3.0introduction - shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/43996/4/04...[31]. incense...

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Chapter-III 80 3.0 INTRODUCTION The incense materials are used for ceremonial purposes to fragrant the environments in the Asia for centuries [1]. Most of the people do not know that incense fuming may cause indoor air problems. Fuming incense is a slow and incomplete combustion process, resulting heavy incense smoke that is responsible for the indoor air pollution hazards [2]. When incense is burnt, it emits smoke containing PM, PAHs, carbon monoxide, isoprene. Incense smoke particulates were found to be mutagens in the Ames Salmonella test [3]. The incense smoke exposure produces illness including, lung cancer, respiratory dysfunction or asthma, coughing, headache, dizziness, nausea and allergic to the skin and eyes, etc. [4 6]. The mosquito coils are fumed to repel mosquito in Asia and to limited extent in other parts of the world, including the United States. They contribute significantly to the indoor air pollution [7 8]. It is estimated that 45 – 50 billion mosquito coils are used annually by approximately two billion people worldwide [9]. The pyrethrins insecticide is a major additive of mosquito coils. When coil is burnt, the insecticides evaporate with the smoke which repels the mosquitoes to come in the room. Pyrethrins are of low chronic toxicity to humans and low reproductive toxicity in animals; although headache, nausea, dizziness etc. were observed [10]. The combustion of remaining materials generates large amounts of particulates. The toxicological effects of mosquito coil smoke can induce asthma, lung cancer and persistent wheeze in children, etc. [11 13].

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Page 1: 3.0INTRODUCTION - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/43996/4/04...[31]. Incense generally produced into sticks, cones, coils and powders, among them stick incense

Chapter-III

80

3.0 INTRODUCTION

The incense materials are used for ceremonial purposes to fragrant the

environments in the Asia for centuries [1]. Most of the people do not know that

incense fuming may cause indoor air problems. Fuming incense is a slow and

incomplete combustion process, resulting heavy incense smoke that is responsible

for the indoor air pollution hazards [2]. When incense is burnt, it emits smoke

containing PM, PAHs, carbon monoxide, isoprene. Incense smoke particulates

were found to be mutagens in the Ames Salmonella test [3]. The incense smoke

exposure produces illness including, lung cancer, respiratory dysfunction or

asthma, coughing, headache, dizziness, nausea and allergic to the skin and eyes,

etc. [4 – 6].

The mosquito coils are fumed to repel mosquito in Asia and to limited extent

in other parts of the world, including the United States. They contribute

significantly to the indoor air pollution [7 – 8]. It is estimated that 45 – 50

billion mosquito coils are used annually by approximately two billion people

worldwide [9]. The pyrethrins insecticide is a major additive of mosquito coils.

When coil is burnt, the insecticides evaporate with the smoke which repels the

mosquitoes to come in the room. Pyrethrins are of low chronic toxicity to humans

and low reproductive toxicity in animals; although headache, nausea, dizziness etc.

were observed [10]. The combustion of remaining materials generates large

amounts of particulates. The toxicological effects of mosquito coil smoke can

induce asthma, lung cancer and persistent wheeze in children, etc. [11 – 13].

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The increased levels of PM and their chemical constituents were generated

during fuming of materials i.e. incense and mosquito coils in the indoor

environments [14 – 30]. These studies were limited to the investigation of the PM

and PAHs.

In the present work, emission and distribution of the PM and their associated

species (i.e. black carbon, organic carbon, ions and PAHs) during the fuming

processes of the various incense (IS) and mosquito coil (MC) materials are

discussed.

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3.1EXPERIMENTAL

3.1.1 Materials

Ten incense and four mosquito coil materials of different made were selected

for the present studies. Most of the incenses are manufactured from the mixture

of woods, resins, fragrant gums, herbs and spices wrapped around a bamboo stick

[31]. Incense generally produced into sticks, cones, coils and powders, among

them stick incense is the most popular in India. A typical composition of stick

incense consists of 35% (by weight) of fragrance material, 33% of bamboo stick,

21% of herbal and wood powder, 11% of adhesive powder. However, the physical

characteristics of incense stick such as length, diameter of bamboo stick and coated

part are almost similar [32].

The incense materials are made by blending several solid scented ingredients

into a paste and then, rolled the paste onto a bamboo stick. Charcoal incenses

are generally black in color and made by mixing charcoal with perfumes

and/or essential oils. Other incenses (i.e. Dhoop, Kapoor, Lobhan, etc.) have

very concentrated scents and contain a high percentage of Sandal wood.

Kapoor is also known as camphor, a waxy, white or transparent solid with a

strong, aromatic odor give a lot of smoke when burnt. It is a terpenoid with

the chemical formula of C10H16O and found in wood of the camphor laurel, a

large evergreen tree found in Asia [33].

Similarly, mosquito coils are made of biomass base materials containing some

insecticides most likely pyrethrins, accounting for 0.3 – 0.4% of coil mass. The

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remaining components of coil are organic fillers, binders, dyes and other additives

capable of fuming well. The fillers make up 99% of the mosquito coils [34].

3.1.2 Fuming of materials

A standard room (3x2x3 m3) equipped with one window (1x1 m2) was

selected for fuming of the incense and mosquito coil materials during October

2009. The window and the door were closed during fuming processes. The

stand was used for their fuming. They were kept over in the stainless steel

plate to collect the resulting bottom ash.

3.1.3 Collection of particulate matters

The twenty eight PM samples (i.e. 14 each of PM2.5 and PM10) were

collected during fuming of incense and mosquito coil materials as described

in the earlier Chapter.

