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Archne t-IJAR, Interna tiona l Journal of A rchitec tural Research - Volume 3 - Issue 1 - Marc h 2009

A Co ncep tual Unde rstand ing for Tea c hing the History of Islamic Architec ture:An Iranian (Persian) Perspec tive

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time. The c onve rsion from trad itiona lism tomodernism has created various challenges in

all economical, cultural, and social aspectsof life a s we ll as in the a rc hitec tural expressionin these countries. Most of the modern Muslimarchitects who are looking for an expressionof regiona l and c ultural va lues in the ir mod erndesigns, mostly limit themselves to just repea tingtraditional forms and/or orders.

A major part of this challenge, however,c omes from inapp ropriate e duc ation and c an,

accordingly, be solved by offering a moreimag inative and ap prop riate ed uc ation. Thequest for returning to original values as well asidentifying an acceptable and appropriatewa y of ad ap ting to mod ern time, contemp orarydesign highlights the importance of history andtrad ition. History is, in fac t, an integ ral pa rt ofthe identity of any c ontem po rary culture. Thehisto ry lesson a nd its influence on the forma tion

of our contemporary architecture, however,has often been underestimated in the schoolsof architecture.

In the c ase o f the a rc hitec ture of Muslim c ultures,several forms and symb ols have be en introd uc edas ge neral Islamic a rchitec tural charac teristics.For insta nc e, the do me and minaret a re strongsymbols of Islamic architecture, as is the use

of the integrated courtyard, the Ivan, or otherdecorations. It is true that these forms aresymbols of the architecture of Muslim cultures,but p erhap s the mo re impo rtant q uestion whic hour students should be able to answer, is whythese forms appeared, should these forms orsymb ols ap ply in the sam e w ay to c ontem po rarya rchitec ture? If these trad itiona l forms andsymb ols should cha nge in respe c t of tod ay sdemands, expectations or needs, according

to which criteria should these changes takeplace? On the other hand, the creation and

de velopm ent o f trad itional Islamic a rc hitec turewa s ba sed on a pa rtic ular pe rspe c tive andphilosop hy, of which tod ay s stude nts and thearchitec ts of the future are almost igno rant.

The te ac hing of History ap pea rs to b e the b est,if not the only way in which stude nts c an b esupported to rep ly to those q uestions. Stud entsshould be able to think about and interprettrad itional Islam ic a rc hitec ture. Suc h a de ep

und ersta nd ing w ill insp ire stud ents in their futureprofessional life and in their designing abilities.Accordingly, in this paper various thoughtsand idea s reg arding the history of a rc hitec tureand especially Islamic architecture havebeen reviewed. As an inductive analysis ofthe literature and writings on the subject,the study tends to explore the new ways ofteaching Islamic architecture. Focusing on the

architectural background, such as the socialand cultural factors and raising questions inrespe c t of the proc ess of de velopm ent intrad itional architec ture, have bee n a rgued asbeing the most suitable ways of teaching thehistory of Islamic architecture. As an exampleto testify to th is, the Islamic a rchitec ture o f Iranduring the Safa vid pe riod has be en a nalyzed .The Sa fav id a rc hitec ture, pa rticula rly in tha t

of the public buildings, has been evaluated inthe study, which was based on four influentialfac tors: ide ntity, po litica l po we r, symb olism ,and religious belief . This eva luation a imsto achieve a combination of research andprac tice, history and theory.

Review of Theoretica l Discourse

Ac c ording to Moha mm ed Arkoun (1997), Spiro


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Kostof (1986), Haider Gulzar (1986) and JohnHabraken (2006) the b est sourc e of p rovid ing a

c orrec t und ersta nding o f trad itional architectureand c ultura l issues to the arc hitec ture stud ents,is the history lesson. In studying history, asHab raken (2006) sta tes, stud ents will lea rnwhat funda menta l ima ges and am bitions haveguided us in the past and may guide us infuture.

