Unit 3 – PsychologyChapter 1 – Research Methodologies

Variables:

Independent: the variable that is systematically manipulated.

Dependent: the variable which measures the effects of the IV.

Extraneous: a variable that may or may not have an effect on the DV.

Confounding: a variable that had an undesired effect on the DV

Research Designs:

Matched Participants Design: pairing based on similar characteristics, minimising extraneous variables

Repeated Measures Design: one group that is exposed to both the experimental group and the control group. Eliminating extraneous variables

Independent Groups Design: randomly allocating the members of the sample to either the experimental or control group.

Types of Sampling:

Convenience: selection due to availability.

Random: planned and systematic system of selecting participants for study.

Stratified: breaking the population into distinct sub-groups, selecting sample from each group to represent the population

Random-Stratified: breaking the population into subgroups and selecting randomly from these subgroups.

Procedures:

Counterbalancing: control the order effects like practice & carry-over effects. Attempts to control the unwanted effects on performance of any one order by systematically changing the order of the treatments in a ‘balanced way’

Single-Blind: eliminates the placebo effect. Participants are unaware of whether they are experimental or control groups.

Double-Blind: the experimenter is unaware of which participant is exposed to either the experimental or control group. Controlling experimenter effects.

Placebo: is a fake treatment used in the control group to compare to the experimental group.

Standardised Instructions and Procedures:

Standardised: pre-rehearsed sets of instructions that are expressed to the participants with a neutral voice by the researcher. They also have answers that are anticipated for questions that may arise.

Non-Standardised: each participant will partake in a similar but different experiment.

Generalising: when findings are applied to the general population. Must meet the following criteria:

- Statistically significant results, sample is representative of the population, method of sampling is appropriate, wherever possible the extraneous and confounding variables have been controlled.

Conclusions: a decision or judgement about the research results that address the hypothesis and are statistically significant.

Statistical Significance:

P-values:

Less than 0.05 (p<0.05) Greater than 0.05 (p>0.05)- Not significant- Results are due to chance- Hypothesis is rejected

- Results are statistically significant

- Due to independent variable- Hypothesis is accepted and

conclusions are drawn

Random Allocation: a technique that ensures the each participant has an equal chance of being selected into either the control or experimental group.

Experimental Group: the group exposed to the IV which is the variable being manipulated.

Control Group: the variable under investigation in the experimental group is absent from the control group.

Ethical Principles

Beneficence: no harm to the participant, maximise benefit to society.

Respect for persons: no harm to the participant, maximise benefit to society.

Participant rights: all participants rights must be upheld.

Voluntary participation: participant must willingly give consent to partake in the experiment.

Informed consent: participant or guardian must be informed of what the experiment entails.

Confidentiality: results and the identity of the participant remain private.

Withdrawal rights: all participants have the right to leave the experiment at any time.

Psychological harm: there must be no long term mental harm to the participant as a result of the experiment.

Debriefing: participants must be made aware of the purpose of the experiment and counselling needs to be provided if needed.

Deception: the participant may be unaware of a particular detail of the experiment but has to be told at the end.

Chapter 2 - States of Consciousness

Normal-waking consciousness (NWC): when we are awake and aware of our internal and external environments and stimuli.

Altered-State of Consciousness: distinctly different in experience from NWC.

Characteristic Normal Waking Consciousness

Altered State of Consciousness

Content Limitations More constrained/controlled, can selectively process

different parts of what is in consciousness

Less constrained/controlled:

reduced ability to process information, but may be

fewer limitations on content of which we

become aware ofPerceptual Distortions Usual level of awareness

of sensory stimuli; including pain, usually accurate perceptual processing of events

Heightened or lowered sensory thresholds, including pain and

hallucinations

Cognitive Distortions Effective control of memory processes (recall

is more organised and logical)