3.1.4 Analysis of chemical constituents

The analysis of chemical constituents i.e. BC, OC, ions and PAHs in the

PM10 were carried out as described in the earlier Chapter.

3.1.5 Flux measurement

The PM flux measurement was carried out as described in the Chapter-II.

Two gram of each material was taken for the fuming. The sampler was

mounted in the chamber. The fuming was carried out till the complete

burning of the materials with simultaneous collection of the smoke over the

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84

quartz filter paper (47 mm). Similarly, the sample blank was carried out for

the correction, Figure 3.1.

3.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.2.1 Physical characteristics of incense and mosquito coil

materials

The physical characteristics of incense and mosquito coil materials are

summarized in Table 3.1. The incense sticks and mosquito coils are made of

wood and coconut shell powder, starch, oil and adhesive or binding materials.

In addition, some ingredients i.e. allethrin, sodium benzoate, potassium nitrate,

etc. are mixed in the mosquito coils.

3.2.2 Distribution, emission fluxes and toxicities of PM in indoor

air

3.2.2.1 Distribution

The concentration of the PM in the indoor air during fuming of incense (IS) and

mosquito coil (MC) is shown in Table 3.2. The concentration of PM2.5 and PM10

for incense smoke (n = 10) was ranged from 3128 – 15670 and 3207 – 15939 µg

m-3 with mean value of 8411±3233 and 8674±3284 µg m-3, respectively.

However, the concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 for mosquito coil smoke (n = 4)

was ranged from 912 – 1387 and 988 – 1458 µg m-3 with mean value of

1072±210 and 1144±209 µg m-3, respectively.

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Table 3.1 Physical characteristics of incense and mosquito coil materials

MaterialsAverage

ColourTypical

compositionLength(cm)

Diameter(mm)

Weight(gm)

Incense

sticks

19 9 1.26 Brown toBlack

Fragrance material – 35%Bamboo stick – 33%Herbal and Wood powder – 21%Adhesive powder – 11%

Dhoop 7 40 8.19 Black Natural herbsDesi gheeEssential oilsAromatic chemicalsand Sandal powder

Hit coil 95 20 14.3 Dark violet d-trans Allethrin – 0.10%Wood flour – 52.90 %Coconut shell powder – 35.00 %Starch/Binder – 12.00%

Jet coil 95 20 14.5 Dark violet d-trans Allethrin – 0.10%Wood flour – 52.90 %Coconut shell powder – 35.00 %Starch/Binder – 12.00%

Mortein

coil

95 20 14.4 Dark violet d-trans Allethrin – 0.10%Wood flour – 42.8%Coconut shell powder – 40.00 %Starch/Binder – 10.00%Genapol LO88 emulsifer– 0.10%Red dye – 0.10%Fragrance – 0.50%Sodium benzoate – 0.30%Potassium nitrate – 0.10%Jiggat (joss)- 6.0%

Tortoise

coil

95 20 14.3 Dark violet Trans fluethrin active elements –0.03%Wood flour – 81.27%Starch – 17%Dye – 0.20%Perfume floral bouquet – 0.20%Sodium benzoate 1.10%Potassium nitrate – 0.20%

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Table 3.2 Concentration of PM in indoor air, µg m-3

S. No. Materials PM2.5 PM10

IS1 Mumtaj 15670 15939

IS2 Krishna 10623 10915

IS3 Lubhan 10345 10928

IS4 Parivar 100 3128 3310

IS5 Bharat Darshan 4586 4795

IS6 Silver kobra 13368 13613

IS7 Singarpuri 4120 4354

IS8 Dhoop 15379 15767

IS9 Lobhan powder 3760 3915

IS10 Camphor 3132 3207

MC1 Hit 912 988

MC2 Jet 990 1054

MC3 Mortein 1387 1458

MC4 Tartoise 998 1076

IS = Incense, MC = Mosquito coil

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The higher PM concentration was found with the IS than the MC smoke due

to the higher fuming rates (≈ 0.2 g min-1), Figure 3.2.

The [PM2.5]/[PM10] ratio for incense (n = 10) and mosquito coil (n = 4) smokes

was ranged from 0.95 – 0.98 and 0.92 – 0.95 with mean value of 0.96±0.02 and

0.94±0.01, respectively. It means that all PM was mostly lie in the fine modes

during fuming processes.

3.2.2.2 Emission fluxes

The emission fluxes of PM10 for the incense and mosquito coil materials (n = 4)

are presented in Table 3.3. The PM10 emission fluxes for the IS and MC materials

during the combustion were ranged from 2422 – 10775 and 19107 – 33797 mg kg-1

with mean value of 6935±3250 and 29191±6644 mg kg-1, respectively. The higher

emission fluxes of the PM were observed with the MC fuming, may be due to

presence of ingredients i.e. sodium benzoate, potassium nitrate, etc. The higher

PM fluxes was observed with the IS and MC smokes as compared to the biomass

smoke (2497±818 mg kg-1), may be due to mixing of the ingredients i.e. starch,

oils, etc.

3.2.2.3 Toxicities

The particulates generated during the fuming processes were generally in the fine

and ultra fine modes [35 – 36]. These particles produce strong pulmonary

inflammatory responses in lungs [37 – 38]. At least 95% particulates were found

in the fine modes during the IS and MC fuming.

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89

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

PM2.5 PM10

µg m

-3

ISMC

Figure 3.2 Mean concentration of PM in indoor air during fuming

of materials i.e. incense (IS) and mosquito coil (MC).