It is c lear tha t stud ying the history of a rchitec tureis not limited to memorizing the dates, names

and architec ts of fa mo us buildings. In fa c t, themission o f the histo ry lesson as we ll as other rela tedc ourses in the stud y of a rc hitec ture is to p repa restudents for the real designs and the practicalworld. One way of achieving this according toRobert Harrison (1996), is to define the subjectof history as: th inking c om paratively; Thepa st should not be seen to me an som ethingover and done with, inert, static, and finished,

he says. La te r Harrison (1996) c laims lib raries asthe main place for learning history should beinteresting places too: I rec ently sat in on a stude nt review in w hic h

a library rep resente d the pa st, a vide o ha ll thep resent a nd a laboratory the future. The lib ra rywas a tomb, as some libraries are, wherethe re w as nothing new . This wa s based ona misconception about libraries, as places

where you go to check facts, which matchesa students misapprehension about the stuff ofhisto ry.

To think c om paratively and to b ring the historylesson to life, as Spiro Kostof (1986) points out,a rch itec tura l histo ry courses must stress the soc ial,c ultural, and e c ologica l fac tors that g ave rise tospecific architec tural forms, rathe r than trea tingthese forms as a purely p lastic a rt. Haide r Gulza r

(1986) also m akes a simila r sta tem ent w hen hesays, Theo ry is interwove n with p rac tice and

belief with action. In education, contents andme thod are insep arab le. The be st pe da go gyis rooted in the arena of life. An educationthat does not enhance the art of living is onlytra ining for rout ine ta sks or fruitless sophistry. Thestudio would be extended to the city and thecity brought into the classroom.

David Dunster (1996) believes that emphasizingArchitec ture Theo ry in the history lesson c an b e

a goo d wa y to show the students how a n ide ais created, developed and then transformedinto the architectural form. He categorizes thehistory of architecture tea c hing into tw o g roup s:the survey c ourses and the in-dep th spe c ialism.Dunster (1996) claims that these two types ofc ourses esta b lish, rather prec isely, the limits ofarchitectural history, which here models itselfup on t he p a rent Art History, itself the p rog eny

of the discipline that only evolved, in the formtha t we know it, during the 19th c entu ry- History.Ac c ording to him, there is a p ossible third typ e ofc ourse- tha t w hic h looks at c urrent a rc hitec ture,and this ma y well co nnect ba ck into what heargues c onstitutes the threa t to histo ry p rop er c ourses in interp reta tion, or, as they p refe r to b ec alled , Architec tural Theo ry.

On the other hand, Adam Hardy (1996)emphasizes that: understanding characteristickinds of form, spa c e, a nd c olor is an imp ortantfoc us of history tea c hing. As he sta tes: Onekind of architectural history aims to show howto see, how to experience, different kindsof architecture; or, to put it another way,to understand their different kinds of order,their characteristic kinds of form, space andc olor. Suc h a n a pp roa c h a ims, in looking at a


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pa rtic ular wo rk of a rc hitec ture, to know its pa rtsand how they are arranged together, and to

c ontemp late the whole.

Later he makes it clear that perhaps this kindof history is a pp rop riate m ainly to the art p artsof architecture, to the monumental morethan the vernacular. Nevertheless, since thistype of history tea c hing has c om e c lose toge tting und er the skin of de signers in thepast, he believes it is likely to give students anunderstanding of and inspiration for design,

Iain Borden (1996:143) also believes thatde mo nstrating the p roc ess of c rea ting b uildingsmight be an ap propriate way of teac hinghistory. According to him, architectural historyhas rea c hed a p oint where, in ma ny wa ys, it c ansuc c essfully ac c ount for how and why b uildingsare built in the first place, and why they takethe ir pa rtic ular form. Borden (1996:137) sta tes:

We should not present architecture as anautono mous ac tivity, which ca n be ap preciatedonly by being fully-immersed in its ways or bywa tc hing respe c tively from afa r, but a s som ethingcapable of being inserted and understood inwide r co mp rehension of c ultural p rod uc tion. Thisc an of c ourse be d one by showing the eco nomic,social and political contexts of architectureWe therefore need not just to plac e a rc hitec tureas an historical subject within various historicalc ontexts, but a lso eng ag e in the inter-disc iplinarydebates centered on different theorizations ofthe cultural.

Islam ic Architec ture and History Lesson

Tea c hing Islam ic architec ture m ight b e d one b yusing any of those methods, which have beenso far discussed. It can be taught as Adam

Hardy (1996:187) states by understandingcharacteristic kinds of form, space, and

color and/or by stressing the social, cultural,and ec olog ica l fac to rs as Sp iro Kostof (1986)believes and/or by demonstrating the processof creating buildings according to Iain Borden(1996:143). How eve r, notwithsta nd ing t aking a llthese useful and practical factors and pointsinto c onsidera tion, there is a further step , whichrequires to be taken too, due to the nature ofIslam a nd Islamic a rc hitec ture.

