31765 bcs revision guide

8/14/2019 31765 Bcs Revision Guide

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The Process ofCommunication

Communication is the sending andreceiving of information between

individuals who need to share information

to carry out their jobs successfully.

Effective communications is essential to the

success of any business organisation.

Without clear and effective

communications in business

Products will not be produced on time

and to the customers specification

Supplies of materials will not arrive at

the right place or on time Workers will not know which job they

are required to complete first

Managers will not know what progress is

being made and whether machinery needs

maintenance or repair

Customers will not know when to expect

the delivery of their order

Although the process of communication can

take many forms there are six common elements Sender All messages have anoriginator who decides on the nature of the

message, the channel to be used and the way

it is to be sent

Message To be effective themessage must be clear and unambiguous. It

needs to be correctly understood and may be

providing information, to give or ask for

instructions, or to persuade or influence

people e.g. adverts

Communication Channel Withinthe various levels of an organisation,

messages can be sent vertically up or down

the levels of seniority or horizontally within

work teams. Other channels, formal or

informal, may be used depending on the

nature of the message.

Medium The method by which themessage will be sent will depend on its

importance, the speed of delivery required,

the relationship between sender and receiver

and the physical distance between them.

Colleagues within an office may talk

informally but business contacts in different

countries may communicate by e-mail

Receiver The person who receives themessage who interprets it both in content and

the way it has been sent e.g. an urgent request

sent by 2nd class post wont be treated as urgent Feedback This is essential to the senderto reassure them that the receiver has got the

message and has correctly understood its

meaning. Feedback can be informal e.g. ok or

formal e.g. a written letter

Formal channels of communication are those

which employers and employees both recognise

as successful to the operation of the business

and serious enough to be given careful thought

e.g. a written warning instead of a telling off

Informal channels of communication are those

that often operate through rumour and hearsay,

often known as the grapevine. These should

be treated carefully because they do not have

official authority or support. Managers

sometimes start rumours on purpose to judge

employees reactions and take their feelings into

account when considering different options

Both sender and receiver must have the

skills to transmit and receive the message,

creating and interpreting it so that it is clear

but not too long and so that there are no

misunderstandings. The message must be

sent in time for it to be received and acted

upon by the person for whom it was

intended. Late messages or messages

intercepted by the wrong people may lead to

anger or loss of confidence.


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The importance of effectivecommunication

Communication means passing on information

or receiving it from somebody else. Imagine theproblems that could occur if this is not done

carefully

Delivering the wrong items to a

customer

Delivering the wrong letter on the wrong

date or to the wrong address

Making bad decisions based on wrong

information

Employees misunderstanding each other

Some methods of passing on information

involve writing it down, others by speaking

(oral), other methods are visual, electronic, or

by numbers. One way to remember these is to

take the first letter of each method and make the

word woven.

The method you choose depends on

Whether you need a written record of the

message e.g. print out or receipt

Whether speed is importance

What opinion the receiver will have ofyour method of communicating

Whether the message is for somebody

inside the organisation or outside of it

Internal messages are sent between people

working within the same organisation.

External messages are sent between people in

different organisations

Media for sending information include

Pictures and diagrams Graphs

Conversations Telephone

E-mail Text message

Fax Memo

Report Letter

Poster Dress or facial

expressions

Within some businesses the use of jargon

specialised technical language, can

ensure that the message is preciselyinterpreted. However it can equally cause

problems when either the sender or

receiver uses the jargon incorrectly.

Good managers are said to use the following

motivational techniques

Communicate the big plan to give

employees a sense of pride and loyalty

Delegate work and responsibility using

employees strengths and developinggood work habits and leadership skills

Help employees set personal targets o

keep the focussed, busy and motivated

Recognise problems by staying close to

your employees and intervene before

they become serious

Reward employees either financially or

through praise and make sure employees

know that you value their efforts and

contributions

Be a mentor sharing your knowledge and

experience

Give reviews of performance including

formal appraisals

Be understanding with unplanned

emergencies but dont be a doormat.

Employees appreciate firmness and

fairness

Dont forget to manage because

employees depend on a managers

strength and guidance


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WrittenCommunication

Written communication is used

extensively in business for both internal

and external messages.

Advantages of Written Communications

1. Message is written down

preventing misunderstanding

between sender and receiver

2. Confidential or personal messages

can be sent in sealed envelopes so

that they will only be read by theintended recipient

3. Pre-prepared forms e.g. memos

can speed up the process of

routine messages

4. Written messages allow the

recipient time to study them before

replying. This is particularly

important where there is more than

one option to consider

Disadvantages of Written Communications

1. Written messages can be expensive

to produce i.e. employees, paper and

office space

2. The need to write or type the

message may mean it is out of date

when it is finally sent

3. Feedback may also take time if a

written reply is needed

4. Copies of documents may get lost

through poor filing5. They rely on the intended receiver

reading the message

Business letters are the most widely used form

ofexternal written communications. They can

be sent to customers, suppliers and individuals

associated with the business. They provide a

permanent hard copy record of the message for

both the sender and receiver, which allow

simple retrieval when required. The way inwhich business letters are set out is also

important. A well presented letter containing no

errors can promote a positive image and inspire

confidence in a company.

Very often in the workplace, a junior

employee may be asked to write letters onbehalf of senior colleagues. What is in the

letter and how it is presented is extremely

important because a business is often judged

by the quality of its correspondence.

Neatness, accuracy and correct spelling are

essential and the writer must be sure of the

purpose of the letter before they start.

Obtain all the information you need

before you start

Work in a logical sequence keeping

sentences short and to the point with no

confusion

Make sure you have provided all the

information required and answered all of any

questions asked

Break up the letter by using paragraphs

with a new paragraph for each topic and a

polite sentence to finish your letter off

Check through the letter for mistakes

before it is signed and sent off

In certain circumstances it is possible for the

body of a letter to contain just one paragraph

if the heading and references have clearly

indicated the subject and the message is a

short one. Most of the time there will be at

least three paragraphs, the first acknowledging

receipt of an earlier letter and explaining why

the reply is being written, the second giving

further information and the third setting out

the conclusions or finishing the letter offpolitely.

Notices can be both internal and external

e.g. posters in corridors, newsletters or rest

rooms or advertising posters in journals,

magazines or on billboards.


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Jennys Computers1 Green Road, Oldham, Lancashire M29 1ZUTelephone 0161 2002000

Jenny Jones

Managing Director

AgendaEmployee meeting on

the 12th February startingat 5pm in Committee

Room

1. Apologies for absence2. Approval of minutesfrom last meeting3. Matters arising from

last meeting4.5.

The memorandum is the most commonly

form ofwritten internal communication.

A memorandum (memo) is less formal than

a letter and is not usually signed, but it

provides a written record of the message

sent. Today most memos are sent by e-

mail, especially the internal ones, thereby

combining new and traditional

communication methods.

Memos contain headings to indicate the

receiver, the sender, the date, a reference

and a title, but are not signed

In the course of carrying out its business, a

firm will issue trading documents e.g.

orders, delivery notes, invoices, statements

and receipts. Most firms use standard

forms for these messages to their

customers and suppliers, and create them

using computerised accounting systems.

A number of meetings will take place

within a company and each person

attending these will be given a written

agenda in advance, which informs them of

what is to be discussed.

