispersed information collected with different practices depending on the reporting organization or authority causes severe problems for comparability. Training should be provided for those who are gathering information (e.g. by municipalities or NGOs).

6.2.3 Task 3: Report results of the performance evaluation

Establishing a national reporting system is a key step of implementing ICM and MSP and its instruments in the context of climate change. National or regional reports provide the means to assess progress towards these in a given country, including the effectiveness of measures taken on a number of objectives, including:

activities conducted, factors limiting action details of involvement of private sector or authorities.

This information in turn provides the basis for setting priorities for future action. Reporting and implementation should be aligned and coordinated by the responsible authority in a MS. Reports could also be conducted and coordinated for macro-regions, allying for example with initiatives on climate change adaptation on this level like for the Baltic Sea region.71 Furthermore, they can be linked to regional adaptation strategies (see Part A, 2.4).

Not only does reporting facilitate self-reflection regarding national experiences and efforts to implement ICZM and its instruments, it also serves as a means of sharing information relating to

71 See e.g., BALTADAPT, a strategy and action plan for climate change adaptation in the Baltic Sea region, http://www.baltadapt.eu/

coastal protection, including best practices, challenges and appropriate solutions. National Reports can provide material to increase awareness of national activities, help mainstream ICZM across sectors and encourage further investments in the national implementation. Finally, academia, scientists and students can utilise the reports as a valuable source of information and to guide research tasks (e.g. based on a country’s identified gaps).

6.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised in this step? Competent authorities on national, regional and local level

Scientific research institutes

Universities

Industrial sectors like aquaculture, renewable, mining

NGOs as they often collect relevant data on specific topics

The public

6.4 Where do I find additional information?Research projects:

MareNostrum Project (bridging the legal-institutional gap in Mediterranean coastline management): http://marenostrumproject.eu/

OURCOAST: The European Portal for ICZM: http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/index.cfm?menuID=3

PlanCoast Project (integrated planning in coastal zones and maritime areas in the Baltic, Adriatic and Black Sea regions): http://www.plancoast.eu/

PEGASO Project (People for Ecosystem-based Governance in Assessing Sustainable development of Ocean and coast): http://www.pegasoproject.eu/project-overview

PEGASO ICZM Process Wiki: http://www.pegasoproject.eu/wiki/ICZM_Process_diagram

Sustainable Coastal Development, ICZM Assistant (SUSCOD): http://www.suscod.eu/Pages/Home/Home.aspx

Further reading:

Day, J. (2008). The Need and Practice of Monitoring, Evaluating and Adapting Marine Planning and Management—Lessons from the Great Barrier Reef. Marine Policy 32(5): 823-831.

Douvere, F., and C. N. Ehler (2010). The Importance of Monitoring and Evaluation in Adaptive Maritime Spatial Planning. Journal of Coastal Conservation 14(1).

7 Step 7 Steps towards a new management cycleÜ Task 1: Reconsider and redesign the coastal and marine management approach – to

allow the strategy or plan to be evaluated

Ü Task 2: Identify the gaps and areas of improvement –

Ü Task 3: Start the next round of coastal and marine planning –

7.1 What is this step about?This step will focus on steps to take following the completion of a first planning cycle, including the evaluation of the strategies, with a focus on the inclusion of climate change adaptation issues. Based on the evaluation and consideration of adaptation concerns, and in the context of evolving policies, strategies and plans would be revisited and revised for the next planning cycle, improving coordination among coastal and maritime activities as well as better taking into account climate change issues.

7.2 How to achieve this step?7.2.1 Task 1: Reconsider and redesign the coastal and marine management approach

The process of reconsidering and redesigning the marine and coastal management programmes or governance structures undertaken as part of ICZM or MSP should take into consideration numerous factors. A key starting point will be the results of monitoring activities and the results of the evaluations undertaken during and after the previous planning cycle. The degree to which objectives were met, the factors impeding or facilitating success and the relevance of the previous plan for the current context (including natural and human processes) will form the basis for revisions. At the same time, the revision process must take advantage of any new scientific knowledge, such as new information regarding biophysical processes, environmental conditions and future climate scenarios. Additionally, new political developments and fresh input from relevant stakeholders must be incorporated. These various factors must be distilled into recommendations for any revisions needed to be made in the subsequent planning cycle.

7.2.2 Task 2: Identify the gaps and areas of improvement

In order to identify key failings in existing plans or strategies, such as gaps in coverage, inefficiencies, continuing conflicts, duplicated efforts or negative externalities, several issues must be considered. A reassessment of the previous plan, for example, should be undertaken, using the results of the monitoring and evaluation to identify potential new spatial and temporal measures. Management adaptation activities should be linked to national and regional climate change adaptation strategies and activities, where they are present. These strategies are a source of relevant research, information and assessments that could provide key information for revisions.

To ensure a sound scientific basis for management activities, the current state of the art for relevant science and research information on climate change should be conducted. Similarly, the validity of the scenarios used in the previous planning cycle should be checked to ensure that they still reflect scientific consensus, and be revised if necessary. Best practice examples and lessons learned should be leveraged, particularly from existing research projects and initiatives on similar strategies and measures, including those relevant to climate adaptation.