The te rm Islamic a rc hitec ture , which a pp lies tothe trad itiona l a rchitec ture of Muslim c ount ries,is a d iverse a rc hitec ture. The interpreta tion o fIslam itself a lso d iffers amo ng st the va rious Muslimc ultures. Religious beliefs genera lly have d ifferentmeaning s fo r various c ultures. This rea lity in Islamis even more apparent because it is a socialreligion, which offers guida nc e and ad vic e foreveryda y life. Co nseq uently, in e ac h region, the

interpretation of Islam has been influenced byothe r fac tors suc h a s c ulture, soc io-ec ono mica lfac tors, politic a l po we rs, other religions, etc . Forinstance, it is well known that Islam is opposedto nationalism. In Iran, nevertheless, Islam orrathe r the Iranian interpreta tion of Islam, know nas Shiism, ha s ac ted as a found a tion fo r Iraniannationalism.

As the e xpression of Islam va ries in d ifferentsocieties, it can also change within the samesociety. For example, Islam does not have thesame ma nifesta tion fo r co ntemp orary Turkish o rEgyptian people as it did in previous centuries.Therefore , in refe rring to Islam ic c ultures andtheir architecture, it is better to consider theinterpreta tions and expressions of the religion a ndthe various cultures rather than just consideringthe Islamic religion as a purist singular religion.




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Since these e xpressions a re d ifferent fromcountry to country and from region to region,

we are d ea ling w ith c om plex manifestations inarchitecture and culture. On the other hand,this multiplic ity of ma nifesta tions doe s not denythe real fact of sharing the characteristics ofbeing Muslim. In othe r words, it is better to lookat Islamic cultures as a large puzzle, in whichalthough the pieces are different from eachothe r, toge ther they make a single imag e.

In addition, understanding diverse Islamic

cultures and investigating traditionalarchitecture is better done through the useof tools and / or wa ys, which are related tothis tradition and culture. As a Muslim scholarand a rc hitec t Isma il Serag eldin (1990:45) b yexpla ining the d ifferenc es betw ee n Islamicand non-Islamic cultures, observed that wemay not have a correct understanding ofIslamic architecture and culture unless we use

an insider tool/method:: I can describe thereality we live in this roo m b y ta king a ya rdstick,whic h is a very useful too l, and by m ea suring t hesize, the length, the height and describing allthe curves in this room. It is a description of therea lity, but d oe s not include t he tem pe rature orthe humidity of the roo m. Neither of these wo uldbe captured by a yardstick. It does not meanthat the yardstick is not accurate but that we

need other tools

Iranian soc iolog ist Ali Sha ria ti (1981) alsobelieve s tha t using orig inal inside r source s a re asimportan t a s using w ell-know n o utsiders idea s.The use o f suc h sourc es will p rovide a c orrec tund ersta nd ing of the orig inal culture and Islamicarchitecture. As an example of such Islamicarchitecture understanding and teaching, theSafa vid architec ture of Iran has been ana lyzed

in the following sec tion using ma inly orig inalsources and by investigating the influential

factors in the formation of architecture duringthis period .

Iranian Islamic Architec ture d uring theSafavid Period

According to Iranian history, it appears thatsince the arrival of Islam, although the Iranianpopulation is a composition of different ethnicgroup s, during the Safa vid p eriod (16th-18th), an

Iranian d ynasty c ould ha ve c ontrol over almosta ll the Iranian territory as it sta nd s tod ay. In fa c t,the Sa fa vid p eriod is significantly important indefining Iranian religious belief, language, andc ulture. Sa favid arc hitec ture also ha s bee none of the most important types of Islamicarchitecture in Iran.