A record of what has been decided at the

meeting, in the form ofminutes, will also

be produced and circulated.

Reports will be frequently presented and

discussed at meetings. They are formalwritten documents prepared by individuals

or committees and can cover any aspect of

the business. Reports provide useful ways

of informing interested persons of progress

and each year limited companies must

send all their shareholders a copy of the

Annual Report and accounts, prepared by

the companys directors.

Business cards are used by visitors as a

form of introduction and a signal of their

intention to do business. The card is small

(10cm x 4cm) and gives the company

name, address and telephone number plus

the name and title of the person presentingthe card.

Memorandum

To:From:

Reference:Date:Subject:


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Verbal Communication

Verbal communication occurs when there

is direct live contact between two or more

individuals. A salesman who can inform

and persuade a potential customer to place

an order will help their employer gain

more business, whilst a telephone

salesperson must get their information

across in a polite and non-threatening

manner before the phone user hangs up!

A good verbal communicator needs

a clear speaking voice and an

understanding of brevity (keeping

messages short) The ability to speak at a pace and

variety which is neither too fast nor

boringly slow

Confident with a range of audiences

and understanding of non-verbal

gestures

Good listening skills and the ability to

moderate their message to hold their

audience

Face to face contact can occur in a formale.g. at a meeting or informal e.g. passing

comment manner. It is often said that

more business is done over lunch or on the

golf course than in the office and this

underlines the importance of informal

communication, yet it is the formal

communication that is most often recorded

e.g. minutes of meetings

Face to face communication offers the

following advantages Immediate feedback and an exchange

of opinions Promotes the development of ideas

Information can be quickly spread

amongst a group

Encourages greater involvement and

co-operation particularly amongst

groups comfortable with each member

Disadvantages includeThose lacking confidence and communication

skills feel isolated

Non-verbal communication e.g. body languagecreates a barrier to communication

Differences in interpretation

No written record of the communication

Telephone users cannot see the non-

verbal reaction of the recipient

The development of the mobile telephone

has given verbal communication a new lease

of life as they can facilitate work away from

the workplace and the facility to contact

individuals 24/7. Mobile phones can also

access the Internet and be used as a modem

linked to other hardware options e.g. laptop

Mobile phones do havedisadvantages

More expensive than landline phones

Blind spots where there is no mobile signal

Need to frequently recharge the phone battery

Dangerous, illegal or annoying to use in certain

circumstances


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Human Resources and Recruitment

The Human Resources or Personnel

Department is vital to businesses success

because if it selects and trains employees

unable to carry out their duties, it is unlikelythat the business will continue.

Every business is made up of individuals even

though many employees work in teams to

combine their skills. Individuals differences

may be physical height and build, intellectual

knowledge and logic, personality and team

playing, previous experience and technical

skills. Businesses need to carefully evaluate

the different characteristics of employees and

applicants to ensure they place each other inposts where they can be the most useful. An

employee without the ability or training to

cope will not work effectively and may loose

the firm orders but an employee who finds the

work too easy may become bored or frustrated

and leave.

Businesses usejob analysis to identifythe skills that ideal employee for each job will

have, establish pay rates, training plans and

identify individuals for promotion and

appraisal. Job analysis studies what the job

entails and includes the listing of the skills,

training and tasks required to carry it out. It

also includes talking to employees and

supervisors to ensure personnel staff have

identified true worth without bias towards or

against individuals.

Once a job has been analysed thejob

specification can be written which puts theanalysis findings into words. There are foursections, the job title, summary and place in

the company structure, the list of duties; its

purpose and methods and any responsibilities;

the working conditions, starting and finishing

times, holiday entitlements and notice periods

etc; and the performance criteria by which the

job and individual employees will be

measured during interview and appraisal.

The objective in recruiting staff is to obtain

the best candidate for each vacancy. If the

wrong person is employed the company may

loose money or customers plus the costs ofrecruiting the employee will have been

wasted. It can cost up to 5000 to recruit

and train each new employee.

When a vacancy occurs it can be filled

internally be someone who alreadyworks for the firm orexternallybyrecruiting a new employee. Many

companies prefer internal recruitment via

company newsletters or notice board

announcements.

The advantages of internalrecruitment are Strengthens employees commitment

because they know they have a chance of

promotion

Provides structured development path

Existing staff use company procedures

and so require less induction

Personnel know about the real strengths,

weaknesses and suitability of internal

candidates

Quicker and less expensive

The disadvantages of internalrecruitment are Applicants are limited to those within

the company when better and more

suitable applicants may work elsewhere

Internal applicants may has bad past

experiences or grudges to settle It can be hard to manage employees who

previously were the same grade as you

Resentment may exist if unsuccessful

applicants continue to work there


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External recruitment methods differ

depending on the vacancy and the type

of employee needed

Vacancy boards outside the firmare cheap but will only be seen by

passing individuals Advertisements in the local

newspaper will be seen by localpeople but rarely attract professionals

Increasingly firms are advertising on the

Internet to reach a wider audience onthe world wide web but people still have

to visit your site to see your

advertisement

Commercial employmentagencies specialise in providingtemporary workers as well as advertising

permanent posts, sifting through

applicants to provide employers with a

shortlist to interview. This free up key

employees to concentrate on running

their business but agencies often lack

technical knowledge on business needs

and are very expensive

Advertisements in thenational press reach a much wider

audience but can be up to 10x the priceof a local advertisement

Government fundedJob Centresadvertise vacancies for local companies.

These are free but usually only seen by

those looking for work

The Careers Service not onlyprovides guidance and advice for young

people but it collects details of

employment opportunities and advertises

them in schools and colleges. Their

advantage is that they receive manyenquiries from young people actively

seeking work and able to start quickly

TheYouth Training Schemesprovide training for young people out of

work and not in school or college.

Training can lead to permanent posts and

companies can watch a trainee work

before making a decision. Costs are also

reduced as wages paid by a government

allowance.

Head hunting is where a successfulindividual is approached by another

company and encouraged to change jobs.

Companies know that an individual can

do the job but there are costs and ethicalproblems of enticing people to move

employers.

The advantages of Externalrecruitmentare

New employees will bring beneficial

new ideas, techniques and skills

New employees are keen to make a

good start

The introduction of new employees

may make existing employees work

harder to keep up

The disadvantages of Externalrecruitment are

Many of the qualities of the new

employees are not know for certain until

they start

More experienced staff who are not

promoted can be resentful of new employees

New employees take longer to settlein, learn the requirements of he job and

become an effective worker

Takes longer and is more expensive

than internal recruitment

In a small firm the responsibility for

recruitment may be with a single individual,

whilst larger firms may have whole

departments with staff specialising in

individual recruitment skills e.g. interviews.

The Personnel Department do not justrecruit new employees, they look after all

aspects of their welfare including induction

and further training, promotion and career

development, appraisal and disciplining,

pay, wage bargaining and other fringe

benefits, working conditions and contracts

of employment.


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Application Forms

When recruiting staff many firms like

applicants to fill in an application form. These

provide the Personnel Department withinformation about each applicant in aformat common to all. This makesselecting a shortlist of candidates to interview

easier because their details are easy to find and

the questions asked the same for everyone.The information on the application form can

also prompt further questions in the interview.