Additionally, the revision process should examine information from outside the territorial boundaries of the coastal or marine area being managed. Transboundary cooperation is essential for many coastal and marine activities. Adaptation to climate change is also an important in the transboundary context. Possible future impacts in one sea basin might provide valuable insights on the current situation in

another one, and useful experience in other regions (e.g. on climate change adaptation) with similar environmental, social and economic characteristics may exist. It is important to exchange knowledge and experiences with other regions/RBDs on a regular basis and integrate lessons learned into planning processes.

7.2.3 Task 3: Start the next round of coastal and marine planning

To close the cycle, the coastal and marine planning has to be started into a next round. The challenge for the responsible planners is to coordinate different time horizons of integrated planning approaches. For example, there are differences between the time scales over which changes in the climate and CC impacts are projected: short-term (up to 2020), medium-term (up to 2050) and long-term (up to 2100) periods. By contrast, the time horizon for decisions about spatial planning and/or adaptation measures tends to be orientated towards short term – in particular if there is a focus on local/regional levels.

7.3 Who needs to be involved/mobilised in this step? Competent authorities on national, regional and local level for ICZM and MSP

Spatial planners

Funding authorities

Stakeholders responsible for communication/dissemination

Scientific research institutes

Universities

Industrial sectors like aquaculture, renewable, mining

NGOs

The public

7.4 Where do I find additional information?UNESCO, 2009: Marine Spatial Planning – A step by step approach. Step 10: ‘Adaptation the marine spatial management process’. http://www.belspo.be/belspo/northsea/publ/marine%20spatial%20planning.pdf

BibliographyABPmer (2006): Marine Spatial Planning Pilot. Available at: http://www.abpmer.net/mspp/docs/finals/MSPFinal_report.pdf

Alves, F.L., Sousa, L.P., Almodovar, M., and Phillips, M.R. (2013): Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM): a review of progress in Portuguese implementation, Regional Environmental Change 13: 1031-1042.

Bainbridge JM, Potts T, O'Higgins TG (2011) Rapid Policy Network Mapping: A New Method for Understanding Governance Structures for Implementation of Marine Environmental Policy. PLoS ONE 6(10): e26149. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026149

Coudert, Élisabeth and Larid, Mohamed (2006): «IMAGINE: un ensemble de méthodes et d’outils pour contribuer à la gestion intégrée des zones côtières en Méditerranée», VertigO-la revue électronique en sciences de l’environnement, Volume 7 Numéro 3, December 2006. http://planbleu.org/sites/default/files/upload/files/Imagine_VertigoUk.pdf

Craig, R. (2012): Ocean Governance for the 21st Century: Making Marine Zoning Climate Change Adaptable, Harvard Environmental Law Review 36(2): p.305-350

Cummins, V., Mahony, O., and N. Connolly (2003) Review of Integrated Coastal Zone Management and Principals of Best Practice, The Heritage Council, http://www.heritagecouncil.ie/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/Marine/coastal_zone_review.pdf accessed 24 March 2014

Boyes et al. (2005): Multiple-use Zoning in UK and Manx Waters of the Irish Sea: interpretation of current legislation through the use of GIS-based zoning approaches. Report to Scottish Natural Heritage, English Nature and Countryside Council for Wales.

Convention on Biological Diversity (2012): Ecosystem Approach – Introduction. Convention on Biological Diversity Website. Available online at: https://www.cbd.int/ecosystem/

De Silva, S., and Soto, D. (2009): Climate change and aquaculture: potential impacts, adaptation and mitigation. In: Cochrane, K.; De Young, C.; Soto, D.; Bahri, T. (eds). Climate change implications for fisheries and aquaculture: overview of current scientific knowledge. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 530. Rome, FAO, p.151-212.

Douvere, F., and C. N. Ehler (2010). The Importance of Monitoring and Evaluation in Adaptive Maritime Spatial Planning. Journal of Coastal Conservation 14(1).

Department of Environment (2006): An Integrated Coastal Zone Management Strategy for Northern Ireland 2006-2026

EEA (2012): Climate change, impacts and vulnerability in Europe 2012. An indicator-based report.

EEA (2008): Impacts of Europe’s changing climate – 2008 indicator-based assessment.

European Commission (2001): Directive 2001/42/EC on the Assessment of the Effects of Certain Plans and Programmes on the Environment requires an environmental assessment for certain plans and programs at various levels (national, regional and local) that are likely to have significant effects on the environment.

European Commission (2002): Council Recommendation concerning the implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management in Europe. 2002/413/EC.

European Commission (2008): COMMUNICATION FROM THE COMMISSION: Roadmap for Maritime Spatial Planning: Achieving Common Principles in the EU. COM(2008) 791 final.

European Commission (2010): Maritime Spatial Planning in the EU – Achievements and Future Development. COM(2010) 771 final

European Commission (2011): Public Consultation “Possible way forward for Maritime Spatial Planning and Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the EU”.