Memory processes may be interrupted or

distorted; storage and recall fragmented,

disorganised and illogicalEmotional Awareness Greater awareness of

emotions and control of emotional responsiveness

Less control of emotions. Emotional

responsiveness and expressiveness may be

heightened or dampened (more or less

affectionate/aggressive)Self- Control More control over actions

and movements, ability to focus selectively on

Less control over actions and movements,

emotions/thoughts,

own thoughts and behaviours

decrease of self- control, greater susceptibility to

suggestionTime Orientation Clear sense of time Distorted sense of time,

time either appears to speed up or slow down

Typical Altered States of Consciousness

Daydreaming: when attention shifts from external stimuli to internal thoughts, feelings and fantasies. We are usually unaware of the shift into daydreaming.

Alcohol- Induced (ASC – purposely induced): may be aware or unaware of the shift into this state. Change in consciousness is due to alcohol consumption. The effects of alcoholism rely on many variables (age, weight, gender etc.)

We experience changes in:

- Level of awareness of external stimuli and personal awareness (lowered)- Content limitations (minimal)- Perceptual distortions (high level)- Cognitive distortions (high level)- Time orientation (distorted)- Emotional awareness (distorted)- Self-control (lowered)

Control Processes: conscious alert awareness and mental effort in which the individual actively focuses their attention on achieving a particular goal.

Automatic Processes: little conscious awareness and mental effort, minimal attention and does not interfere with performance or other activities.

Chapter 3 - Sleep

Sleep is a naturally and regularly occurring ASC.

Why is it classified as an ASC?

- Loss of consciousness - Distortion of perception of time- Period occurrence of dreams- Is triggered by the hormone Melatonin

Purpose of Sleep: There are two theories related to the purpose of sleep

Restorative Theory: states that sleep is essential to replenish energy by taking a ‘time out’ from the activities during our waking time where we use up our physical and mental resources and repair our bodies.

Survival Theory: As we are heavily reliant on light and there are many dangers at night, we sleep. The loss of consciousness increases our chance of being harmed as we can’t defend ourselves.

Characteristics and Patterns of NREM and REM Sleep

Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM):

Stage One: Alpha > Theta waves. Our lightest stage of sleep.

Stage Two: mostly Theta waves. Light sleep, spindles and K-complexes occur during this stage of sleep.

Stage Three: Theta > Delta waves, also known as ‘slow wave sleep’ and is a moderately deep sleep stage.

Stage Four: Delta waves, deepest stage of sleep, sleep walking may occur during this stage and we are extremely relaxed.

80 - 120 Minutes Duration

Rapid Eye Movement (REM): consists mostly of beta-like waves, we dream, also called paradoxical sleep – coma-like ie. Brain is active but we are unable to move, more vivid and memorable dreams.

1. A > T 2. T 3. T > D 4. D ATTTDD – order of waves (NREM)

Ways Of Measuring Physiological Responses During Sleep

DARE ~ detects, amplifies, records electrical activity of the …

Electroencephalograph (ECG): detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain.

Electromyograph (EMG): detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the muscles.

Electro-oculargraph (EOG): detects, amplifies and records the electrical activity of the muscles around the eyes.

Galvanic Skin Response (GSR): measures the electrical conductivity of the skin via how much sweat is produced.

Heart Rate: decreases as NREM progresses.

Body Temperatures: drops approximately 1o C during NREM

Polysomonography: the study of sleep in a laboratory setting.

The Effects of Total and Partial Sleep Deprivation

Total Sleep Deprivation: no sleep at all for at least, 24 hours.

Partial Sleep Deprivation: less sleep than what is needed.

Psychological Effects:

- Cognitive: loss of concentration slowed mental reaction time, short attention span.

- Behavioural: loss of motivation, long term effects: paranoia, depression and anxiety.

- Emotional: moodiness, irritability and hallucinations.

Physiological Effects: droopy eyelids, slurred speech, hand tremors, fatigue and micro-sleeps.

Micro-sleep: short period of drowsiness or sleep when awake. Occurs after 3-4 days of total sleep deprivation.