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Table 3.3 Emission fluxes of PM10 and their associated chemical constituents, mg kg-1

S. No. PM10 BC OC ∑Ion8 ∑PAH13

IS1 10775 463 5334 139 7.02

IS2 9352 365 6032 114 15.71

IS3 5191 343 3810 62 5.43

IS4 2422 213 1414 30 2.99

MC1 31872 2295 9434 7776 0.83

MC2 31989 1791 7741 6622 1.27

MC3 33797 1893 8686 4360 1.31

MC4 19107 1051 5809 6668 1.83

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In the present study, the mean PM2.5 and PM10 concentration for the all incense

and mosquito coil smokes was exceeded the values recommended by ASHREA

(i.e. 65 and 150 µg m-3 for PM2.5 and PM10, respectively), [39].

3.2.3 Distribution, emission fluxes and toxicities of carbons in

indoor air

3.2.3.1 Distribution

The black carbon (BC) and organic carbon (OC) associated with the PM10

was quantified. The sum of total concentration of BC and OC is considered as

total carbon (TC). Their concentrations in the indoor air are summarized in

Table 3.4.

The concentration of BC, OC and TC for the incense smokes (n = 10) was

ranged from 115 – 1504, 970 – 8132 and 1283 – 9636 µg m-3 with mean value

of 776±327, 4700±1949 and 5477±2195 µg m-3, respectively. Similarly, the

concentration of BC, OC and TC for mosquito coil smoke (n = 4) was ranged

from 58 – 82, 320 – 453 and 378 – 535 µg m-3 with mean value of 68±11,

378±55 and 446±64 µg m-3, respectively. The highest carbon concentration

was observed with the incense smoke, may be due to the fast fuming rates (≈

0.2 g min-1), Figure 3.3.

The [OC/BC] ratio of the IS and MC smokes was ranged from 0.85 – 22.38 and

5.10 – 6.28 with mean value of 8.11±3.53 and 5.61±0.48, respectively, Table 3.5.

These values were almost close to the [OC/BC] ratio of the biomass smoke

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(4.56±0.72). Therefore, it is expected that IS and MC materials are usually made

of the biomass materials.

3.2.3.2 Emission fluxes

The emission fluxes of BC and OC for the incense and mosquito coil materials (n

= 4) are presented in Table 3.3. The BC and OC emission fluxes for the IS

fuming were ranged from 213 – 463 and 1414 - 6032 mg kg-1 with mean value of

346±101 and 4148±2004 mg kg-1, respectively. Similarly, the BC and OC

emission fluxes for the fuming of MC materials were ranged from 1051 – 2295 and

5809 – 9434 mg kg-1 with mean value of 1757±509 and 7917±1536 mg kg-1,

respectively. The higher carbon emission fluxes were observed with the MC

materials, may be due to their higher incomplete burning. Several folds higher

fluxes of BC and OC with the MC smokes was observed as compared to the

biomass smoke (380±270 and 1413±446 mg kg-1).

3.2.3.3 Toxicities

Both BC and OC associated to the PM10 have been reported to effect in the

brachial artery diameter, to cause oxidative stress in plasma, changed heart-rate,

lipid peroxidation in human bronchial cells, etc. [40 – 43]. The mean TC

concentration for IS and MC smokes in the indoor air was found to be 5477±2195

and 446±64 µg m-3, respectively. The tolerance limit reported for PM10 is 150 µg

m-3. The BC concentration in the PM10 of the IS and MC smokes was found to be

≈ 6.0%. The calculated recommended value of BC should be ≈ 9 µg m-3.

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Table 3.4 Concentration of carbons in PM10 in indoor air, µg m-3

S. No. Materials BC OC TC

IS1 Mumtaj 984 7878 8862

IS2 Krishna 995 7030 8025

IS3 Lubhan 979 8001 8980

IS4 Parivar 100 291 1932 2223

IS5 Bharat Darshan 198 2280 2478

IS6 Silver kobra 1504 8132 9636

IS7 Singarpuri 186 1097 1283

IS8 Dhoop 1371 7110 8481

IS9 Lobhan powder 115 2574 2689

IS10 Camphor 1138 970 2108

MC1 Hit 71 362 433

MC2 Jet 58 320 378

MC3 Mortein 82 453 535

MC4 Tartoise 60 377 437

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Chapter-III

94

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

BC OC TC

µg m

-3

ISMC

Figure 3.3 Mean concentration of carbons in PM10 in indoor air

during fuming of materials i.e. IS and MC.

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Table 3.5 Ratio of [OC/BC] in the incense and mosquito coil smokes

S. No. Materials [OC/BC]

IS1 Mumtaj 8.01

IS2 Krishna 7.07

IS3 Lubhan 8.17

IS4 Parivar 100 6.64

IS5 Bharat Darshan 11.52

IS6 Silver kobra 5.41

IS7 Singarpuri 5.90

IS8 Dhoop 5.19

IS9 Lobhan powder 22.38

IS10 Camphor 0.85

MC1 Hit 5.10

MC2 Jet 5.52

MC3 Mortein 5.52

MC4 Tartoise 6.28

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3.2.4 Distribution, emission fluxes and toxicities of ions in indoor

air

3.2.4.1 Distribution

Eight ions i.e. Cl-, NO3-, SO4

2-, NH4+, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ were analyzed

in the indoor PM10. Their concentrations in the air are presented in Table 3.6.

The sum of total concentration of eight ions i.e. ∑ion8 (i.e. Cl-, NO3-, SO4

2-,

NH4+, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+) for the incense and mosquito coil smokes (n =

4) was ranged from 41 – 205 and 141 – 367 µg m-3 with mean value of

127±66 and 262±94 µg m-3, respectively.