European Commission (2012): LIFE and coastal management. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life/publications/lifepublications/lifefocus/documents/coastal.pdf

European Commission (2013): Guidance on Integrating Climate Change and Biodiversity into Strategic Environmental Assessment. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eia/pdf/SEA%20Guidance.pdf

European Commission (2013): Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for maritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management. COM(2013) 133 final

European Commission (2013): Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. An EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change. COM (2013) 216 final. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2013:0216:FIN:EN:PDF.European Commission (2013): Commission Staff Working Document. Guidelines on developing adaptation strategies. Accompanying the document Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committe of the regions. An EU Strategy on adaptation to climate change {COM (2013) 216 final}.

European Commission (2014): The Commission's demonstration programme on Integrated Coastal Zone Management 1996 – 1999. European Commission, Directorate General for Environment website. Available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/iczm/demopgm.htm

European Commission (2014) OURCOAST, Geo- Information System for the coastal zone of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern - DE http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/index.cfm?menuID=7&articleID=194 accessed d24.03.2014.

European Commission (2014) OURCOAST, The Wadden Academy, managing multi-disciplinary knowledge of the Wadden Sea on a national scale – NL http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/index.cfm?menuID=7&articleID=138 accessed 24.03.2014

European Commission (2014) OURCOAST, Coastal Zone Management Plans fo r islands Azores, PT. http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/index.cfm?menuID=7&articleID=126 accessed 24.03.2014.

European Commission (2014) OURCOAST, The joint management of an area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and a trans-boundary European Site - UK http://ec.europa.eu/ourcoast/index.cfm?menuID=9&articleID=69 accessed 24.03.02014

Feely, R.A., S.C. Doney, and S.R. Cooley. 2009. Ocean acidification: Present conditions and future changes in a high-CO2 world. Oceanography 22(4):36–47.

German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (2014) Research Funding http://www.bmbf.de/en/1398.php accessed 24.03.2014.

Harris and Tyrel, 2001; Stachowicz, et al., 2002, Frank et al, 2005 in Occhipinti-Amrogi, A. (2007): Global change and marine communities: Alien species and climate change. Marne Pollution Bulletin 55, p.342-352.

Lavalle, C., R, Rocha Gomes, C., Baranzelli, C., and Batista e Silva, F. (2011): Coastal Zones: Policy alternatives impacts on European Coastal Zones 2000-2050. JRC: Italy.

Markus, T., Schlacke, S., & Maier, N. (2011) Legal Implementation of Integrated Ocean Policies: The EU‘s Marine Strategy Framework Directive. The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, 26, pp. 61-62; Juda, Lawrence (2007): The European Union and ocean use management: the marine strategy and the maritime policy. Ocean Development & International Law, 38, No 3, p. 261. Douvere, D. (2008): The importance of marine spatial planning in advancing ecosystem-based sea use management. Marine Policy. Vol 32, 5, pp. 762-771.

Milieu (2014): Summary fiches of Member State policies.

MMO (2013) Potential for co-location of activities in marine plan areas. A report produced for the Marine Management Organisation, MO Project No: 1010. ISBN: 978-1-909452-08-4

MMO (forthcoming) Scoping of a Robust Strategic Assessment Tool for Co-existence of Activities in Marine Plan Areas. A report produced for the Marine Management Organisation by ABP Marine Environmental Research Ltd in association with eftec and Ichthys Marine Ecological Consulting Ltd , pp 123. MMO Project No: 1049. ISBN: 000-0-000000-00-0 (This will be added by the MMO).

MMO (2013) Potential for co-location of activities in marine plan areas. A report produced for the Marine Management Organisation, MO Project No: 1010. ISBN: 978-1-909452-08-4

Nemry, F., and Demirel, H. (2012): Impacts of Climate Change: A focus on road and rail transport infrastructures. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

OSPAR (2010): Quality Status Report 2010. OSPAR Commission. London.; http://www.ospar.org/.

PLANCOAST (2008): Handbook on Integrated Maritime Spatial Planning. Experience, Tools & Instruments, Case Studies. S.Pro sustainable projects: Berlin. Available at: http://www.plancoast.eu/files/handbook_web.pdf

Pomeroy and Douvere (2008): The engagement of stakeholders in the marine spatial planning process, Marine Policy 32: 816-822

Protocol on Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the Mediterranean. Official Journal of the European Union 4.2.2009. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:22009A0204%2801%29&from=EN

Prutsch A., Grothmann T., Schauser I., Otto S., McCallum S. (2010) Guiding principles for adaptation to climate change in Europe. ETC/ACC Technical Paper 2010/6

Rupprecht Consult (2006): Evaluation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) in Europe. Final Report.

Sabine. C.S., R. A. Feely, N. Gruber, R. M. Key, K. Lee, J. L. Bullister, R. Wanninkhof, C. S. Wong, D. W. R. Wallace, B. Tillbrook, F. J. Millero, T.-H. Peng, A. Kozyr, T. Ono, and A. F. Rios, The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2, Science, 305, 367-371.