REM Rebound: involves catching up on REM sleep immediately following a period of lost REM sleep by spending more time than usual in REM during your next sleeping period.

Sleep- wake cycle shift during adolescence

We have a delayed sleep onset meaning that we go to sleep 2 hours later than adults and children. 20-30% REM and 70-80% NREM sleep because a great deal

of information is being learnt.

Sleeping Patterns:

Children: 25% REM and 75% NREM – 12 hours per night

Adults: 20% REM and 80% NREM – 6 hours per night

Chapter 4 - The Central Nervous System

Functions and Roles of the CNS

Central Nervous System: consists of the brain and spinal cord and transmits and receives messages to and from the PNS.

Structure of the Brain

Frontal Lobe: higher mental functioning: logical thinking, planning and reasoning.

Receiving and coordinating messages from other lobes.

Motor Control: planning, initiating and performing voluntary movement.

Located at the frontal area of the brain and is the largest lobe.

- Primary Motor Cortex: (located at the back/top of the Frontal Lobe) – responsible for sending messages to various parts of the body to make them move voluntarily. Controlling voluntary movements through its control of skeletal muscles.

Parietal Lobe: registers sensory information (touch, pain, pressure, temperature and bodily movements).

RIGHT parietal lobe plays a key role in spatial orientation and perceiving 3D shapes and designs.

LEFT parietal lobe plays a role in reading, writing, and performing mental arithmetic.

Located at the top of the brain behind the Frontal Lobe

- Primary Somatosensory Cortex: (located at the top of the brain alongside the Primary Motor Cortex) – responsible for receiving and processing sensory information from the skin and body enabling us to perceive bodily sensations.

Temporal Lobe: primarily involved with auditory perception but also plays an important role in; memory, aspects of visual perception (ability to recognise faces (RIGHT side), identifying objects, our emotional responses to sensory information and memories.

- Primary Auditory Cortex: receives and processes sounds from both ears. Verbal sounds are processed in the LEFT side (Wernicke’s Area). Non-verbal such as music processed in the RIGHT side.

Occipital Lobe: the back area of the brain which is responsible for processing and receiving visual information.

Information from the LEFT visual field is processed in the RIGHT HEMISPHERE and information from the RIGHT visual field is processed in the LEFT HEMISPHERE.

- Primary Visual Cortex: where visual information is perceived. Visual information comes from the photoreceptor cells in the retinas of the eyes.

ASSOCIATIVE AREA: these areas process and combine information from the senses and relate them to higher mental ability.

Hemispheric Specialisation

The idea that one hemisphere has specialised functions or exerts greater control over a particular function.

Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere- Receives and processes sensations from the RIGHT side

of the body

- Controls voluntary movements on the RIGHT side of the body

- Verbal tasks (eg; speech production (Broca’s Area),

comprehension (Wernicke’s Area) and reading and writing)

- Analysis (maths, sequential tasks & evaluation)

- Logical reasoning

- Receives and processes sensations from the LEFT side of

the body

- Controls voluntary movements on the LEFT side of the body

- Non-verbal tasks – processing the ‘whole’ rather than the ‘bits’

- Spatial and visual thinking (solving a jigsaw puzzle,

mapping, visualising a location)

- Creativity (new ideas)

- Fantasy (daydreaming)

- Appreciation of art and music

- Facial recognition & object identification

- Recognising emotions (body language: facial expressions)

Aphasias

Aphasia is defined as an apparent language disorder regarding speaking, writing or reading.

Broca’s Aphasia: sufferers experience difficulty speaking clearly.

- Speech is broken, short incoherent sentences and words are not linked properly.

Occurs as a result of damage to Broca’s Area which is located in the Frontal Lobe of the LEFT hemisphere.

Wernicke’s Aphasia: sufferers experience difficulty understanding (comprehending) speech and speaking and writing in a meaningful way.

- Talking nonsense – ‘ I used to be able to work cigarettes’- Difficulty understanding

Occurs as a result of damage to Wernicke’s Area that is located in the Temporal Lobe in the LEFT hemisphere. Near the Primary Auditory Cortex.