Sa fav id architec ture is not o nly impo rtant

in Iranian architectural history, but it is alsoone of the most distinguished types of Islamicarchitecture. John D. Hoag (1977, In Alsace?1997: 447) desc ribes the Sa favids in Iran, in theOttoman Empire, and in Moghul India, as thethree great innovators in Islamic architecturaldevelopment. Hoag claims that these threeem p ires d iffered from all previous Islamic reg imesbe ca use: eac h had d eveloped a c ertain self-c onsc iousness, a kind of na tiona l self-awa rene sssimilar to the contemporary evolution whichfrom the culturally rather homogenous lands ofthe Midd le Ages c rea ted the va ried Europ ea nnations we know today. Each of the threeadapted the architectural forms, ornament,and materials locally available and made ofthem a unique and wholly individual style whiledevising highly original solutions for the age-old problems of the mosque, the residential




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dw elling, and the tom b

Safav id a rchitec ture and its fam ous historica lbuildings although are quite well known,ha s bee n ra rely d isc ussed in respe c t of whysuc h forms and order have b een used in thisarchitecture (Fig 1, 2, 3, 4). In other words,the architectural background, as well as theinfluence of socio-cultural factors has oftenbeen somewhat neglected in studying andtea c hing this trad itional architec ture.

One of the ma jor differenc es be twe en this Iraniandynasty and that of the other Muslim rulers is intheir religious belief and their interpretation ofIslam. Historically, Iran has been known as oneof the most important parts of Islamic world.The inte rpreta tion o f Islam , however, in Iran

has differed from other Muslim countries since

the Sa fav id p eriod . During this period , Twe lverShiism wa s c hosen as the o fficial religion ofIran. This transformation from the Sunni to theShiite form o f the Muslim relig ion ha s ha d longlasting effects on Iranian society, culture, andarchitec ture. As in mod ern times, ma ny religiousbeliefs and traditions are comparable with thisperiod.

There is no e videnc e, how eve r, to show tha tShiism w as the origina l religion of t he Safa vidkings, although this form was chosen andintrod uc ed by the m a s the state religion o f Iran.In fa c t, the Sa fav id d ynasty ha d its origins in along estab lished Sufi order, which ha d flourishedin Azerbaijan since the early 14th century.Cliffo rd E. Bosworth (1996:279) de sc ribes theorigin of the Sa favids as:

Figure 1: Kha ju Bridge, Sa fa vidpe riod , Isfaha n (Sourc e: Autho r).

A C t l U d t d i f T hi th Hi t f I l i A hit t




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The fa mily [Sa fav ids] he aded a Sufi order,the Safa wiyya, ba sed on Arde bil in Azerba yjan,origina lly o rthodox Sunni in c om plexion, but inthe mid-fifteenth c entury the lead er of the orde r,Shaykh Junayd, emb arked on a ca mp aignfor the material power in addition to spiritualautho rity. In the a tmo sphe re o f heterod oxy andShii symp at hies amo ng the Turkme n o f Ana toliaand Azerba ijan, the Safa wiyya grad uallybec am e Shii in em pha sis

There are som e te stimo nies, even, whic h showShah Isma il I, the found er of the Sa fav id d ynastywa s not a stric t Muslim. As A.H. Mo rton (InMorgan, 1999:22-23), states the behavior of

Isma il and his c ourt wa s highly unorthod ox in anyIslam ic te rms right up to the e nd of the reign .As a notice ab le e xam ple, he quotes the c ourtsattitude towards alcohol: wine was indulgedin among the Qizilbash in the reign of Ismail,not shamefacedly and in private as an illegalvic e, but o pe nly and with enthusiasm a s pa rt ofpub lic ritua ls . This the refore, ra ises the questionas to w hy Shiism w as introd uc ed as the o fficial

religion of Iran d uring the Sa fav id p eriod .

Figure 4: Che hel-Sutun Palac e (Palac e of fo rty colum ns),Safa vid p eriod, Isfah an (Sourc e: Autho r).

Figure 2: Ima m Mo sque , Safa vid p eriod, Isfah an (Sourc e:Author).

Figure 3: Hasht-Behe sht Palac e (Palac e o f eight pa rad ises),

Safa vid p eriod, Isfaha n (Sourc e: Autho r).

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In fac t, mo st histo rians like, for exam p le, DavidMorgan (1999:22-23) describe this involuntary

c onversion to Shiism as for rea sons of sta te , akind of political calculation and a sense ofidentity: The line of a rgume nt go es that the ad vanta geof Shiism, in the eyes of sha h Ismail and his advisers,was not that it was necessarily true, but that itserved to differentiate Persia from the OttomanEmp ire, to provide the new Safa vid sta te, whosepe op le p erhap s lac ked a suffic iently nineteenth-century concept of national feeling, with a

sense o f a d istinc t a nd c ohe rent identity: Shiism= Persia

Thus, during this period , relig ion , and po we rwe re integ rate d with othe r in order to create anew Islamic em p ire. As a result, it ca n prob ab ly bec onc lude d that the Safa vid lea de rs estab lishedthe foundation of todays Iranian identity. AsAmerican historian Nikki Keddie (1998) states,

they were ac knowledg ed in this role be c ausethey were ab le to esta blish a c om mo n religion,and they were also ab le to unify a large a rea ,whic h mo re o r less c onstitutes the Iran of to day.