SHAPE (2013): Proposals for upgrading the existing governance structure for ICZM (Article 7) Region of Istria, Croatia. http://shape.ervet.it/download/listbox/WP3%20action%203.4/Region%20of%20Istria%20-%20governance%20structure.pdf

Somolon S., Qin D., Manning M., Marquis M., Averyt K., Tignor M., Le Roy Milller H., Chen Z., (2007): Climate change 2007. The physical basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 996.Marzeion, B., Jarosch, A.H., and Hofer, M. (2012): Past and future sea-level change from the surface mass balance of glaciers. The Cryosphere, 6, 1295-1322.

Stroeve, J., Holland, M., Meier, W., Scambos, T., Serreze, M. (2007): Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast, Geophyscial Research Letters, 34.

Suárez de Vivero and Rodríguez Mateos, (2012): The Spanish approach to marine spatial planning. Marine Strategy Framework Directive vs. EU Integrated Maritime Policy. Marine Policy, Volume 36, Issue 1, January 2012, Pages 18–27.

UNESCO IOC (2009): Marine Spatial Planning – A Step-by-Step Approach toward Ecosystem-based Management. Available at: http://www.unesco-ioc-marinesp.be/msp_guide

UNEP/MAP/PAP (2012): ICZM Process Roadmap

Urban, F., and Mitchel, T., (2011): Climate change, disasters and electricity generation. Strengthening Climate Resilience Discussion Paper 8, Institute of Development Studies: Brighton.

Vanderlinden, J-P., Stojanovic, T., Schmuëli, D., Bremer, S., Kostrzewa, C. and McFadden, L. (with others) (2011) The SPICOSA Stakeholder-Policy Mapping Users’ Manual, Spicosa Project Report, Guyancourt: Paris, Université de Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines.

Vellinga, M. & Wood, R.A. (2006): Impacts of thermohaline circulation shutdown in the twenty-first century. Climatic Change, doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9146-y.

Walther, G-R.; Roques, A.; Hulme, P.; Sykes, M.; Pyšek, P.; Kühn, I.; Zobel, M.; Bacher, S.; Botta-Dukát, Z.; Bugmann, H.; Czúcz, B.; Dauber, J.; Hickler, T.; Jarošik, V.; Kenis, M.; Klotz, S.; Minchin, D.; Moora, M.; Nentwig, W.; Ott, J., Panov, V.; Reineking, B.; Robineet, C.; Semenchenko, V.; Solarz, W.; Thuiller, W.; Vilá, M.; Vohland, K.; Settele, J. (2009): Alien spicies in a warmer world: risks and opportunities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24(12): 685–691.

Weaver, A. J., J. Sedláček, M. Eby, K. Alexander, E. Crespin, T. Fichefet, G. Philippon-Berthier, F. Joos, M. Kawamiya, K. Matsumoto, M. Steinacher, K. Tachiiri, K. Tokos, M. Yoshimori, and K. Zickfeld (2012), Stability of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation: A model intercomparison, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L20709, doi:10.1029/2012GL053763.

Annex 1 Climate change impacts in Coastal and Marine Areas

7.1 Impacts on the environment7.1.1 Sea level rise

Global sea level has been rising since the late 19th century and over the 20th century this rate was 1.7 ± 0.5 mm/year, with slightly higher rate for the period 1961 to 2003 of 1.8 ± 0.5 mm/year 72. Marzeion, et al. (2012)73, indicate that the world’s glaciers have already lost mass equalling 114 ± 5 mm sea-level equivalent (SLE) between 1902 and 2009. Shepard et al. (2012) confirms the results, finding that the melting of the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets has contributed 11.1 mm to global sea levels since 1992.

More recent studies using statistical models as opposed to physical models have shown that sea-level rise could be more considerable than the previous IPCC AR4 estimates74. Tide gauge and satellite studies show that regional sea level rise can deviate from global projections 75. From 1900-2010, sea level rose around 2mm/year in the North Sea, with the southern-most part experiencing greater change. Similarly, the Baltic Sea has undergone sea level rise of between around 2mm/year and 5mm/year76. On the other hand, parts of the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay show a small decrease in mean sea level. The Mediterranean Sea has experienced both increases and decreases depending on the region in the range of -4mm to +6mm/year. Trends in the Black sea from 1900-2010 point towards an increase between 0 and around 5mm/year77.

The main impacts of sea-level rise are flooding, erosion, loss of eco-systems and freshwater shortage. Moreover, sea-level rise will exacerbate the severity of storm surges. Salt water intrusion, often associated with the overexploitation of groundwater resources, could be exacerbated by sea level rise combined with periods of low river flow. Salt-water intrusion can threaten freshwater supply, which not only impacts the drinking water supply but also water for irrigation purposes, and ecosystems in coastal areas.