Spatial Neglect

Spatial neglect is when an individual fails to recognise anything in their right or left side.

The RIGHT hemisphere is generally responsible for spatial perception.

Spatial neglect does not affect memory; things are just overlooked or ignored.

Occurs from damage to the RIGHT Parietal Lobe.

Split-Brain studies of Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga

They concluded that information from the RIGHT visual field went to the LEFT side of the eye and therefore the LEFT hemisphere processed that visual

information.

R – L – L

They also concluded that anything in the LEFT visual field went to the RIGHT side of the eye and was processed in the RIGHT visual cortex. The patient can think or

draw what the object is with their LEFT hand but cannot say what it is because only the LEFT hemisphere can produce speech.

L – R – R

Chapter 5 - The Peripheral Nervous System

Carries messages to and from the CNS and consists of the Autonomic and Somatic Nervous Systems. The Autonomic Nervous System is broken down into

the Parasympathetic Nervous System and the Sympathetic Nervous System.

Autonomic Nervous System

Controls all involuntary functions. Self-regulating – visceral muscles in organs and glands (stomach, lungs and heart)

Sympathetic Nervous System (branch of ANS)

Prepares the muscles, organs and glands for vigorous activity or stressful/ threatening situations

‘Fight – Flight’ Response

An involuntary reaction resulting in a state of physical readiness to deal with a sudden and immediate threat by either confronting it (fight) or running away to

safety (flight)

- Increases HR, RR and BP.- Releases Adrenaline

- Sweat glands cool the body- Releases sugars and fats needed for energy

- Hormones linger in the blood stream for quite some time

Parasympathetic Nervous System (branch of ANS)Ensures that the body is functioning efficiently and maintaining

homeostasis (balance), returns the body to calm and is more dominant than the Sympathetic Nervous System.

- Decreases HR, BP and RR.- Produces tears and contracts the pupils in your eyes.- Stimulates stomach and intestines to digest foods.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls all voluntary functions, controls all skeletal muscles attached to bones and carries messages from the sensory receptors in the body to the CNS.

Chapter 6 - Models For Explaining Human Memory

Atkinson-Shiffrin Multi-Store Model of Memory

Sensory Memory: Incoming sensory information from the environment is registered in the sensory registers. The stimulus will need to be attended to in order to be transferred to STM. The capacity is unlimited and the duration of iconic and echoic memory traces are 0.3-0.4 seconds and 3-4 seconds, respectively. Iconic memory is short because if held too long, the visuals would begin to blur. Echoic memory is help for longer as it takes longer for auditory information to be processed and this allows for the smooth flow of sounds and helps to enable us to comprehend speech. If a stimulus is not attended to, it is forgotten.

Short- Term Memory (working memory): Short term memory can hold a maximum of 7+/- 2 items. The duration is 12-20 seconds whereby from 12 seconds onwards, the information begins to decay unless rehearsed through maintenance rehearsal (repetition of information so that it is retained in STM). Information is brought to STM from sensory memory when attended to.

Long Term Memory: Long term memory is where ‘meaningful and important’ memories are stored. It has unlimited capacity and relatively permanent storage (depending on how well the information is encoded). In order to strengthen the encoding of information in LTM, we use elaborative rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal is how we make information memorable and meaningful by relating or linking it to other knowledge that is already stored in LTM.

Chunking (STM): the grouping of larger pieces of information into groups. Thus increasing the capacity of items in STM. Eg. 1-2-3-4-5-6 vs. 123-456.

Displacement (STM): due to the very limited capacity of STM, items are easily displaced. Eg. Call Sensis 1234 and ask for a number, ie. (03) 9765 6537, (03) = prior knowledge, and after, the operator says ‘ have a good day’, by this time you will have displaced at least, 4 numbers.