The decreasing abundance of ions in the MC smoke observed is: SO42- ˃ Cl-

˃ K+ ˃ NO3- ˃ Ca2+ ˃ Na+ ˃ Mg2+ ˃ NH4

+. However, the highest concentration

of K+ was observed with the IS smoke, similar to the biomass smoke. The

abundance of ions in the IS smoke in decreasing order is: K+ ˃ Cl- ˃ Ca2+ ˃

NO3- ˃ SO4

2- ˃ Mg2+ ˃ Na+ ˃ NH4+, Figure 3.4. The remarkably higher

concentration of Cl- and SO42- with mosquito coil smoke was observed. At

least 2-folds higher concentration of the ∑ion8 was observed with the MC

than the IS smoke, may be due to addition of ingredients i.e. sodium benzoate,

potassium nitrate, etc. during making coils.

The particulate equivalent concentration ratio of the ∑anion to ∑cation in the

incense and mosquito coil materials was ranged from 0.4 – 0.74 and 1.12 –

3.11 with mean value of 0.51±0.25 and 1.81±0.90, respectively, Table 3.7. It

means that an acidic particulate environment with the MC smoke was due to

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presence of Cl- and SO42- at the elevated levels.

3.2.4.2 Emission fluxes

The emission fluxes of ∑ion8 for the incense and mosquito coil materials (n = 4)

are presented in Table 3.3. The ∑ion8 emission fluxes for IS and MC materials

combustion were ranged from 30 – 139 and 4360 – 7776 mg kg-1 with mean value

of 86±48 and 6357±1405 mg kg-1, respectively. The several folds higher fluxes of

ions were observed with the MC fuming, may be due to their addition as

ingredients. The higher fluxes of ∑ion8 with the IS and MC smokes was observed

as compared to the biomass smoke (2.81±1.18 mg kg-1), may be due to addition of

the ingredients i.e. starch, oils, sodium benzoate, potassium nitrate, etc., Figure

3.5.

3.2.4.3 Toxicities

In the MC smoke, the relatively higher concentration of all ions was marked. The

particulate environment with the MC smoke was found to be acidic due to presence

of two ions i.e. Cl- and SO42- in the excess. This acidic smoke environment may

cause serious health hazards.

3.2.5 Distribution, emission fluxes and toxicities of PAHs in indoor

air

3.2.5.1 Distribution

The concentration of thirteen PAHs i.e. Phe, Ant, Fla, Pyr, Baa, Cry, Bbf,

Bkf, Bap, Bgh, Dba, Ind and Cor in PM10 in the indoor air is summarized in

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Table 3.6 Concentration of ions in PM10 in indoor air, µg m-3

S. No. Cl- NO3- SO4

2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

IS1 26.6 7.9 25.0 0.3 4.4 52.4 18.2 69.7

IS2 44.5 23.9 8.7 0.7 5.7 40.1 1.0 7.2

IS3 32.7 29.4 15.3 1.1 7.6 32.7 1.1 10.9

IS4 9.0 5.3 4.2 0.2 1.5 10.9 1.8 7.6

MC1 94 20 21 1 8 88 1 7

MC2 33 29 175 2 22 15 2 24

MC3 13 13 96 2 6 4.5 1 6

MC4 136 51 57 1 18 54 5 45

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Chapter-III

99

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Cl- NO3- SO42- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

µg m

-3

IS

0102030405060708090

100

Cl- NO3- SO42- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

µg m

-3

MC

Figure 3.4Mean concentration of ions in PM10 in indoor air during

fuming of materials i.e. IS and MC.

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100

Table 3.7 Particulate equivalent concentrations of ions, µEq

S.N. Cl- NO3

- SO42- NH4

+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+ ∑anion ∑cation∑anion/

∑cation

IS1 0.75 0.13 0.52 0.02 0.19 2.28 1.52 3.49 1.40 7.50 0.19

IS2 1.25 0.39 0.18 0.04 0.25 1.74 0.08 0.36 1.82 2.47 0.74

IS3 0.92 0.47 0.32 0.06 0.33 1.42 0.09 0.55 1.71 2.45 0.70

IS4 0.25 0.09 0.09 0.01 0.07 0.47 0.15 0.38 0.43 1.08 0.40

MC1 2.64 0.33 0.44 0.08 0.33 2.26 0.07 0.33 3.40 3.05 1.12

MC2 0.93 0.47 3.65 0.08 0.96 0.38 0.19 1.20 5.05 2.81 1.80

MC3 0.37 0.21 2.00 0.13 0.25 0.12 0.04 0.29 2.58 0.83 3.11

MC4 3.83 0.83 1.19 0.05 0.76 1.37 0.42 2.25 5.85 4.84 1.21

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0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

Cl- NO3- SO42- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

Flux

, mg

kg-1

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

Cl- NO3- SO42- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

Flux

, mg

kg-1

Figure 3.5 Mean emission fluxes of ions in PM10 during fuming of

materials i.e. IS and MC.

MC

IS

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Table 3.8. The concentration of total ∑PAH13 in the indoor air for the

incense and mosquito coil smokes (n = 4) was ranged from 4089 – 14047 and

66 – 103 ng m-3 with a mean value of 9977±4137 and 74±20 ng m-3,

respectively.

The distribution trend of thirteen PAHs in the air with the IS smoke is: Cry ˃

Bbf ˃ Baa ˃ Pyr ˃ Fla ˃ Bap ˃ Bgh ˃ Phe ˃ Dba ˃ Ind ˃ Bkf ˃ Ant ˃ Cor.

However, different trend with the MC smoke is: Cry ˃ Baa ˃ Pyr ˃ Bbf ˃ Bap ˃

Phe ˃ Bgh ˃ Ant ˃ Ind ˃ Bkf ˃ Fla ˃ Cor ˃ Dba, Figure 3.6. Significantly,

higher ∑PAH13 concentration with the incense smoke was observed, may be

due to use of the perfume product as ingredients, Table 3.9.