7.1.2 Increased sea surface temperature

Increased sea surface temperature (SST), coupled with changes in precipitation, wind and salinity, influence sea ice coverage as well as the diversity and number of marine species78. Increases in SST have been greatest in the seas located in higher latitudes. Over the past 60 years, the extent of Arctic sea ice at the end of summer melt has declined at a rate of -7.8%/decade; the last 20 years have seen a trend of -9.1%/decade79. Current projections80 indicate that summer ice is very likely to continue to

72 Somolon S., Qin D., Manning M., Marquis M., Averyt K., Tignor M., Le Roy Milller H., Chen Z., (2007): Climate change 2007. The physical basis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 996.73 Marzeion, B., Jarosch, A.H., and Hofer, M. (2012): Past and future sea-level change from the surface mass balance of glaciers. The Cryosphere, 6, 1295-1322.74 EEA, 2012.75 EEA, 2012.76 In the Baltic Sea sea level rise trends differ depending on the region. In Stockholm, sea level has been decreasing at a rate of -3.81 to -.32 mm/year during the period 1890-2010. North of Stockholm in the Gulf of Bothnia (covering Sweden and Norway), relative sea level decreased around -2 to over -4mm/year from 1970-2010. South of Stockholm, sea level has remained steady or experienced a -.5 to 1mm/year trend from 1970-2010. In Denmark, Germany, Lithuania and Poland, sea level has been increasing between 1 to over 4mm/year for the period 1970-2010. 77 EEA, 2012.78 EEA (2008): Impacts of Europe’s changing climate – 2008 indicator-based assessment.79 Stroeve, J., Holland, M., Meier, W., Scambos, T., Serreze, M. (2007): Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast, Geophyscial Research Letters, 34.80 Stroeve, et al (2007).

shrink in extent and thickness, although winter sea ice will continue to cover large areas in winter. In this context, an important phenomenon is the ice-albedo feedback loop. Increased melting and cracking of ice and snow cover decreases the overall surface albedo causing more solar energy to be absorbed, which causes even more ice to melt and further lowering of the albedo. Although this is a normal seasonal process that occurs during the summer, the increase in the melting of ice associated with climate change will aggravate this feedback loop: as ice melts earlier in the year due to increased temperatures, more ocean water is exposed. Conversely, as ice forms later in the year due to increased temperatures, the ocean remains exposed longer.

7.1.3 Coastal erosion

So far climate change has not been identified as a major factor in current coastal erosion. However, coastal erosion could increase due to climate change. Potential drivers are sea-level rise, increased storminess, higher waves and changes in prevalent wind and wave directions81. The impact of storm surges on coastal erosion is regionally dependent. Within Europe, the Mediterranean and North seas present the highest risks to erosion. Coastal erosion in Europe causes significant economic loss in the order of at least several tens of millions of Euros per year through property losses and damage to infrastructure and beaches and the required beach nourishment. Furthermore, coastal erosion increases levels of inundation and therefore causes land loss, as well as negatively impacts coastal ecosystems, such as wetlands, and biodiversity. Coastal ecosystems of mangroves, sea grasses and salt marshes support specialized groups of highly adapted species that are specific to their habitats presenting a high diversity of invertebrates, fish and birds in the near shore environments. Many migratory species depend on tidal wetlands for part of their seasonal migrations. Coastal erosion is one of the main drivers for loss of biodiversity and degradation of these coastal ecosystems.

7.1.4 Ocean acidification

The ocean absorbs 48% of the carbon emitted to the atmosphere82. The carbon chemistry of seawater acts as a buffer, enabling the oceans to hold 50 times more CO2 than the atmosphere can. However, CO2 absorption by seawater decreases the pH of oceans, leading to acidification, as well as changes in carbonate ion (CO3

2-) levels. The IPCC estimates a drop in surface water pH from a pre-industrial value of about 8.2 to about 7.8 in the IPCC A2 scenario by the end of this century, increasing the ocean's acidity by about 150% relative to the beginning of the industrial era83. Ocean acidification decreases the saturation state of calcium carbonate, which directly affects the ability of calcium carbonate-secreting organisms to produce their shells or skeletons84. Reductions in these species may also impact the fish that feed on them. Ocean acidification may influence the structure and productivity of planktonic production, which in turn may affect the productivity of fish communities.

7.1.5 Ocean currents

Ocean currents are driven by wind and the thermohaline85 circulation. Ocean currents are important for maintaining sea temperatures, especially in Western Europe which relies on the Gulf Stream to ensure warmer ocean temperatures than the continent’s latitude would normally allow. They are also important for navigation, as shipping companies rely on their knowledge of current to reduce fuel consumption and therefore costs. In light of climate change, researchers86 are concerned that thermohaline circulation could be affected, leading to cooling in the northern European oceans near

81 Marchand, 2010 in EEA, 2012.82 Sabine. C.S., R. A. Feely, N. Gruber, R. M. Key, K. Lee, J. L. Bullister, R. Wanninkhof, C. S. Wong, D. W. R. Wallace, B. Tillbrook, F. J. Millero, T.-H. Peng, A. Kozyr, T. Ono, and A. F. Rios, The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2, Science, 305, 367-371.83 Feely, R.A., S.C. Doney, and S.R. Cooley. 2009. Ocean acidification: Present conditions and future changes in a high-CO2 world. Oceanography 22(4):36–47.84 Feely, et al., 2009.85 There are three main processes that make the oceans circulate: tidal forces, wind stress, and density differences. The density of sea water is controlled by its temperature (thermo) and its salinity (haline), and the circulation driven by density differences is thus called the thermohaline circulation (Osborn and Kleinen, 2008).86 Weaver, A. J., J. Sedláček, M. Eby, K. Alexander, E. Crespin, T. Fichefet, G. Philippon-Berthier, F. Joos, M. Kawamiya, K. Matsumoto, M. Steinacher, K. Tachiiri, K. Tokos, M. Yoshimori, and K. Zickfeld (2012), Stability of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation: A model intercomparison, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L20709, doi:10.1029/2012GL053763.