Those responsible for short-listing for

interview often match candidates details

against job or person specifications. For thosewho are successful in their interview, the

information on their application form will

form the basis of their Personnel record.

The main headings on an application form

Personal details e.g. name, address,gender and nationality

Details of any educational and

vocational qualifications

Details of any full time or part time

The reason why you want the job thatyou are applying for

How you spend your spare time withhobbies and interests

Two referees who can give an opinion

on you as a person two in case onesays bad things because they dont like

you

Filling in an application form is usually anapplicants only chance to make a good

impression. There must not be any mistakesand the information given must be clear,concise and accurate. Forms will be returned

to the employer in good condition, completed

in black ink so that it can be photocopied, withneat handwriting, no crossings out or

corrections, no blank spaces and the

information fitting into the spaces provided on

the form. Finally the form will be signed anddated.

Curriculum Vitae

Curriculum Vitae are a list of a persons

personal information and work history.

Applicants complete CVs and somecompanies will ask for them instead of or in

addition to an application form. In essence a

CV is a personal advertisement and the layoutwill vary from person to person. However it is

common for CVs to have sections including

name, address, and date of birth, maritalstatus, qualifications, employment history,

work experience, hobbies, personal qualities

and the reason why you want the job.

Advantages of using a CV

Candidates can include information not

asked for on the application form

CVs can be prepared in advance andsent quickly

Applicants can make their CVs suit a

particular job and leave off things theydont want the employer to know

They save the firm the cost of printing

forms

Disadvantages of using a CV notapplication forms

Each applicant may set information out

in a different way making it more

difficult for employers to find andcompare

The information on the CV may not

include all the information the

employer needs

Applicants may have left out

information on purpose


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Equal opportunities

Today men and women generally receiveequal and fair treatment if they apply for them

same job. Decisions about who to employ are

no longer based on the gender, religious orethnic group. It is illegal for employers to

discriminate on the grounds of sex, race or

religion but despite this discrimination still

occurs occasionally within training, promotionand pay.

Most discrimination that still exists despitebeing illegal is based on misconceptions e.g.

Physically handicapped people are less

intelligent

Women with children will want more timeoff to look after them

Older people find learning new ideas more

difficult and work more slowly

Information sent to applicants should state

clearly that the firm is an equal opportunitiesemployer and applicants with overseas

qualifications have these recognised.

Advertisements should not be restricted in anyway that limits applications from any ethnic

group. Applicants and employees who feelthey have been discriminated against unfairly

on the grounds of race can ask the RaceRelations Board to investigate.

Advantages of equalopportunities Workers are more motivated if they think

they will be treated fairly Training opportunities are available to all

which improves standards throughout The most suitable person will be employedleading to better production and supervision

Disadvantages of equalopportunities The total wage bill is higher

Additional facilities may be required e.g.

ramps, crches, separate toilets Working practices have to be amended and

more flexible working hours allowed

Legislation

The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 madediscrimination illegal on the basis of gender of

marital status, and was updated in 1986 to

remove restrictions on the number of hourswomen could work; allowing them to do shift

work or flexi-time. These acts ensure

Advertisements must make use of job titles

that emphasise a particular gender

Job descriptions have to be suitable forboth genders

Interviews must not be conducted in such

a way as to give preference to a particularcandidate or involve interviewer prejudice.

The Race Relations Act 1976 madeselection on the grounds of ethnic group or

race illegal. Job advertisement must notindicate a racial, religious or ethnic

preference.

The Disabled PersonsEmployment Acts 1944 and 1958introduced a scheme to encourage the

employment of disabled people. Firms must

employ at least 3% of their employees from

those with a disability. It is argued thatwithout this form of positive discrimination,

disabled people would remain out of work.

The Disability Discrimination Act1995 provided the framework to prevent

discrimination against the disabled, not only in

recruitment or selection, but also in buildingdesign and maintenance. The Act also

widened responsibility to include taxi, bus, rail

and education services.

The Equal Pay Act 1970 stated thatemployees doing broadly the same job should

be paid the same rate of pay irrespective of

their gender. Other conditions of employmente.g. overtime rates, holiday entitlements. In

1983 the Act was extended to allow women to

claim equal pay for work regarded as being ofequal value.


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Interviews

To be successful and to give candidates the bestopportunity to show what they can do, firms

carefully plan interviews. Candidates are

greeted courteously and guided to a suitablequiet area to relax and ensure they look and feel

their best. Sometimes candidates are all call to

interview together, are briefed on the

arrangements and given a tour of the premises,before being interviewed in agreed order.

Depending on the nature of the vacancy,interviews may be conducted by an individual

or by a panel of several people. Senior post

applicants are generally always interviewed by a

panel that then make a decision together tominimise risk and share responsibility.

Applicants for junior posts may see a

departmental manager alone.

Whenever possible the interview should be

conducted in private, free from noises ordisruptions so that the interviewers and the

candidates can concentrate. A good interviewer

will: Adopt a suitable friendly manner showing

respect to all candidates Ensure that all questions meet the legalrequirements giving every applicant a fair and

equal opportunity to succeed

Not hurry and ensure there are no

interruptions Encourage candidates to fully answer

questions and give them time to do so Explore areas of concern raise by theapplicants answers on their application forms or

CV

Discuss important areas not fully covered byCVs or application forms

To meet the requirements of equal opportunities

legislation all candidates should be asked thesame questions giving each the opportunity to

demonstrate their knowledge, understanding and

skills. The responses are used to assess abilityand suitability to a common standard.

The average interview will last hour and is

split into three parts.1. The introduction lasts about five minutes

and is designed to relax the candidate and

ease their nerves. The interviewers will beintroduced and the reason for the vacancy

explained. The job description and ideal

person specification may be identified butthis is rare.

2. The main part of the interview may last

20 minutes where members of the panel will

ask the candidates questions in turn. Thispart of the interview is flexible to allow the

discussion to develop

3. The candidate should be given the

opportunity to ask questions and should betold by when the panel will have made a

decision and how the candidates will benotified.

Any tests that the employer wishes the candidate

to complete are normally conducted before theinterview so that the outcomes can be discussed

in the 2nd section of the interview. After the

interview the interviewers will spend timewriting up their notes about the candidate and

discussing the candidates strengths and

weaknesses. The candidates will base thedecision on the successful candidate on the

interviewers appreciation of the information

provided and their personal impression.

The key factor will be how the candidate meets

the job/person specification and how they will

fit in with other employees. Inevitably there issome subjective judgement involved on the part

of the interviewer but these get more accurate

with experience.

Most employers appoint for a probationary

period during which new employees aremonitored and assessed on ability, attitude,

and how they get on with other colleagues.

Candidates are only appointed permanently if

they successfully complete probation period.


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Contracts ofEmployment

Under the Employment Protection

Act 1978, once a person has been offered ajob they are entitled to receive a contractof employment. There are normallyfour sections to the contract

1. Details of the company, the employee,

the job title, and the date employment

started.

2. Details of the normal hours of work,

rates and frequency of pay, length and

duration of breaks and holidays, length ofnotice required to terminate the contract

3. Conditions related to sickness andinjury, pension provision and trade union

membership

4. Information on disciplinary or

complaints procedures for both employees

and the employer, plus the arrangementsfor dealing with them

The contract of employment will be signed byboth employee and employer to show their

acceptance of the conditions, and a copy is

issued to the employee to keep.