3.2.5.2 Emission fluxes

The emission fluxes of ΣPAH13 for the incense and mosquito coil materials (n =

4) are presented in Table 3.3. The ΣPAH13 emission fluxes for IS and MC

materials were ranged from 2.99 – 15.71 and 0.83 – 1.83 mg kg-1 with mean value

of 7.78±5.43 and 1.31±0.40 mg kg-1, respectively.

The trend of PAHs emission fluxes with the IS and MC smokes is presented in

Figure 3.7. The several folds higher fluxes of ΣPAH13 with the IS fuming were

observed, may be due to higher fuming rates (≈ 0.2 g min-1). Similarly, several

folds higher fluxes of ΣPAH13 with the IS and MC smokes was observed as

compared to the biomass smoke (0.16±0.13 mg kg-1), may be due to addition of the

organic ingredients.

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Table 3.8 Concentration of PAHs in PM10 in indoor air, ng m-3

S.N. Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor

IS1 918 270 1626 1674 606 1896 1404 90 1338 198 252 90 0

IS2 569 188 544 702 3409 3502 4183 0 152 70 728 0 0

IS3 226 73 1269 1534 1242 1142 942 690 1033 1518 818 641 283

IS4 204 111 255 138 276 1038 498 96 414 114 594 351 0

MC1 4.6 1.5 3.0 4.3 5.6 7.1 9.6 3.8 9.9 0.8 6.3 7.9 1.5

MC2 6.0 4.8 0.6 7.0 6.0 7.2 3.7 0.9 2.7 0.2 2.1 0.5 0.0

MC3 1.0 1.4 1.5 5.2 7.9 8.5 8.8 3.3 7.2 0.7 6.9 3.2 1.0

MC4 10.4 8.3 1.0 12.1 10.4 12.4 6.4 1.6 4.7 0.3 3.6 0.9 0.0

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0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

2000

Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor

ng m

-3

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor

ng m

-3

Figure 3.6 Mean concentration of 13PAHs in PM10 in indoor air

during fuming of materials i.e. IS and MC.

MC

IS

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Table 3.9 Value of ∑PAH13 and BapE, ng m-3

Materials ∑PAH13 *BapE

IS1 10362 1605

IS2 14047 691

IS3 11411 2184

IS4 4089 569

MC1 66 12

MC2 57 4

MC3 103 9

MC4 72 6

*BapE, Benzo(a)pyrene equivalent carcinogenic potentiality

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0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

1.20

1.40

1.60

1.80

Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor

Flux

, mg

kg-1

0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor

Flux

, mg

kg-1

Figure 3.7 Mean emission fluxes of 13PAHs in PM10 during fuming

of materials i.e. IS and MC.

IS

MC

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3.2.5.3 Toxicities

Amongst thirteen PAHs, the Bap has been reported the most toxic

compound. The Bap concentration in the IS and MC smokes was ranged from

152 – 1338 and 4.7 – 9.9 ng m-3 with mean value of 734±535 and 7.1±2.2 ng

m-3, respectively. The recommended value of the Bap in the air reported is 1.0 ng

m-3 [44 – 45]. The Bap concentration in the IS and MC smokes during the fuming

was found to be 734- and 7-folds higher than the recommended limit, respectively.

Among 13 PAHs, six compounds i.e. Baa, Bbf, Bkf, Bap, Dba and Ind were

reported in the list of carcinogenic compounds [46]. They have different toxicity

and standardized with respect to most toxic compound (Bap). The benzo(a)pyrene

equivalent (BapE) carcinogenic potentiality was calculated by using the following

formula [47]:

BapE = 0.06(Baa) + 0.07(Bbf) + 0.07(Bkf) + (Bap) + 0.6(Dba) + 0.08(Ind)

The mean BapE value for the PAHs in the incense and mosquito coil smokes was

observed to be 1262±754 and 7.8±3.9 ng m-3, respectively. The highest

carcinogenic toxicity potentiality was marked with the incense smoke, may be due

to addition of the organic ingredients, Table 3.9.

3.2.6 Sources of PM, BC, OC, ions and PAHs

The correlation matrix of PM10, BC, OC, ions and PAHs for the IS and MC

smokes is presented in Tables 3.10 – 3.17. The good correlation (r = 0.72 – 0.99)

of the PM, BC and OC among themselves in the IS and MC smokes was observed,

indicating origin from the burning processes, Figures 3.8 – 3.10.

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Table 3.10 Correlation (r) matrix of PM10, BC and OC with ions and PAHs in

IS smoke

Elements PM10 BC OC

Cl- 0.60 0.87 0.79

NO3- 0.23 0.64 0.61

SO42- 0.91 0.66 0.75

NH4+ 0.23 0.60 0.61

Na+ 0.58 0.85 0.87

K+ 0.98 0.89 0.87

Mg2+ 0.70 0.29 0.35

Ca2+ 0.74 0.35 0.41

Phe 0.52 0.55 0.82

Ant 0.34 0.39 0.68

Fla 0.79 0.69 0.87

Pyr 0.88 0.79 0.88

Baa 0.40 0.54 0.21

Cry 0.37 0.52 0.37

Bbf 0.37 0.52 0.30

Bkf 0.36 0.24 0.06

Bap 0.51 0.38 0.64

Dba 0.43 0.33 0.13

Bgh -0.03 0.01 -0.44

Ind -0.08 -0.20 -0.34

Cor 0.41 0.32 0.08

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Table 3.11 Correlation (r) matrix of PM10, BC and OC with ions and PAHs in