Scandinavia and the UK and at the same time affecting the process of dense water formation in the Mediterranean87. If the thermohaline circulation is shut down, the Northern Hemisphere could potentially cool by -1.7°C88, which could significantly increase frost and snow cover. It would also lead to: reduction in runoff and water availability in southern Europe; a major increase in snowmelt flooding in western Europe; increased sea-level rise in both western European and Mediterranean coasts; changes in sea temperatures affecting marine and terrestrial ecosystems; and disruption in winter shipping routes. The probability that the thermohaline circulation is significantly affected by climate change is very low, but due the potentially very high impacts of such an event call for more research.

7.1.6 Marine and fish population

Predictions of the consequences of climate change on marine fish populations are complex. Climate change influences the marine ecosystems by altering temperatures, changing wind patterns, changes in the oceanic circulation patterns and altering precipitation rates and thus salinity. These changes can both positively and negatively affect fish populations and their geographical distribution depending on the species, geographical area and distribution. The disturbance on the abundance and variety of plankton also plays a role. Changes in fish population distribution are difficult to pinpoint, as food availability and the ratio between predator-prey also affects a species’ abundance. Depending on the species, the area(s) in which they live may shrink or expand depending on ocean conditions.

7.1.7 Alien species

Sea warming not only affects native aquatic species by limiting and/or expanding their range, it also enables non-native species (alien species) to expand into regions where they previously could not survive89. According to the literature, climate change and invasive species can cause a decline or even collapse of several marine ecosystems90. Some examples of non-native species can be linked to climate change, whereas many more are linked to maritime transport and aquaculture.

7.1.8 Eutrophication

Climate change could indirectly increase eutrophication problems in coastal waters91. Through increased rainfall and its associated flooding, surface run-off from land could increase, thus loading rivers that discharge into coastal areas. While climate change will not directly affect the source of the problem (nutrient loads originating from household discharges and fertiliser use in agriculture), it can indirectly affect the discharge processes and therefore nutrient runoff could increase.

7.2 Impacts on Economic Sectors7.2.1 Fisheries and aquaculture

Climate change impacts on fish species could greatly affect the fisheries and aquaculture sectors in Europe. Precise information is still not available: while some species will increase in population, others will decrease or even die out. The impacts on the income of fisheries are uncertain and will vary depending on the marine region and the species involved. Fluctuations in fish stocks can have serious economic consequences92 but may also have positive effects on the industry depending on the

87 Weaver, et al (2012).88 Vellinga, M. & Wood, R.A. (2006): Impacts of thermohaline circulation shutdown in the twenty-first century. Climatic Change, doi:10.1007/s10584-006-9146-y.89 Walther, G-R.; Roques, A.; Hulme, P.; Sykes, M.; Pyšek, P.; Kühn, I.; Zobel, M.; Bacher, S.; Botta-Dukát, Z.; Bugmann, H.; Czúcz, B.; Dauber, J.; Hickler, T.; Jarošik, V.; Kenis, M.; Klotz, S.; Minchin, D.; Moora, M.; Nentwig, W.; Ott, J., Panov, V.; Reineking, B.; Robineet, C.; Semenchenko, V.; Solarz, W.; Thuiller, W.; Vilá, M.; Vohland, K.; Settele, J. (2009): Alien spicies in a warmer world: risks and opportunities. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24(12): 685–691.90 Harris and Tyrel, 2001; Stachowicz, et al., 2002, Frank et al, 2005 in Occhipinti-Amrogi, A. (2007): Global change and marine communities: Alien species and climate change. Marne Pollution Bulletin 55, p.342-352.91 OSPAR (2010): Quality Status Report 2010. OSPAR Commission. London.; http://www.ospar.org/.92 EEA, 2012

geographic region. A potential concern for existing aquaculture is sea level rise and associated erosion, as this could eliminate sites for aquaculture farms and require relocation93.

7.2.2 Shipping

Seaports play a crucial role in the global economy as transportation hubs for the vast majority of goods transported around the world. Given shipping’s efficiencies and its smaller carbon footprint relative to other modes of transport, as well as forecasted increases in world freight volumes, demands on ports are likely to grow in the coming century. However, the nature of their business locates seaports in one of the most vulnerable areas to climate change impacts: in coastal areas susceptible to sea-level rise and increased storm intensity or at mouths of rivers susceptible to flooding94.