Cho osing religion a s a un ifying fac tor, howe ver,wa s a sma rt wa y in respe c t of de aling w ith theva riety of ethnicities and c ultures in the then , asnow , Iranian soc iety. Iran is a large c ount ry with

va rious ethnic ities, c ultures, and sub - c ultures,suc h a s Fars, Turke, Lor, Ba loc h, Kord etc . Thisva ria tion still exists. As a result of c hoosing theShiite form of religious belief and Farsi as theofficial language, different social groups cametogether to create a nation and support thisnew e mp ire.

During this period, some legends were evenc rea ted in orde r to m arry Persian roya lties to

Islam. The fam ous one tha t o rdinary pe op le stillbelieve in , is the legend that (Imam) Husayn,

the martyred son of (Imam) Ali had marriedthe c ap tive Sassanian p rince ss, Sha hrba nu, theLady of the Land . Through suc h sto ries, andma ny othe r a ttemp ts, Iranian Sa favid roya ltytried to tie them selves to the relig ion o f Shiism.As Persian kings, had themselves formerly beenatt ac hed to the Zoroastrian religion.

It appears, therefore, that the three factors ofidentity, power, and religious belief were

importan t in the Sa fav id c ulture. It w as a lsonec essary tha t the architec ture of this periodshould also reflec t those influent ial fac tors sincearchitecture has been known to representand express the language of cultures. In fact,the architecture of public buildings during theSa fav id p eriod pa rtic ularly expressed thoseaforementioned influential factors.

However, these factors did not hold the samelevel of imp ortanc e from building to building.For example, in the architecture of palacespow er w as usua lly the strongest fac to r. Suc h asAliqa pu p alac e-the m ost important c eremo nialpa lac e o f the Safa vids- wa s c onstruc ted ina style simila r to tha t of p re-Islam ic Persianpa lac es (Fig 5). The use o f the flat roof and thethin, tall columns on the veranda is reminiscent

of the Persian pa lac es in Persep olis, wh ilst, in thearchitecture of for instance, mosques religiousbelief was much more important than otherfactors. For example, Lotfollah mosque, whichwas built in front of Aliqapu palace, has ad ifferent d esign a pproa c h. This mo sque w ith itssingle dome on top of a long horizontal skylineexpresses a c alm and pe ac eful c harac ter (Fig6). The sma ll-sc a led pub lic buildings suc h aslocal mosques, small baths, private gardens

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and so o n, had less to d o w ith p olitica l pow er inc om pa rison to mo numenta l bu ild ings (Fig 7, 8).Therefore, it de pend s from whic h pe rspec tiveand in respect of which type of building, thearchitec ture of this period is stud ied.

Ove ra ll, the Sa fav id a rchitec ture in Iran asa distinguished part of Islamic architecturecontains some special characteristics, whichma ke it d ifferent from other typ es. Those

characteristics were based on the influentialsoc io-cultural fac tors of this period . In as faras, the Sa favids a re known a s the fo und ersof Iran cultural identity, the architecture ofcontemporary times should also reflect someof the se original cultura l va lues. How eve r, thewa y in which the architectural c harac teristicsof this period might be reused depends onthe ap proac h to and interpretation of thearchitec ture o f this pe riod by the d esigne r.

Figure 5: Aliqa pu p ala c e, Safa vid p eriod, Isfah an , (Sourc e:

http://archnet.org).

Figure 7: Pige on Tow er, Safa vid p eriod, Isfaha n, (Sourc e:

http://archnet.org).

Figure 6: Lotfo llah Mosque , Sa favid pe riod , Isfah an , (Sourc e:Mohamm ad Sad eh).