Serial Position Effect: Refers to the information that is more likely remembered at the beginning and end of a list compared to the inferior recall of items throughout the middle of a list. This is as a result of the Primacy and Recency Effects. Primary items were rehearsed and stored in LTM and Recency items were rehearsed and retained in STM. After approximately 30 seconds, the Recency effect is often diminished due to the limited duration of STM.

Baddeley and Hitch’s Model of Work Memory

Central Executive: ‘working’ component of working memory. Integrates information from the Phonological Loop and the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad. Controls attention, Coordinates material, performs calculations, and makes decisions and analyses information.

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: temporarily stores visual and spatial information. Responsible for: spatial orientation, imagery, awareness of environment and visualisation.

Phonological Loop: Stores verbal-like speech information for a brief period of time. Responsible for: sounds, words, speech, numbers and requires internal rehearsal to retain information.

Episodic Buffer: a sub system of working memory that enables the different components of working memory to interact with LTM. It can hold information in any form & has a limited capacity of 4 chunks and can combine information from other subsystems.

Craik and Lockhart’s Levels of Processing Framework

Shallow Processing ~ Structural encoding (Looks like…) – analysis of visual features (capital letters) – Maintenance rehearsal is used to retain this information.

Intermediate Processing ~ Phonemic (Sounds like…). The stimulus is recognised and named (rhyming a list of words)

Deep Processing ~ Semantic (meaning) is applied to new information, linking it to old information already stored in LTM. (Elaborative rehearsal)

Each process involves a deeper level of encoding.

Organisation of Long Term Memories

Explicit Memories: information in memory that can be consciously or intentionally retrieved and stated.

Implicit Memories: when retrieval occurs without conscious or intentional

effort but the memory can only be expressed through actions or

behaviour.Declarative Memory: long term memory for the specific facts and

events that can be brought consciously to mind and explicitly ‘declared’

Procedural Memory: the memory of how to perform a particular task. ‘HOW’

Episodic Memory: LTM subsystem of declarative

memory that stores

information about specific

events or personal

experiences.‘I REMEMBER’

Semantic Memory: Stores

information about facts of the

world. Eg. Helsinki is the

capital of Finland.‘I KNOW’

Semantic Network Theory ~

The organisation in LTM in terms of overlapping networks on interconnected concepts (nodes); activating one node during retrieval increases the likelihood that associated nodes become activated.

Chapter 7 - Mechanisms of Memory Formation

The neuron in memory formation ~

Neuron – a nerve cell specialised to receive and process and or transmit information to other cells in the body.

Neurotransmitter – a chemical made by the neuron that transfers information between neurons ultimately enabling communication between neurons.

Dendrites – the start (or tree branches) part of a neuron that receives information from other neurons and send it to the soma.

Synapse - the end of the axon terminals is the site that the neurotransmitters cross to communicate with other neurons.

Synaptic Gap – the space between the axon terminal of a pre-synaptic neuron and the dendrite of a post-synaptic neuron.

Long Term Potentiation (LTP)

Refers to the long-lasting strengthening of the synaptic connections of neurons, resulting in the enhanced functions of neurons whenever they are activated

Consolidation Theory

Refers to the structural, physical and chemical changes to the neurons in the brain when something new is learnt. Think about wet cement.

If this process is interrupted, the memory may not set and could be damaged or distorted.

Both the hippocampus and the amygdala play crucial roles in the FORMATION of memory.

This process of consolidation usually takes 30 minutes without interruptions.

Involves the formation of a new LTM

Reconsolidation

After a memory is activated and retrieved from LTM, it needs to be consolidated again in order to be stored back in LTM.

Role of the Temporal Lobe, including the Hippocampus and the Amygdala

Hippocampus

Located in the medial Temporal Lobe of both hemispheres

Assists the formation of memories, sorting and storage and the transfer of information from STM to LTM

It is the location where explicit (factual) memories and declarative (kind of fact) memories are formed.

Its main role is to consolidate memories.

No memories are stored here!