The most frequent way in which employment

is terminated is by mutual agreement between

employer and employee e.g. retirement orresignation. Normally the employee would

work a period of notice as set out in the

contract whilst the employer looks for areplacement. If the employer is dissatisfied

with the employee they may dismiss them

provided the disciplinary procedure is

followed.

If the business is short of work or orders, the

employee may be made redundant. Thisalso terminates the employee although theemployee may be entitled to compensation

based on their number of years employment

with the employer.

Training Schemes

If the workforce is to be kept up to date withtechnological developments they require

training to learn new skills and update those

they already have. Benefits of traininginclude More production more thus increasing

profitability for the employer Improved efficiency, confidence and less

industrial accidents and days lost ill

Multi-skilled workers increasing flexibility

within the workplace, job satisfaction, andallowing short terms absences to be

covered. Motivation of employees and promotion

preparation, plus employee retention

which reduces recruitment costs

Induction is training which introduces newemployees to a business. The faster new

employees are working at their full potential,

the better for the employer. Induction training

programmes usually include details of the History and management structure of the

firm

Review of the terms within the contract of

employment

Facilities, benefits and services available

Rules and safety procedures

Introduction to other employees and

supervisory staff

Site tour, parking, hygiene facilities etc

The government runsYouth Trainingschemes and modern apprenticeships ensuring

they receive proper training in their chosentrade or profession. There are also

employment-training schemes foradultsoffering off the job training for thelong term unemployed who want to learn or

develop new skills.


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On and off the jobtraining

On the job training involves workersbeing trained as they continue to do their jobe.g.

At the elbow is the most commonform of on the job training, and is wherethe new employee works with an

experienced employee and learns the job

by watching. This training method isrelatively inexpensive and less disruptive

than other methods but new employees can

learn bad habits from existing employeeswho arent willing to show new employees

the correct methods. This training is also

unlikely to be formally accredited by

certificates etc

Mentoring enables a new employee towork on their own with guidance from an

experienced employee trained to help

newcomers. New workers get to use theirinitiative but still have the safety of

someone to turn to. Coaching is a lesssatisfactory form of coaching where new

employees work under continuoussupervision. New employees are often

nervous and the method can lead to

resentment and poor working relationships

Some firms use a system of job rotation

where new employees work for shortperiods of time in each department to learn

how each interact and depend on each

other. This training can be fragmented bythe successive moves but improves

multiple-skills, which are beneficial in the

long run.

Off the job training occurs away fromthe employees normal place of work ranging

from training courses organised by employers

or college course with nationally recognisedqualifications (NVQs). Businesses often pay

to send employees on course that will provide

additional skills and knowledge. Otheremployees will attend evening classes at their

own cost to make themselves more valuable or

employable.

Appraisal

Appraisal occurs when an employees

performance and value to the company isassessed. The process is supposed to be non-

threatening and supportive measuring of

attainment against the persons job description.

The results of appraisal can help managers

determine future training needs and plan theirfuture workforce.

Employee motivation for appraisal comes from

the possibility of increased pay through

productivity bonus or promotion. Appraisal isusually carried out by a supervisor or manager,

which makes it difficult for them to be

impartial. The following people may appraise Line managers who know an employees

working practices and habits and so can make

an informed assessment but they may be seen asa treat by the employee Work colleagues who understand the full

demands of the job and the real worth of the

employee, but colleagues are reluctant to becritical of or inform on each other

Employees themselves through self-

appraisal. This is often the most accuratemethod subject to line manager validation,

as employees generally undervalue their

contribution


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Deductions

Unfortunately employees cannot take home allthe money they earn. Everyone has certain

allowances based on their personal

circumstances e.g. married; parent etc, afterwhich they have to pay Income Tax and

National Insurance on what is left after

deducting the allowances. The full amount

earned is called gross pay whilst the amountafter allowances, tax etc that an employeeactually receives is called net pay.

Statutory deductions are those which employees

are required by law to pay. The employer onbehalf of the government takes Income Tax

from employees whilst National Insurance helpsto pay for the Health Service. Both thesedeductions are made on a sliding scale, which

means if you are a high earner you have a higher

portion of your pay deducted than lower earners.

Voluntary deductions are those that you have

agreed can be taken from your wages. These

may include contributions by you to the pensionyou will receive when you retire, union

subscriptions, charitable donations, loan

repayments etc

Fringe Benefits

Fringe benefits are the additional rewards to anemployees net pay, which gives them additional

income without it being a permanent increase.

Fringe benefits can be in cash or in kind andthese can include

Company car

Staff discount Reduced price meals and drinks in a staffcanteen

Private health insurance Accommodation Profit share

Cash fringe benefits include

Bonus payments Commission on sales Staff discount

Advantages of fringe benefits They reward the employee for hard work They employee shares in the success of thebusiness and this encourages them to make it

more successful

Increased social status e.g. new car

Avoid higher rates of Income Tax Firms can off-set benefits against their profit

tax

Disadvantages of fringe benefits Employee has no choice in how they arepaid

They disguise actual earnings Benefits lost when employee moves job Changing earnings make planning for future

spending more difficult

Less successful employees jealous of highcommission earners and how work is allocated.

This can lead to poor working relationships Product discounts reduce profit on that

item


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Representing groups atwork

There are a number of organisations that represent

the interests of groups of workers.

Trade Unions speak as a group for sections of

employees in a business with common roles or

skills. Since they speak for groups they have more

bargaining power than individuals and employerswill listen to their views. Over the years

individual unions have joined together

(amalgamated) to increase their importance and

some have signed no strike agreements in return

for special benefits for their members. The overall

organisation that speaks for all trade unions is

called the Trade Union Congress

Trade unions are independent of anyemployers

and they

Negotiate with employers to get satisfactory

rates of pay for their members

Ensure adequate breaks, days off and holidays

Ensure working conditions meet the Health

and Safety laws

Negotiate with employers on behalf of

individual members with concerns or

problems Promote the equality needs of special interest

groups within the workforce e.g. women,

disabled

Arrange special deals for their members with

insurance companies, pension providers,

retailers, lawyers and estate agents etc

The best know employers association is the

Confederation of British Industry. Itrepresents

the interests of employers in discussions with the

government, helping to influence government

policies in employers favour. It also provideslegal, financial and economic advice to businesses,

negotiates with the TUC and arbitrates in disputes,

plus promoting the interests of British industry

abroad

Management structures

The function of management is to lead and

guide others within the organisation. Goodmanagers can do this and have strategies to

cope with planned and unexpected situations(crisis management).

Leadership decisions are usually taken by

senior managers and establish the long-term

aims and plans of the company. Leaders needto possess credibility by understanding the

business and persuading others that the

decisions taken are correct.

Managers liase with stakeholders, within and

external to the business to monitor and assessdevelopments. A stakeholder is anyone whohas an interest in the businesses performance.

This knowledge of the business and the

environment in which it operates ensures themanager will make more informed decisions.

The manager provides the officialcommunication and being in a position of

authority, other employees may be willing to

accept the managers decisions, especially

during tense negotiations.