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Conclusion

There is no a rchitec ture, which has bee ndesigned or created overnight or by the acts,will or thought of just one person. In fact,architecture represents the story of life, inwhich the anonymous characters are just asimportant a s the rulers and even the a rc hitec tsthemselves. The d eve lopm ent and p rog ressionof architecture depends on the socio-cultural,economical, environmental and many other

factors at the time. For example, in answer to

the que stion: wha t is a rchitec ture? sta tes: Is it the va st c ollec tion of the va rious build ingswhich have been built to please the varyingta ste of the va rious lords of m ankind ? I think not.No, I know that architecture is life; or at leastit is life itself taking form and therefore it is thetruest record of life as it was lived in the worldyesterday, as it is lived today or ever will belived . So a rc hitec ture I know to b e a Grea t Sp irit.

Figure 8: Isma il Ma usoleum an d Isaia h Mosque , Safa vid p eriod, Isfah an , (Sourc e: http :// arc hne t.org).

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. . . Arc hitec ture is tha t g rea t living c rea tive sp iritwhich from g eneration to gene ration, from a geto age, proceeds, persists, creates, according

to the nature of m an, a nd his c irc umstanc es asthey cha nge. Tha t is rea lly a rc hitec ture (LloydWright, In Broo ks Pfeiffe r& Nordland 1988:7)

To stud y and learn arch itec ture, pa rtic ularlythe history of architecture, then, it is verynecessary to pay attention to the architecturalbackgrounds and the influencing factors.Stud ying the history of a rc hitec ture should b e a

thoughtful process, which is accompanied byund ersta nd ing and interpreta tions. Tea c hingthe history of architecture in this way as IainBorde n (1996:144-145) sta te s, give s studen ts newthings to think ab out a nd ne w w ays in whic h tothink about them. Borden claims that askingarchitectural students to think about a numberof different interpretations, even contradictoryinterp reta tions, turns histo ry into som ething

that is not so much to be learned as to bethought about and puzzled over; it rendersa rchitec tural history ac tive, not pa ssive

This typ e o f histo ry teac hing is even m orenecessary for the study and interpretation ofIslamic architecture, since it has often beenview ed as a hom og eneo us architec ture. Theterm Islamic architec ture has be en used tode sc ribe the trad itional architec ture of ma ny

regions, from Ind one sia and China in theea st to M oroc c o a nd Spa in in the we st. Theinterpretation of Islam and Islamic architectureove r suc h a large territory ha s be en hea vilyinfluenced by local cultures and other regionalfac tors. How ever, it d oes not mea n tha t there isdo ubt a bo ut using the term Islam ic a rc hitec tureas som e sc ho lars, c laims.

Between these two extremes, however, it

appears that Islamic architecture containssome shared values, popular forms, functions,and symb ols. It a lso expresses reg iona l and loc al

characteristics, which differs among variousMuslim c ultures. Introd uc ing Islam ic a rchitec turein history lesson, therefore, should be based onsuch diverse interpretations as well as focusingon the architectural background and takinginto a c c ount tho se fa c tors which influence theforma tion of the b uilt environm ent. As a result ofsuc h und ersta nd ing, insight a nd awa rene ss it ispossible to b ring the sp irit of Islam ic a rchitec ture

into the histo ry lesson.

References

Alsac , U. (1997). Theo retica l ob serva tions on thearchitec ture, EMU, Ga zimagusa , TRNC.

Arkoun, M. (1986) Islam ic Culture, Mo dernity,Architec ture, In Architectural Educ ation in the IslamicWorld. Ahmet Evin, ed. Conc ept Media/ Aga Khan

Awa rd for Architec ture, Singap ore/ Gene va.Borde n, I. (1996). Architec ture, Not: Tea chingArc hitec tura l Histo ry Across the UniversityCa mp us, Ada m Hardy and Necd et Teymur (eds.),Architec tural Histo ry and the Stud io, Que stion Press,Lond on, United Kingd om , pp . 135-48.

Bosworth, C .E., (1996). The safa wid s, The new Islam icdynasties, a c hronological and genea logica lma nua l, Ed inburgh University, Edinb urgh, United

Kingdom.Brooks Pfeiffer, B., and Nordland, G., (eds), (1988).Frank Lloyd Wrigh t in the Rea lm o f Ideas, SouthernIllino is University Press, Ca rbondale, IL, USA.

Dunster, D. (1996). The h isto ries of a rch itec ture a ndthe a rchitec tures of history, Ada m Hardy a nd Nec de tTeym ur (eds.), Architec tural History a nd the Stud io,Que stion Press, Lond on, United Kingd om .

Haida r, G. (1986). Educ ation tow ards an A rchitec ture


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