7.2.3 Energy

Energy production, transmission and distribution located in coastal areas may be threatened by climate change induced storm surges, sea-level rise and flooding. With respect to electricity production, climate change can impact the sector through increased disaster risks. Storms, heavy precipitation and sea-level rise could damage power plants and energy transport infrastructure located along the coast, and therefore the siting of future plants must take into account climate scenarios95. Water stress and drought conditions may also affect energy production, as well as high temperatures, which reduce the thermal generation efficiency, decrease power output and negatively impact electricity transmission.

7.2.4 Transportation

Sea level rise and sea storms are likely to increase risks of inundation and erosion of coastal road transport networks. Higher waves and more severe storms could wash away roads and cause major disruptions in the transport of goods and in the mobility of local communities. Moreover, increased inspections and repairs may become necessary due to erosion of transport structures due to inundation and saline intrusion. A one-meter rise in sea level and an average 100-year storm surge could cost €18.5 billion96 due to permanent inundation97.

7.2.5 Agriculture

Agriculture land use in coastal areas may decrease considerably in the future. According to these results of EU Clue Scanner Land use model98 in coastal zones between 2000 and 2050 land use changes could result in decreases in agriculture areas by 20% (EU-wide average) and a stabilization of pasture area in both scenarios, mainly due to the abandonment of arable land and increase in built-up land. Climate change has the potential to increase flooding and inundation of fields, destroying crops or making some parcels unusable. In addition, saltwater intrusion of groundwater aquifers could negatively impact sources for irrigation and therefore crop yield could be indirectly affected if suitable alternatives are not available.

93 De Silva, S., and Soto, D. (2009): Climate change and aquaculture: potential impacts, adaptation and mitigation. In: Cochrane, K.; De Young, C.; Soto, D.; Bahri, T. (eds). Climate change implications for fisheries and aquaculture: overview of current scientific knowledge. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 530. Rome, FAO, p.151-212.94 The issue of adaptation for seaports is further discussed in the CSWD on infrastructure. 95 Urban, F., and Mitchel, T., (2011): Climate change, disasters and electricity generation. Strengthening Climate Resilience Discussion Paper 8, Institute of Development Studies: Brighton.96 The figure was estimated based on the average cost for motorway reconstruction, equalling 6 million€/km.97 Nemry, F., and Demirel, H. (2012): Impacts of Climate Change: A focus on road and rail transport infrastructures. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.98 Lavalle, C., R, Rocha Gomes, C., Baranzelli, C., and Batista e Silva, F. (2011): Coastal Zones: Policy alternatives impacts on European Coastal Zones 2000-2050. JRC: Italy.

Annex 2 Climate change adaptation principles1. Initiate adaptation, ensure commitment and management – initiate adaptation as a joint

stakeholders’ effort backed with a clear commitment from decision-makers and a clear mandate for the management of the process given to an organization or an individual with transparent and agreed upon power and responsibilities.

2. Build knowledge and awareness – climate change and its impacts is a complex issue that requires knowledge transfer, access to understandable and usable information and awareness raising for decision-makers, stakeholders and the larger public.

3. Identify and cooperate with relevant stakeholders - adaptation requires cross‐sectoral coordination and cooperation between different levels of government from local to international to ensure that adaptation actions make use of stakeholder knowledge, avoid or solve conflicts, identify synergies and compromises and have broad.

4. Work with uncertainties - adaptation decisions need to be taken in the light of these uncertainties inherent in climate change projections. Adaptive management or increasing robustness and resilience are examples of decision-making approaches under uncertainties.

5. Explore potential climate change impacts and vulnerabilities and identify priority concerns - direct and indirect impacts of climate change in the short and long term for all regions need to be understood paying attention to key systems and based on both historic climate data and future climate and socio-economic projections that enable vulnerability assessment.

6. Explore a wide spectrum of adaptation options - adaptation options, including behavioural, technological, infrastructural, informational, organizational, ecosystem-based and socio economic‐ at all levels, sectoral as well as cross sectoral, should be investigated and characterized in as much‐ detail as feasible.

7. Prioritise adaptation options - specific adaptation actions need to be selected based on adaptation objectives and criteria and tailored to spatial and temporal circumstances. Often a multi criteria analysis of adaptation options is necessary.‐ Actions that bring out multiple benefits (i.e. achieve multiple objectives) and yield benefits in the absence of climate change (i.e. non-regret).

8. Modify existing policies, structures and processes – existing policies, management structures and processes in place should be reviewed and adapted to be able to deal with current and future negative impacts of climate change backed by staff-training, clear mandates and related budget. In some cases the development of new instruments is required.

9. Avoid maladaptation – avoid implementing actions and processes do not succeed in reducing vulnerability to climate change impacts but instead increase it and/or reduce the capacity to cope with the negative effects of climate change either now or in the medium and long term ‐perspective.

10. Monitor and evaluate systematically - keep the adaptation process focused and responsive to changes in the evidence base by periodic, systematic, transparent and monitoring and evaluation addressing impacts of climate change as well as costs and benefits of adaptation actions.

Annex 3 ICM PrinciplesPrinciple 1: ICM should be undertaken with a broad overall perspective, both in terms of the geographic and thematic issues considered. The interdependence and wide variety of natural systems and human activities impacting coastal regions must be taken into account.