MC smoke

Elements PM10 BC OC

Cl- -0.63 -0.47 -0.27

NO3- -0.49 -0.78 -0.39

SO42- 0.17 -0.32 -0.30

NH4+ 0.82 0.79 0.61

Na+ -0.51 -0.94 -0.75

K+ -0.71 -0.17 -0.31

Mg2+ -0.39 -0.75 -0.33

Ca2+ -0.38 -0.78 -0.36

Phe -0.85 -0.55 -0.67

Ant -0.79 -0.38 -0.38

Fla 0.50 0.16 -0.18

Pyr -0.64 -0.17 -0.22

Baa -0.11 0.40 0.26

Cry -0.27 0.23 0.04

Bbf 0.80 0.64 0.29

Bkf 0.84 0.58 0.29

Bap 0.69 0.42 0.08

Dba 0.85 0.57 0.30

Bgh 0.94 0.77 0.52

Ind 0.53 0.15 -0.15

Cor 0.77 0.41 0.17

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Table 3.12 Correlation (r) matrix of ions in incense smoke

Cl- NO3- SO4

2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

Cl- 1.00

NO3- 0.78 1.00

SO42- 0.22 -0.02 1.00

NH4+ 0.66 0.98 0.06 1.00

Na+ 0.80 0.91 0.39 0.93 1.00

K+ 0.66 0.21 0.84 0.17 0.53 1.00

Mg2+ -0.11 -0.53 0.85 -0.48 -0.14 0.67 1.00

Ca2+ -0.07 -0.46 0.89 -0.41 -0.07 0.71 0.99 1.00

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Table 3.13 Correlation (r) matrix of ions in mosquito coil smoke

Cl- NO3- SO4

2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

Cl- 1.00

NO3- 0.77 1.00

SO42- -0.66 -0.06 1.00

NH4+ -0.91 -0.88 0.31 1.00

Na+ 0.21 0.70 0.60 -0.58 1.00

K+ 0.78 0.23 -0.81 -0.64 -0.18 1.00

Mg2+ 0.70 0.99 0.00 -0.81 0.72 0.13 1.00

Ca2+ 0.64 0.98 0.10 -0.78 0.77 0.05 0.99 1.00

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Table 3.14 Correlation (r) matrix of PAHs in incense smoke

Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor

Phe 1.00

Ant 0.98 1.00

Fla 0.58 0.42 1.00

Pyr 0.51 0.32 0.98 1.00

Baa 0.13 0.10 -0.23 -0.08 1.00

Cry 0.50 0.51 -0.14 -0.06 0.90 1.00

Bbf 0.37 0.37 -0.19 -0.09 0.96 0.99 1.00

Bkf -0.50 -0.67 0.39 0.49 -0.20 -0.56 -0.45 1.00

Bap 0.41 0.28 0.93 0.86 -0.58 -0.47 -0.54 0.44 1.00

Dba -0.46 -0.63 0.42 0.53 -0.12 -0.47 -0.37 0.99 0.43 1.00

Bgh -0.78 -0.82 -0.45 -0.28 0.48 0.05 0.21 0.51 -0.53 0.53 1.00

Ind -0.75 -0.84 0.09 0.14 -0.45 -0.80 -0.69 0.90 0.28 0.86 0.50 1.00

Cor -0.50 -0.67 0.36 0.48 -0.07 -0.44 -0.33 0.99 0.36 0.99 0.59 0.86 1.00

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Table 3.15 Correlation (r) matrix of PAHs in mosquito coil smoke

Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor

Phe 1.00

Ant 0.93 1.00

Fla -0.35 -0.64 1.00

Pyr 0.87 0.97 -0.60 1.00

Baa 0.52 0.70 -0.43 0.84 1.00

Cry 0.68 0.79 -0.37 0.90 0.98 1.00

Bbf -0.49 -0.63 0.86 -0.48 -0.06 -0.09 1.00

Bkf -0.62 -0.78 0.89 -0.66 -0.26 -0.31 0.98 1.00

Bap -0.47 -0.69 0.96 -0.59 -0.28 -0.28 0.96 0.98 1.00

Dba -0.67 -0.82 0.88 -0.71 -0.32 -0.37 0.96 0.99 0.97 1.00

Bgh -0.68 -0.74 0.74 -0.59 -0.10 -0.19 0.96 0.97 0.89 0.96 1.00

Ind -0.43 -0.71 0.99 -0.69 -0.52 -0.47 0.83 0.89 0.95 0.89 0.74 1.00

Cor -0.67 -0.86 0.93 -0.79 -0.48 -0.51 0.90 0.97 0.96 0.98 0.89 0.95 1.00

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Table 3.16 Correlation (r) matrix of ions with PAHs in incense smoke

PAHs Cl- NO3- SO4

2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

Phe 0.33 -0.28 0.74 -0.33 0.04 0.87 0.85 0.85

Ant 0.21 -0.42 0.60 -0.50 -0.15 0.75 0.83 0.81

Fla 0.25 0.14 0.97 0.24 0.52 0.77 0.72 0.77

Pyr 0.41 0.33 0.93 0.43 0.68 0.79 0.58 0.65

Baa 0.88 0.64 -0.23 0.46 0.50 0.32 -0.40 -0.38

Cry 0.78 0.29 -0.04 0.09 0.25 0.51 -0.03 -0.03

Bbf 0.82 0.42 -0.12 0.22 0.33 0.44 -0.17 -0.17

Bkf 0.08 0.62 0.18 0.77 0.65 -0.09 -0.28 -0.22

Bap -0.12 -0.11 0.90 0.06 0.27 0.51 0.73 0.77

Dba 0.18 0.68 0.21 0.82 0.72 -0.02 -0.28 -0.21

Bgh 0.34 0.77 -0.62 0.75 0.46 -0.44 -0.94 -0.91

Ind -0.31 0.33 -0.11 0.51 0.27 -0.49 -0.41 -0.37

Cor 0.20 0.72 0.15 0.85 0.73 -0.05 -0.35 -0.28

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Table 3.17 Correlation (r) matrix of ions with PAHs in mosquito coil smoke