Amygdala

Located in the medial Temporal Lobe alongside the Hippocampus in both hemispheres of the brain

Assists in the formation of implicit memories and procedural memories as well as the development of phobias

Also where emotional memories (declarative memories with emotion context, especially episodic memories) are formed

Plays a crucial role in the acquisition of conditioned (learned) emotional responses and the encoding and storage of emotional memories

Emotions enhance memories.

Memory Decline over the life-span

Short Term Memory

The impact of age on STM is related to the task at hand. If the task is simply memorising a list of words for example, STM will not be impaired.

However, if the task is complex and requires simultaneous storage and manipulation of information or when attention is divided between tasks, then age

can impact on the STM efficiency of these tasks.

The nervous systems of older people tend to be less efficient at receiving and transmitting information. Therefore, STM is much slower.

Long Term Memory

Episodic memory is more susceptible to decline, even as an individual reaches their mid 30’s.

Semantic & Procedural memories are less easily lost but are slower in forming as age increases.

We tend to take longer to learn new information and skills in older age.

Amnesia

Amnesia: refers to the loss of memory, partial or complete, temporary or permanent. Occurs as a result of brain trauma.

Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after the brain

trauma has occurred. This is PERMANENT brain damage.

Retrograde Amnesia: Forgetting of memories leading up to the trauma.

This is TEMPORARY and memories are regained gradually.

Neurodegenerative Disease

The progressive decline in the structure, activity and function of brain tissue, As a result of genetics, prolonged alcoholism, tumours, strokes, toxins, chemicals or

virus

DementiaAn umbrella term used to describe a

variety of symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases. Prominent

symptoms include; memory loss, decline in mental abilities (reasoning, problem solving & decision making).Behavioural changes: repeating the

same stories, more assertive, withdrawn, less flexible & loss of

interest.

Alzheimer’s DiseaseA type of dementia characterised by the gradual widespread degeneration

of neurons, causing memory loss, personality changes and a decline in social and cognitive (mental) skills.

Lower levels of the neurotransmitter Ach (acetylcholine)

Amyloid plaques and tangles interfering with the neural connections

in the brain

Chapter 8 - Forgetting

Forgetting Curve – Hermann Ebbinghaus

Shows the rate and amount of memory decline that occurs over time

Our ability to recall learned information over time decreases. The forgetting curve shows that recall declines 40% after 20 minutes, 56% over 1 hour and more than 70% after 9 hours. From 2 days onwards, the curve sits at around

20%. Recall after 20 minutes is 60%, 1 hour 44%, 30% at 9 hours.

Criticisms

Some say that the curve is too dramatic as it does not account for certain factors.

It does not account for the fact that the more meaningful the information, the slower the rate of forgetting is.

Theories of Forgetting

Retrieval Failure Theory: refers to the inability to retrieve information due to the absence of correct or appropriate cues or failure to use cues.

Also referred to as ‘cue dependent forgetting’

The amount of information retrieved from LTM depends on the cue that is used at that point in time.

Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon (TOT): the feeling of being aware of knowing something and being confident that it will be remembered, but unable to retrieve the information at that point in time.

Retrieval Cue: any stimulus that assists the process of locating and recovering information that is stored in LTM.

Strengths:- Research evidence supports this

theory. Studies of recall vs. recognition show that the amount of forgetting can be greatly reduced when retrieval cues are made available.

Weaknesses:- The theory doesn’t explain why

there is failure to retrieve some memories and not others.

- Does not explain the failure to retrieve certain anxiety-laden memories.

Interference Theory: proposes that forgetting in LTM occurs because other memories interfere with the retrieval of what we are trying to recover, particularly if the other memories are similar.

Retroactive InterferenceWhen NEW information interferes with the ability to remember OLD information.

Proactive InterferenceWhen OLD information interferes with the ability to remember NEW information

Strengths- Supported by considerable

empirical evidence- It is a useful explanation of times

as a variable impacting on interference-based forgetting.