Principle 2: ICM should use a long-term perspective, taking into account the needs of present and future generations. This perspective should make use of the precautionary principle, which states that actions should not be taken if the outcomes are uncertain or potentially detrimental to society or the environment.

Principle 3: ICM should use adaptive management during a gradual, iterative process which will facilitate adjustment as problems and knowledge develop through monitoring of coastal systems. Connected to this is the need for a sound scientific basis for the evolution of the coastal zone.

Principle 4: ICM should take into account the specific needs of local contexts, and be aware of the great diversity of European Coastal Zones. The incorporation of local needs means that policy solutions will be more practical and effective.

Principle 5: ICM should work with natural processes and respect the carrying capacity of ecosystems, to ensure the long-term sustainability and social responsibility of coastal zones.

Principle 6: ICM should involving all the parties concerned with the coastal zone in the management process. These parties can include economic and social partners, organisations representing coastal residents, NGOs and the private sector. Their involvement should take the form of agreements and be based upon shared responsibility.

Principle 7: ICM should promote coordination between different decision making levels by establishing and maintaining links to support and involve the relevant administrative bodies at the national, regional and local levels. Partnerships between regional and local levels should also be undertaken where appropriate. This principle reflects the fact that decisions made at higher levels often procedural and better reflect global, national or regional needs, while local level decisions better reflect local needs and establish local accountability. Involving all levels can also help to address financial, technical and human capacity constraints, such as those experienced by small municipalities.

Principle 8: ICM should use a combination of instruments designed to facilitate coherence between sectoral policy objectives and coherence between planning and policy making

Annex 4 MSP PrinciplesPrinciple 1 - Using MSP according to area and type of activity: The spatial management of marine activities through MSP should reflect the current or planned activity, taking into account factors such as size, density, type of uses and environmental vulnerability. This means that a maritime spatial plan does not need to encompass a whole area (such as the territorial waters of a Member State), but should instead reflect the spatial requirements of the activities in question. In densely used marine areas, a maritime spatial plan may need to be more specific and detailed in guiding the spatial and temporal distribution of activities, while sparsely used areas may only need a plan that provides general guidelines.

Principle 2 - Defining objectives to guide MSP: As MSP concerns current and future activities in a space, detailed objectives are necessary to create a strategic plan for the overall management of a marine space. At the beginning of the MSP process, broad goals may be useful in providing space to negotiate, but ultimately specific objectives must be agreed upon. These objectives are also useful in aiding arbitration during cases of conflicting demands for use of the space.

Principle 3 - Developing MSP in a transparent manner: All documents and processes under MSP must be transparent, and easily understandable to the public. Such transparency aids in the flow of information, improves predictability and enhances acceptance by the relevant stakeholders.

Principle 4 - Stakeholder participation: All relevant stakeholders, including those from coastal regions, should be involved in the MSP process as early as possible. Stakeholder participation increases acceptance, ownership and implementation. It also contributes knowledge that improves the overall effectiveness of a maritime spatial plan. Because stakeholder participation is time consuming, planning timeframes should take this into account.

Principle 5 - Coordination within Member States – simplifying decision processes: Maritime spatial plans need a single or streamlined application process, and cumulative effects should be taken into account. This can be achieved within a Member State through the establishment of a new coordinating administrative body, or the appointment of such a body within existing governance structures. Such a body can help MSP processes by clarifying responsibilities.

Principle 6 - Ensuring the legal effect of national MSP: Though non-binding indicative tools can be used, MSP should also result in legally binding plans, though it need not take the same form as terrestrial land use planning (as MSP occurs over three dimensions, and multiple users can occupy the same space in a complimentary way). It is noted that maritime spatial plans are often most efficiently implemented and enforced in a single Exclusive Economic Zone, if such an arrangement is possible. Additionally, MSP must be applied within the context of international law.

Principle 7 - Cross-border cooperation and consultation: Member States must cooperate across borders to ensure the coherent management of transboundary ecosystems. Developing common processes and standards through cooperation and consultation improves the overall effectiveness of MSP. This kind of cooperation and consultation should occur early in the process, and is supported by identifying the relevant contacts and persons responsible within the countries concerned.

Principle 8 - Incorporating monitoring and evaluation in the planning process: As the marine environment is exposed to continual change, MSP processes must include flexibility to react to new data and revise plans accordingly. As such, indicators should be defined early in the MSP processes, and transparent and regular monitoring and evaluation processes should be a part of MSP.

Principle 9 - Achieving coherence between terrestrial and maritime spatial planning – relation with ICM: Terrestrial planning should be coordinated with MSP because of the interconnected impacts that terrestrial processes can have on marine ones (e.g. eutrophication from runoff). Coastal zones and ICM processes have a key role to play in this regard.

Principle 10 - A strong data and knowledge base: For MSP to be effective, particularly in terms of the ecosystem approach, it requires a sound scientific basis upon which to operate. As stated in Principle

8, MSP needs to be adaptable to new information. Data should be managed at the appropriate level (global, European, national, local), and shared across boundaries.