PAHs Cl- NO3- SO4

2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

Phe 0.82 0.98 -0.11 -0.95 0.72 0.39 0.95 0.93

Ant 0.62 0.98 0.13 -0.77 0.79 0.03 0.99 0.99

Fla 0.20 -0.47 -0.78 0.06 -0.75 0.73 -0.55 -0.62

Pyr 0.64 0.96 0.01 -0.71 0.64 0.01 0.98 0.98

Baa 0.48 0.68 -0.21 -0.35 0.16 -0.11 0.73 0.71

Cry 0.65 0.81 -0.28 -0.54 0.26 0.07 0.84 0.80

Bbf 0.10 -0.49 -0.81 0.30 -0.95 0.44 -0.53 -0.60

Bkf -0.06 -0.66 -0.71 0.42 -0.97 0.39 -0.69 -0.76

Bap 0.12 -0.53 -0.81 0.22 -0.90 0.58 -0.59 -0.67

Dba -0.13 -0.71 -0.66 0.47 -0.97 0.36 -0.74 -0.80

Bgh -0.17 -0.66 -0.63 0.54 -0.99 0.19 -0.67 -0.72

Ind 0.11 -0.55 -0.71 0.14 -0.76 0.67 -0.63 -0.70

Cor -0.15 -0.74 -0.61 0.43 -0.91 0.41 -0.79 -0.85

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y = 1.015x + 134r = 0.99

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

0 5000 10000 15000 20000

PM

10,µ

g m

-3

PM2.5, µg m-3

IS

y = 0.994x + 78.05r = 0.99

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

0 500 1000 1500

PM

10,µ

g m

-3

PM2.5, µg m-3

MC

Figure 3.8 Correlation of PM2.5 with PM10 in IS and MC smokes.

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y = 7.528x + 2831.r = 0.75

02000400060008000

1000012000140001600018000

0 500 1000 1500 2000

PM

10,µ

g m

-3

BC, µg m-3

y = 1.575x + 1270.r = 0.93

02000400060008000

1000012000140001600018000

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

PM

10,µ

g m

-3

OC, µg m-3

y = 0.120x + 210.8r = 0.72

0200400600800

1000120014001600

0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

BC

,µg

m-3

OC, µg m-3

Figure 3.9 Correlation of PM10, BC and OC in incense smoke.

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y = 14.56x + 157.0r = 0.76

0200400600800

1000120014001600

0 20 40 60 80 100

PM

10,µ

g m

-3

BC, µg m-3

y = 3.388x - 137.0r = 0.88

0200400600800

1000120014001600

0 100 200 300 400 500

PM

10,µ

g m

-3

OC, µg m-3

y = 0.172x + 2.746r = 0.86

0102030405060708090

0 100 200 300 400 500

BC

,µg

m-3

OC, µg m-3

Figure 3.10 Correlation of PM10, BC and OC in mosquito coil smoke.

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The ions i.e. Cl-, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ are expected to emit with the PM

during the fuming processes. Whereas, other ions i.e. NO3-, SO4

2- and NH4+

are assumed to be form by the atmospheric reactions. In the IS smoke, the

ions i.e. Cl-, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ had fair to excellent correlation (r = 0.58

– 0.98) with the PM10. Among them, some of the ions showed good

correlations (r = 0.53 – 0.99). In the MC smoke, ions generally showed no

correlation with the PM10, may be due to mixing of salts of Na and K.

However, some ions i.e. Cl-, Mg2+ and Ca2+ among themselves had good

correlation (r = 0.64 – 0.99).

The PAHs are generated by the atmospheric reactions at the fuming

temperature. The higher PAHs are generally present in the particulate phase

unlikely to the lower ones. Some PAHs had good correlation (r = 0.50 – 0.94)

with the PM10, BC and OC in the IS and MC smokes, indicating origin during the

fuming processes. The higher PAHs (i.e. Bkf, Bap, Bgh, Dba, Ind and Cor) were

well correlated (r = 0.51 – 0.99) among themselves in the IS and MC smokes.

3.2.7 Chemical composition of PM

The fraction of the chemical constituents in the particulates (PM) is shown in

Tables 3.18 – 3.20. The BC and OC fraction (n = 4) for the incense PM was

ranged from 3.9 – 8.8 and 49.5 – 73.4% with mean value of 5.9±2.3 and

61.4±9.9%, respectively. Similarly, the BC and OC fraction (n = 4) for MC PM

was ranged from 5.5 – 7.2 and 24.2 – 30.4% with mean value of 6.0±0.8 and

27.5±2.9%, respectively. The TC fraction for IS and MC PM was ranged from

67.2 – 80.0 and 26.0 – 36.8% with mean value of 67.4±10.5 and 31.6±5.4%,

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respectively. The high TC fraction in the IS PM was observed, may be due to

higher OC content likely to the biomass PM.

The sum of total fraction of ions i.e. Cl-, NO3-, SO4

2-, NH4+, Na+, K+, Mg2+ and

Ca2+ (n = 4) for IS and MC PM was ranged from 12.0 – 12.9 and 129 – 349 g kg-1

with mean value of 12.4±0.4 and 232±89 g kg-1, respectively. The significant high

fraction of ions in the MC PM is expected due to addition of salts as ingredients.