To help with the process of management,

businesses can organised themselvesdepending on its communication channels

(hierarchy), how information is communicated

(chain of command), and who makes thedecisions (span of control).

A company with lots of levels in its hierarchywill have less effective communication as

more people will be involve in passing

information along the chain of command.

The more people, the greater the chance ofmisinterpreting the message and the longer it

takes to get from the sender to the intended

receiver. Flat organisations only have twolevels.

A wide span of control means the manager has alot of extra staff to supervise and guide and as a

result, less time for good decision making.


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Motivating yourworkforce

Keeping staff motivated is good for business

because Motivated workers are more productive and

higher productivity usually means higher

profits

Workers who are well motivated will provide

a higher standard of customer service, keeping

customers happy

Well motivated workers are likely to stay with

the company, growing in experience and value

to the company

If a business successfully keeps the workers it

has, it avoids the costs of recruiting and

training replacements.

Most people work to satisfy some sort of need and

Abraham Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs

that included motivators you cant buy (non-

financial motivators). Maslow suggested therewere five levels of need, with workers needing to

be satisfied one level after the next.

1. Food, drink warmth, clothing and shelter

2. Protection against danger, threat, depravation

3. Friends, acceptance, feeling like your ok

4. Reputation, status5. Realise own potential

Businesses meet these needs by providing a fair

wage, job security and safe working conditions,

social clubs, teams or outings, qualifications, job

titles, fringe benefits etc plus promotion

opportunities and the ability to use initiative.

A fringe benefit is a payment by giving a non-

financial gift. Fringe benefits include cars, health

care, uniforms, discounted products, travel

vouchers etc. It is often cheaper for an employerto provide fringe benefit good rather than money,

particularly if competitors or other local employers

cannot do so. A good fringe benefit will make an

employee reluctant to leave their job.

Money and the way it is paid can affect

motivation to work.

There are a number of payment systems

Time rate payment by hours worked

Piecework - payment according to items of

work produced

Overtime - extra pay, usually at a higher

rate, for extra hours above that normally

done

Shift bonus extra for working at night

Bonus single payment for meeting a

target

Profit share a percentage of the

companys profit shared amongst theworkforce

A loyalty bonus can be used to persuade long

serving workers to stay and unsocial hours

bonuses are often paid to employees who haveto turn up to work at odd hours or short notice.

TYPICAL EXAM QUESTION

You are the Human Resources Manager of a large

company when employees are unhappy and production

is falling. There is no chance of extra pay for the next

year and employees are threatening to leave. How

would you improve motivation and why would this help

productivity?

A good answer would suggest introducing

A pleasant room for staff break times

Subsidised meals or kitchen equipment

Written down contracts of employment

A company pension scheme

Team working or a workers committee

Advertising promotions internally Company newsletters or trips out

Staff discounts on products or a staff shop

Improving motivation encourages harder work and

reduces the number of employees leaving. This

increases efficiency, reduces costs and increases

potential profits.


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Health and Safety at Work

Safety in the workplace is important becauseaccidents lead to time off work and lost

production, reduce efficiency, and perhaps a

civil court claim by the employee against theemployer.

In recent years Act of Parliament has

strengthened the protection employeesalready had under common law. Employers

now look very carefully at building design and

the layout of work areas including installingsafety features e.g. sprinklers, smoke

detectors, fire exits, notices, fireproof furniture

etc. Workers also have to take some

responsibility and are expected to bereasonably careful at all times and co-operate

with employer health and safety rules. Often

employees have to attend training courses tolearn about how to use their equipment or their

workspace more safely.

The advantages of a safe working

environment are:

Fewer accidents at work

Les time lost through sickness or injury

Adequate facilities e.g. toilets, rest roomsare provided

Workers can appoint health and safety

representatives to negotiate with managers

for them

Workers are happier and tend to workharder and more efficiently

Easier to recruit employees than if theworkplace was dirty or dangerous

Ensuring a safe working environment is

expensive for employers. Where possible theywill pass these costs on as higher prices to

customers. Where this is impossible, they

hope that employees working harder willeventually reduce the amount of sickness they

will have to pay.

Health and Safety Risks from working with

computers

Illnesses attributed to computer use are on

the increase, particularly eye strain from

prolonged staring at monitors and screens,repetitive strain injuries to fingers and wrists

from keyboards and backache from incorrect

posture.

You should always sit at an adjustable chair

which good support to the back and allows

you to put your feet on the floor. Sufficientroom should be under the desk to allow free

leg movement. The height of the desk should

see your forearms parallel to the floor or

slightly raised during data entry and the mouseshould be in easy reach. Bright lights should

not reflect onto the monitor and you shouldnot be facing windows or other sources of

strong light. The top of the monitor screen

should be at eye level and between 40 and 80

centimetres away from the user.

Health and Safety (Display Screen

Equipment) Regulations 1992

This set out examples of good practice in the

provision of safe working conditions forcomputer users. The employer has the

responsibility to assess each workstation, the

equipment and its environment and to put anyfaults right. All screens must be adjustable

with brightness and contrast controls plus

height adjustment. Work should be planned

so that the user can take frequent short breaksfrom the screen, as they feel the need. All

employees must be trained in the correct use

of all workstation equipment and the use ofnon-reflective screens and adjustable

chairs/good posture. Employers are required

to pay for eyesight tests for employees whouse computer screens regularly in their duties,

and to make a contribution towards spectacle

costs. Lighting must meet European Union

standards for computer areas.


20/32

Legislation

The Health and Safety at Work Act 1974

Under this Act responsibility for employee

health, safety and welfare is placed firmlywith employers as far a reasonably practical.

Employers are required to provide premises,

equipment and training that contribute to a

safe working environment. Workplaces mustbe clean and hygienic, without risks to health.

Safe equipment must be provided and

maintained, whilst hazardous substance mustbe handled and stored safely.

Commonly employers have a checklist of

good practice when designing workspaces.These include:

1. No trailing wires that employees can trip

over2. A secure counter or cup holder to prevent

drinks spilling

3. Fire door not blocked shut4. A method of moving large or bulky

objects so that the eye line is kept free and

the back is not strained5. Sufficient rest rooms or kitchens so that

employees dont have to eat at their desk6. Toilets with hand washing facilities7. Electrical sockets must not be overloaded

8. Suitable heating, lighting, and ventilation

The Factories Act 1961

This sets out the minimum basic standards

employees can expect, the minimumworkspace per employee, the minimum and

maximum room temperatures, the ventilation

and lighting required, specialist clothingneeded. This law applies to any workplace

where two or more people are employed doing

manual work. In 1963 the Offices, Shops and

Railway Premises Act extended theprovisions of the Factories Act to these

workplaces too.

The Fire Precautions Act 1971

This made it a law that all workplaces had a

fire safety certificate, issued by the local firebrigade officer after a full safety inspection.

Particularly employees must have adequate

time and escape routes to leave a building inthe event of a fire.