Limitations- The theory doesn’t account for

forgetting that is due to out use of inappropriate or faulty retrieval cues

- Nor does it account for the memories that are lost or disrupted due to brain trauma or

a neurodegenerative disease

Motivated Forgetting: forgetting that occurs from a strong motive or desire to forget, this is usually because the experience is too disturbing or upsetting to remember.

RepressionUNCONCIOUSLY blocking a memory of an event or experience from entering conscious awareness.

SuppressionInvolves being MOTIVATED to forget an event or experience by making a DELIBERATE conscious effort to keep it out of conscious awareness.

Strengths- Explanation that some forgetting

occurs due to an individual’s conscious or unconscious needs, fears, anxieties and desires.

- Some empirical evidence to support it (mainly supporting suppression)

Limitations- Limited empirical evidence-

relatively impossible to investigate the existence of repressed memories.

- Investigation repressed memories raises ethical issues about the psychological wellbeing of research participants

Decay Theory: suggest that forgetting occurs because memory traces (neural representations of memories) fade through disuse as time goes by and unless reactivated through occasional use.

It is a psychological process and states that neural pathways become weaker when not used.

Strengths- Explains some forgetting

Limitations- Does not account for disrupted

or lost memories due to interference or as a consequence of brain trauma.

- Not as relevant to LTM as it is to STM.

Chapter 9 - Manipulation and Improvement of Memory

Recall; involves reproducing information that is stored in LTM.

Free Recall

Reproducing as much information as possible in no particular order.

Eg. Recalling the names of the students in your year level in no particular order.

Cued Recall

Reproducing information in the order in which it was presented.

Eg. Recalling a list of words in order.

Serial Recall

Use of ‘prompts’ to aid retrieval and therefore reproduce information.

Eg. Using key words to help jog your memory.

Recognition; involves identifying the correct information from among a group of alternatives. Eg, answering Multiple Choice questions.

Generally more accurate than recall as it provides cues to help with recall.

Relearning; learning information again that has previously been learnt and stored in LTM.

Method of Savings:

(Time/trials for original learning) – (time/trials for relearning) x 100(Time/trials for original learning)

Degree of Sensitivity for Measures of Retention:

RELEARNING = most sensitive

RECOGNITION = more sensitive than recall

RECALL = least sensitive measure of retention

Cues

Context Dependent Cues

Environment cues in the specific situation (context) where a memory was formed to help access the memories formed in that particular context.

State Dependent Cues

Are associated with an individual’s internal physiological and/or psychological state at the time the memory was formed and help the individual to access these memories.

Mnemonic Devices

Techniques for improving and/or enhancing memory

Acronyms: pronounceable words formed from the first letter of a sequence of words.

Eg. QANTAS ANZAC LOL NATO also a method of chunking.

Narrative Chaining: linking unrelated lists of words by forming a sequence or meaningful story, allowing a list of words to be remember in the order in which they were presented.

Eg. Bird, costume, letterbox, head & river

A man dressed in a BIRD COSTUME and wearing a LETTERBOX on his HEAD was seen leaping into the RIVER.

Acrostics: making verbal associations from items to be remember by constructing phrases or sentences using the first letters of the information to be remembered.

Eg. ‘my very energetic mother just sits up near pop’

This phrase is used to remember the planets and the order in which they are; Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune & Pluto.

Reconstructive nature of memory informed by the work of Elizabeth Loftus

Memory reconstruction: remembering past events and features of these events and putting them together during memory recall. Eg. Eye-witness testimonies.

Loftus conducted research into eye witness testimonies –

- Participants were shown car accident videos and asked questions like ‘How fast were the cars going when they … into each other?’ Words like ‘smashed, collided, contracted and hit’ were incorporated into the questions and the results varied.

- Results showed that higher estimates of speed were given when the word ‘smashed’ was used compared to ‘contract’.

- Thus meaning, the words of the questions can have an impact on the response given. Proving that eye witness testimonies are not 100% accurate.

Ethical Principles; voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, right to withdrawal and debriefing