The total ∑PAH13 content in the IS and MC PM (n = 4) was ranged from 651 –

1680 and 26.3 – 95.6 mg kg-1 with a mean value of 1153±418 and 50.1±30.4 mg

kg-1, respectively. The high content of the PAHs in the IS PM is expected due to

the fast fuming rates (≈ 0.2 g min-1).

The overall total fraction of carbons, ions and PAHs (n = 4) in the IS and MC PM

was ranged from 55.1 – 81.3 and 40.6 – 70.8% with mean value of 68.7±10.5 and

54.8±13.4%, respectively, Figure 3.11. The higher fraction of the total chemical

constituents was observed with the IS PM, due to higher fraction of OC content.

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Table 3.18 Fraction of carbons in PM10, %

S. No. Materials BC OC TC

IS1 Mumtaj 4.3 49.5 53.8

IS2 Krishna 3.9 64.5 68.4

IS3 Lubhan 6.6 73.4 80.0

IS4 Parivar 100 8.8 58.4 67.2

MC1 Hit 7.2 29.6 36.8

MC2 Jet 5.6 24.2 26.0

MC3 Mortein 5.6 25.7 27.7

MC4 Tartoise 5.5 30.4 35.9

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Table 3.19 Fraction of ions in PM10, g kg-1

S. No. Cl- NO3- SO4

2- NH4+ Na+ K+ Mg2+ Ca2+

IS1 1.7 0.5 1.6 0.0 0.3 3.3 1.1 4.4

IS2 4.1 2.2 0.8 0.1 0.5 3.7 0.1 0.7

IS3 3.0 2.7 1.4 0.1 0.7 3.0 0.1 1.0

IS4 2.7 1.6 1.3 0.1 0.5 3.3 0.5 2.3

MC1 95 20 22 2 8 89 1 7

MC2 23 20 120 1 15 10 2 16

MC3 12 12 89 2 5 4 0 5

MC4 129 49 54 1 17 51 5 43

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Table 3.20 Fraction of PAHs in PM10, mg kg-1

S.N. Phe Ant Fla Pyr Baa Cry Bbf Bkf Bap Dba Bgh Ind Cor

IS1 58 17 102 105 38 119 88 6 84 12 16 6 0

IS2 68 22 65 84 408 419 501 0 18 8 87 0 0

IS3 21 7 116 140 114 105 86 63 95 139 75 59 26

IS4 62 34 77 42 83 314 150 29 125 34 179 106 0

MC1 1.8 0.6 1.2 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.8 1.5 3.9 0.3 2.5 3.1 0.6

MC2 5.7 4.6 0.6 6.6 5.7 6.8 3.5 0.9 2.6 0.2 2.0 0.5 0.0

MC3 0.7 1.0 1.0 3.6 5.4 5.8 6.0 2.3 4.9 0.5 4.7 2.2 0.7

MC4 8.0 6.5 3.8 21.4 12.1 18.6 7.2 1.9 6.2 0.3 5.3 3.0 1.4

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TC68%

∑ion81%

∑PAH130%

Others31%

IS

TC32%

∑ion823%∑PAH13

0%

Others45%

MC

Figure 3.11 Mean chemical composition of IS and MC particulates.

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3.3 CONCLUSION

The fraction of BC in the IS and MC PM was observed lie ≈ 6.0%. The OC

fraction in the IS PM was observed to be more than 2-folds higher than the MC

PM. At least 19-folds higher fraction of ions (i.e. Cl-, NO3-, SO4

2-, NH4+, Na+, K+,

Mg2+ and Ca2+) in the MC PM was observed. The higher concentration of ions

(i.e. Cl- and SO42-) in the MC smoke is responsible for making the acidic

particulate environment. However, at least 20-folds higher concentration of the

∑PAH13 in the IS smoke was marked. The MC smoke is seems to be more

dangerous than the IS smoke, due to the acidic particulate environment during

fuming processes.

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ABSTRACT

In the present work, the chemical composition of various indoor ash residues

derived from burning of the biomass (BM), coal (C), cow dung (CD), incense

(IS) and mosquito coil (MC) materials is described. Three samples each of

biomass, coal, cow dung, incense and mosquito coil materials were burnt in

October, 2010 in Raipur. The ash residues were collected and sieved out the

particles of mesh size 0.1 mm size. The pH value of the indoor ash residues

(n = 15) was ranged from 6.4 – 11.7 with mean value of 9.7±0.9. The BC,

OC, CC, Cl-, NO3-, SO4

2-, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+ content (n = 15) was ranged

from 4.87 – 9.67, 0.32 – 0.88, 0.33 – 0.86, 0.12 – 8.27, 0.01 – 0.64, 0.74 –

12.53, 0.06 – 4.47, 0.29 – 15.45, 0.30 – 2.51 and 0.68 – 19.05% with mean

value of 7.60±0.88, 0.58±0.10, 0.56±0.08, 1.81±1.18, 0.10±0.08, 3.31±1.66,

1.05±0.70, 4.92±2.04, 1.27±0.36 and 7.68±2.94%, respectively. The

concentration of F-, Fe, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb (n = 15) was ranged from

124 – 4508, 1100 – 24600, 12 – 211, 109 – 1102, 5 – 142, 21 – 145, 25 – 244 and

5 – 42 mg kg-1 with mean value of 11880±4177, 95±31, 474±152, 43±23, 75±23,

107±32 and 16±6 mg kg-1, respectively. The correlation of chemical

constituents of indoor ash residues is described.