21/32

The Health and Safety at Work Act

1974 forces employers to provide a safeworking environment in three ways

(PET)

Employers must provide and

maintain premises that are safe to work

in and that meet standards of hygieneand cleanliness without risk to health (P)

Employers must provide and

maintain equipment that is safe to use

including the handling and storage ofany hazardous substances (E)

Employers must provide all

information, training and supervision

necessary to ensure the health and safetyof workers (T)

For employees using computers

Do not eat or drink when using a

computer and protect the computer from

water and moisture Do not spend long periods working

on a computer without breaks Keep all cable tidy and do not unplugcables whilst the computer is switched

on Make sure the computer is on asteady flat surface away glare on the

screen Have a comfortable chair with a backto it, at a height so your eyes are at

screen top level

Employees must observe the following

Health and Safety Guidelines

Gangways and fire exit routes must

not be blocked with boxes, bins or filesetc

Fire door must be closed but not

locked and smoking banned where

necessary Electrical appliances should be

checked regularly by a trained expert Tall cupboards should not be stacked

with boxes and cupboard doors locked Floors must be kept clean and torn or

damaged floor coverings should bereplaced

First aid boxes must be clearly

displayed and fire drill procedures

regularly practiced Fans, fires and guillotines and

dangerous machinery should have

guards in place Noise, smell and other protective

clothing/footwear must be worn when

provided


22/32

Databases

A database is any organisedcollection of data or information, but

the more information you store the

more space you need and the harderit is to find the information you want.

A computer-based database can store

vast amounts of information in a

small space and records can besearched for or sorted quickly and in

a number of ways. Calculations can

be made on the results of searchesand alterations made quickly and

easily. Backups prevent information

being lost and inputs validated or

verified more easily than withtraditional record keeping methods.

A database consists of a file, whichcontains many records (pages). Each

record contains a number of fields

(categories/columns) and each fieldhas individual data items. Databases

are designed either as flat file

databases where all the informationfor one record is in one large list.

The other form is a relationaldatabases, where records are farsmaller with links (like an index) to

information common to more than

one record e.g. in a flat file student

database, the details about eachstudents form group would be in

each students record whereas in a

relational database, there would be alink from each students record to a

single record containing all their

form information. The mainadvantages of relational databases

compared with flat file databases are

that they take up less storage space,

are more flexible and are quicker tosearch, but on the other hand they are

more complicated to set up.

Once you are clear about the purposeof your database, you have to decide

on the following

The fields (columns) you needand what name you will give to each

field The purpose of each field The advantages or possible uses

of each field

The data type (alpha, numeric,

alpha-numeric) for each field The length of each field

Many database records have key fields e.g.primary field, which is a unique field that

ensures the record can be, identified from allthe other records e.g. passport number or

building society account number or pupil

exam entry number. Records are

automatically sorted in primary key order.Primary keys that are used in more than one

table are known as foreign keys.


23/32

Databases

The details of each person or product held on

a computer are records made up of a series of

fields. Each field is one piece of the

information that together makes up the wholepicture, the record. All records that are of

similar information e.g. student details aregrouped together to make a file

Each field is given a title called a field name

and each record has the same number of fields

as each other. To help with the controlaccuracy of data input, fields can be set to

only accept a certain type of data e.g.letters

(alpha) numbers (numeric) or a mixture of

both (alpha-numeric). The computer willreject data that does match the programmed

format in such a field.

To save time when entering information into a

database many organisations use codes which

gives shortened versions of the data e.g. F forfemale and M for male.

Advantages of coding1. Less data to type in so quicker

2. Less chance of typing wrong letter3. Less data so less storage space needed

Disadvantages of coding1. Users may not know code

2. Code may be wrongly de-coded

Advantages of databases1. It only takes a small space to store a

vast amount of data

2. The data can be processed quickly andeasily retrieved

3. Sorting in a particular field can change

the record display order4. Particular records can be selected by

filtering the database

5. Once it is created it is easy to maintainand keep up to date

Disadvantages of databases1. The necessary computer equipment

can be expensive2. Expensive to collect and set up the

database in the beginning

3. If the computer fails, the information isunavailable

4. Staff training is required to make the

most of what the computer database

can do

Its ok to have a database but the information

to put into it has to be collected. Normally

this is via a data capture form or aquestionnaire where the answers are in the

same place on every form. The questions

should be simple and easy to understand, oftenoffering a menu of possible answers to choose

from or boxes to tick. There are data capture

forms for all sorts of things e.g. membershipforms, new bank accounts, mail order

shopping.

Databases can provide firms with an

increasing amount of useful information aboutproducts and customers. Every time you use a

store card, its computer records you, where

you shopped, what time you visited and whatyou bought. Shops can use this information to

decide on opening hours, number of

checkouts, products to stock or re-order; and

to target shoppers with mail direct to theirhome.

File

Record 1

Record 2

Record 3

Field 2

Field 3

Field 1


24/32

Validation andVerification

The word valid means suitable and when

applied to a computer system refers to thecomputer checking for itself that the way

the computer files have been prepared toreceive information is suitable. These

checks have been put into the computer

when the computer programme was

written.

A type check looks for matching data

types e.g. the computer wont accept anumber (numeric answer) if it has been

programmed to receive a letter (alphaanswer).

A range check looks to make sure that

the piece of data typed in is sensible e.g. it

may not allow a user to type in that theyare more than 120 years old

A length check looks to make sure thatthe length of a piece of data typed in, is the

same as the length the computer is

expecting e.g. it may only allow amaximum of ten letters for a users

password

Checking a users password matches to

the one they type in is another example of

validation because the computer does the

check.

The word verify means to check for

accuracy and when applied to a computersystem refers to the users of the computer

checking for themselves that the data they

have typed, or are going to type in, isaccurate and matches the original

document that they are copying in from

e.g. if they are copying in a persons bank

account details, they must make sure thenumbers match the numbers on the cheque

book.

Verification can be done by one person

typing in the information and someone

else checking it is accurate or by twodifferent people typing it in and the

computer checking they match. This is an

excellent method of ensuring accuracy butit is very time consuming and expensive

because everything has to be done twice.

Spell checking or grammar checking are two

other examples of validation


25/32

Data Protection

Most modern businesses whatever their size use a

computer database to store information about their

employees, customers and suppliers. Less storage

space is required than paper based records,information can be found more easily and quickly

and fewer employees are needed to maintain the

records. As a result we expect increasinglyprompt service.

Information stored on a computer should be

accurate but errors can creep in

1. People with the same or similar name have

their information mixed up (transposed).

2. The information may out of date causing a

wrong decision to be made.

3. The information was wrongly entered onto thecomputer in the first place.

The Data Protection Act 1998

An updated version of the 1984 Act of Parliamentincorporating the European Directive that any

person, organisation, or business wishing to hold

personal information about people, must register

with the Office of the Data ProtectionCommissioner.

Under the Act individuals have the right to see acopy of any of the information an organisation is

holding about them on computer. A list of which

companies have registered under the Act is

available at all major public libraries. The register

shows the type of information a company has, the

purposes they use it for, where the information

was obtained, and to whom it may be disclosed. If

you write to a company they must tell you if they

are holding any data about you and provide you

with a copy.

There are some exceptions to your rights to see

data and these include data that is

Preventing or detecting crime or catching and

prosecuting criminals

Assessing or collecting taxes

Health, education or social work

Household, personal and family affairs

The Data Protection Commissioner will

investigate any company who breaks the principals

set out in the Act.

These controls on companies holding

data about individuals on computer include:They must

Obtain and process the information fairly,

lawfully and for specific purposes

Hold only the information that is adequate,

relevant and not excessive for the purpose.

Hold only accurate information and keep the

information up to date

Not keep the information any longer than

necessary

Do not disclose the information contrary to thepurpose it is kept for

Give individuals access to information about

themselves and correct any mistakes

Take appropriate measures to ensure the datais secure to prevent loss, damage or

unauthorised processing. Not to transfer data outside of the European

Union.

The Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1989

This Act makes the copying or pirating of

computer software a criminal offence. This

includes making copies of software and running

software without the appropriate licences. It is

estimated that of the software currently in use

has been illegally copied. Maximum penalties

include 2 years in jail and unlimited fines.

The Computer Misuse Act 1990

This Act was introduced to protect against

computer hacking, computer fraud and computer

viruses. Hacking is the process of unauthorised

breaking into a computer system and caries a

2000 fine or six months in jail.

Viruses are computer programs that cause the

unauthorised modification of a computers

operating system with the intention of impairing ordisabling it. Fines for introducing viruses are

unlimited and jail sentences up to five years.

Firms who are caught out by computer fraud,

viruses and hacking often do not want the bad

publicity associated with having unsecured

systems and fail to prosecute offenders for this

reason, thus allowing them to get away with it.


26/32

Office Layout

A cellular office is usually for one person andis small to medium in size with a door,

windows and outside walls. Managers,

accountants and personnel managers often usethem

Advantages of cellular offices

They provide privacy for those who may need

to discuss confidential items

They can be locked providing security for

money and documents when unoccupied.Quiet working environment with few

distractions from other workers

Confer status on the user as important

employees usually have their own office

Disadvantages of cellular officesMore difficult to supervise employees you

cant see

Take up more space and more building cost to

separate each work area with walls and doorsJunior staff are scared by the impression

cellular offices suggest for their occupant

Increased running costs with each roomindividually heated and lit.

More difficult to talk to colleagues in

adjacent offices which can slow downcommunication and reduce efficiency

More often than not open plan offices are usedfor sales departments and centralised services.

Staff with specialist skills can be grouped

together to increase efficiency and improve

the service they offer other departments.Bulky and noisy equipment can be located in

one area and soundproofed to avoid disturbing

everyone. Shared equipment e.g. photocopieris cheaper than buying one for each office but

personal services can be lost, time wasted

walking back and forth and an increase inbureaucracy e.g. photocopy permission slips

Some staff do not even have there own desk

but share with colleagues on a rota basis. Thisis known as hot-desking.

Many organisations use an open plan officelayout where large work areas are broken

down into smaller areas with the use ofscreens and sliding partions. Each area is

shared by a group of employees of various

levels of seniority, with shared heating,lighting, filing and storage.

Advantages of open plan offices

Staff supervision is easier and subtler whilst a

number of employees can be viewed at once.

Communication is easier and the decisionchain shorter. Employees can share ideas in a

relaxed forum

The layout o the office can be altered quite

easily by moving some of the partions, filingcabinets etc to reduce or increase the size of

the work areas as requiredEasier to organised shared services e.g. photo-

copying, accounts and wages

Disadvantages of open plan offices

Noisier to work in with more distractions

Less security and privacyLighting, ventilation and heating cannot be

regulated to suit individual tastes and needs

Managers may resent the loss of their statussymbol

Purposes built premises are ideal if you canget them as everything is in the right places;

all the facilities needed are there and

individual needs will have been

accommodated e.g. the needs of the disabledto comply with the Disabilities Act. On the

other hand relocating may cost you your best

employees if there are no transport links to thenew site, or the journey time is significantly

longer. Also your customers etc will need to

be told of your new address, which costs andthe rent on the new premises may be higher

than on the old place.


27/32

INPUT DEVICES

An input device is a piece of hardware that enables datato be passed into a computer system. Some of these

devices are controlled manually.

Keyboards

This is still one of the most common ways to enter data

into a computer system, e.g. in word processing.

Similar to a typewriter, but with extra keys that perform

functions dependent on the software in use. A variationis an overlay keyboard that is flat and waterproof and

can be fitted to a till, e.g. in a bar. In such an

environment it would be easy to clean and remain

undamaged by spilled drinks. Some of the keys can be

programmed to represent special codes, e.g. staff code

Touch Screen

A device used in many fast food shops it displays a

number of items on a screen and the user simply'touches' an item to make a choice. The point of contact

is detected and the choice registered by the computer.

Touch screens are ideal if there are a limited number of

options available. Again this device, like the overlay

keyboard, can be easily cleaned and potential damage

from spilled food or drink is avoided. It can also be

re-programmed if choices are changed.

Scanner

Most commonly, scanners scan a picture from paper

and display it on screen. In other words it creates a

digital image of a picture. This digital image can then

be edited or re-sized in any way we want. A digitalimage of text can also be taken. This can then be

converted into a text file and edited in the normal way.

Mouse

This is basically a pointing/selection device. By moving

the mouse a small ball is rotated on the underside. This

is interpreted by the computer as directional data for the

pointer on the monitor. By using the buttons on top of

the mouse a user can start an action, e.g. begin a word

processing package, or make choices, e.g. from a drop

down menu. In a drawing package movement can be

interpreted to create images.

Graphics Tablet

This device consists of a flat surface and a special pen.

Using the pen to 'draw' on the tablet an artist can watch

his picture actually being created on the screen.

Handling the pen is more natural for some people than

trying to draw with a mouse.

Digital Camera

Store pictures on a memory card, not on film. Theimages can then be transferred directly to a computer

where they can be edited using graphics software.

Web cams

Can be left permanently attached to the computer

collecting images, which, together with voice data, will

enable video conferencing to take place.

Microphone

Used where the input is any sort of sound, particularly a

voice. Voice recognition software can collect the data

input and convert it to written words entered into a

word processing package. At the present time this

software is still in its infancy. It has to be trained to the

user's voice and input has to take place under quietconditions to avoid background noise.

Some input systems can be automated. This reduces

the amount of time it takes to enter the data and also

the number of people required to enter it.

Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

Probably the most widely recognized use for this

method of data entry is the National Lottery. Here

numbers are selected on a pre-printed form. Each

possible number has a space on the form and is

selected by crossing it out with dark coloured ink.

The form itself is printed using a pale coloured ink

(called fade-out ink). The form is then passed

through a machine to 'read' the selected numbers,

and everything else is ignored. Other applications of

this method include multiple-choice examinations

where there are only a limited number of answers

and the student selects the number of the answer

that he/she thinks is right. The system then goes on

to calculate a total score.

Bar Code Readers

Bar codes can be used in many situations. They have

been used not only for product information in shops but

also on railways to keep track of where the vehicleswere. In shops the bar code is scanned and the reflected

light is detected. The computer converts this to a string

of numbers. The last number is a check digit calculated

from all the others and the computer repeats

the calculation to make sure the code has been read

properly. If it has then the reader makes a beep sound.

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)This method uses a special set of characters and is

used by banks to help process cheques quickly andaccurately. Data is printed on the bottom edge of the

cheque before it is sent to the customer and when the

cheque has been filled in, the amount is also added.

These characters can be magnetized and the pattern

recognised. This gives accuracy and speed when

sorting the cheques but also security as the characters

cannot be altered using normal ink.


28/32

Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

This works by using a reader/scanner to detect the

pattern of light reflected from a document written on

paper. The computer identifies the pattern of eachindividual character in the text and converts the 'picture'

of the page into a document that can be edited in thenormal way.

Magetic Strips

These devices can be used to store, by means of

magnetic patterns, a limited amount of information onto

a plastic card. This might simply be an account numberand an expiry date. When the card is 'swiped' the

patterns are read and the account holders information

can be accessed. As with bar codes check digits can be

used to ensure that data is read correctly. Exposure to a

strong magnet can corrupt the data held on the strip and

the card then becomes unusable, data has to be typed in

by hand

Smart Cards

A smart card looks like a magnetic strip card but isdifferent in that it contains a small memory circuit. This

means that data can be written to the card, as well as

read from it, when it is swiped. Some companies for

their reward schemes are using cards like this, to store

data about the number of points a customer

accumulates. When these points are exchanged for

products the data on the card is changed to show the

new total.

STORAGE DEVICES Expansion cards equipped with a range of

electronic components including chips and used to

add extra functions to a computer eg sound cards

CD/DVD Combo drive - allows the computer

to take information from a CD or DVD, or write

information to them

Random access memory, the volatile

temporary storage medium for data. Data on RAM

can be read, changed and added to and is used

when the programs are running on the computer.Data stored on the RAM is normally lost when the

system is switches off. Read only memory, the

chips built into a machine that store data

permanently. Data can be read from ROM chips

but cannot be changed or added to. Programs built

into a machine on ROM chips are called firmware

as opposed to disk-based software.

Note: Floppy discs are considered too old fashioned

OUTPUT DEVICES

Monitors

Can be flat square tubes, trinitron or liquid crystal

(LCD) and this can make all the difference to the user.

The curved planes of the FST encourage screen

reflection, whereas the mesh of wire make up of the

trinitron screen allows light through without reflection.

LCD screens have allowed screens to become thinner

and refresh quicker. Software now allows for the

monitors to manage the colour display, so that thecolours viewed will match the colours scanned or

printed. Screen dimensions are normally 34cm to 53cm

across the diagonal, but extra large screens up to 107cm

are available for displays or presentations. Monitor

resolutions are usually 1600x1200.

Speakers

Either built into the computer or external, plugged

into the Input/Output port.

Modems

Internal or external communication devices used to

send and receive data, and really input, processing and

output devices. The name means

modulator/demodulator, which refers to the way signals

are received via a telephone line or satellite. Broadband

modems make more room for signals and this speeds up

data transfer and allows both telephone and computeruse on one line

Printer

The most common are ink jet and laser. Some dotmatrix printers are used for long print runs. Ink jet

printers are cheap to buy and are capable of printing

high-resolution images, but are slow and never give as

sharp an image as laser printers, because the ink is stillliquid when it hits the paper; indeed specialist paper is

required.

Laser printers are cheap for standard mono prints, but

are expensive for colour work. If a single user is using

the printer, a print rate of 4 pages per minute is

adequate, but if a whole office is using one printer,

something faster will be required. Print speed is

measured in pages per minute (ppm)

Most standard printers now fall into a resolution range

of 300-1200 dpi. If the colour work is large in size, a

bubble jet printer is the most practical solution, whilst

many CAD systems require a pen plotter.


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Networks

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) describesthe use of computers to exchange information.

For this, computers need to be linked in the

form of a network. This has advantages forbusiness, e.g. some documents can be

transmitted from one business computer to

another via a data link instead of on paper.

The technology company Oracleprides itselfon being almost completely paperless.

Communication, wherever possible is by EDI.

Types of network:

client / server a powerful file server with

a large hard diskholds software and user

files. Workstations access the data on theserver in order to operate.

peer to peer computers are linked

together in small networks and each has itsown hard disk. Files on one computer can

be accessed from other computers on the

network.

Client / server networks

There are three types of network: star, bus andring.

Computers can be linked in small areas. These

are called Local Area Networks (LAN).

Sometimes they are linked over manythousands of miles. These are Wide Area

Networks (WAN).

Advantages of Local Area Networks are that:

a user can access his / her own work from

any workstation;

individual workstations have lower

specifications than standalone computers,

so are cheaper; it is easier to backup all the data on the

network at once rather than one computer

at a time; all users can access not only all data on the

server but also external sources such as the

internet; information can be communicated between

users.

Disadvantages are that:

building a network can be expensive due

to the cost of servers and the data links; if the server crashes all computers are out

of action.


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The Impact of ICT onhow we work

The biggest chance in technology has been

personal computers. Computer screen are

no longer just confined to shops and offices.

The ICT revolution has allowed businesses

to process much larger amounts of

information in far shorter periods of time

and with fewer staff. The results can then be

stored, represented in written form or

graphs, and transmitted at speed around the

world by electronic communications.

Changes in customer tastes and fashion

happen far more regularly and businessesneed to be producing and selling what

customers want to buy. New technology is

also making electronic products cheaper,

smaller and more advanced, plus society is

more aware of natural disasters and the need

to practice dangerous activities or predict

natural disasters e.g. earthquakes. In a

fraction of the time taken before computers,

and subject to the rules in the Data

Protection Act, large databases of data can

be stored and spreadsheets used to analyseit, model it and make predictions from it as

to what might happen in the future.

3D designs can be created using specialist

Computer Aided Design software and

products built more efficiently using

Computer Aided Manufacture. Other

specialist software is used to view and book

holidays, buy products direct over the

Internet, scanning bar codes in supermarket

to aid stocktaking and checkouting usingEPOS (Electronic Point of Sale) in shops.

EFTPOS (Electronic Funds Transfer at the

Point of Sales) is used to automatically

transfer funds from a customers debit or

credit card into the shops bank account,

when goods are purchased. This saves the

shop counting and banking cash at the end

of each day, from accepting cheques that are

not honoured, and it gets the money into the

shops bank account more quickly than cashor cheque. New CHIP and PIN systems are

designed to lessen credit card fraud.

CAD/CAM/JIT

Computers use CAD and CAM to carry out

design tasks much more quickly andefficiently, particularly those which are

complex and repetitive. This allows firms to

save on labour costs and increase

productivity (output per ), improve product

quality and consistency, and make fewer

mistakes. Computers also operate without

meal or rest breaks.

Computers have allowed many firms to take

advantage of new practices that require close

monitoring of methods and information.The concept of Just-In-Time production is

dependant on being able to obtain new

stocks of materials precisely when they are

required. Computerised stock control allows

the firm to manage its stock levels more

effectively saving money on unnecessary

items, waste and storage space; whilst

computer aided warehousing uses conveyor

belts to minimise labour handling costs.

One of the more recent developments hasbeen the big retailers customer loyalty card.

By scanning a customers card the retailer

(shop) is able to collect information on each

customer and what they normally buy. The

customer is offered small discounts on these

products to encourage them to keep

shopping at the store whilst the retailer can

target them with carefully selected

advertising.

Despite the benefits IT has brought many

people are scared of change and reluctant to

use all the facilities on offer. The is often

because

Workers think they wont cope with the

equipment and that the old ways are fine

Feelings of insecurity

Altering employment patterns and

working conditions

Loss of status and power for middle

managers who used to make thedecisions the computers make now

Ignorance of the scope or role of IT


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31765 bcs revision guide

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