3,4 b130carbon,polymers

8/3/2019 3,4 B130carbon,Polymers

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Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Carbon and organic molecules

Carbon and its bonds

Polymers and monomers

- Carbohydrates

- Proteins

- Lipids- Nucleic acids


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A carbon atom forms four covalent bonds

C can make chains or rings

Why is carbon so important to molecules of life?

Figure 3.1, top part

Structuralformula

Ball-and-stickmodel

Space-fillingmodel

Methane

The 4 single bonds of carbon point to the corners of a tetrahedron.


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Methane, CH4

Figure 2.8Bx

Arrangement of atoms determines molecular shape.

Shape determin

es function of molecules


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Butane, ball and stick model

Figure 3.1x3


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What affects solubility in water?

Molecules with +/- charge are usuallyhydrophilicor water-loving

Molecules with no charge and non-polar areusuallyhydrophobic and not soluble in water


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Polymers are long chains of smaller molecularunits called monomers

A huge number of different polymers can be

made from a small number of monomers

How do cells make so many different moleculesthat are needed for life?


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8/37Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

are single-unit sugars

a multiple of CH2O

fuels forcellular work

Monosaccharides



Carbohydrates

DISACCHARIDES ANIMATION

Figure 2.12a

b

PRESSTO PLAY
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Molecules, including non-sugars, taste sweet

because they bind to sweet receptors on thetongue

Why is sugar sweet?

Table 3.6
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disaccharides

Glucose Glucose

Maltose

Figure 3.5

Sucrose

glucose fructose

Dehydration synthesis
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Polysaccharides are long chains of sugar units

Size: thousands of linked monosaccharides

purpose: energy storage, structural
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Starch (plants) and glycogen (animals)

Cellulose (plants) and chitin (insects, fungi)

Figure 3.7

Starch granules inpotato tuber cells

Glucosemonomer

STARCH

GLYCOGEN

CELLULOSE

Glycogen granulesin muscle tissue

Cellulose fibrils ina plant cell wall

Cellulosemolecules
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Starch Cellulose

Figure 3.7x

= fiber

Indigestible by animals
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hydrophobic

composed largely of carbon and hydrogen

Purposes:

- energy storage

- insulation, cushioning

- membranes

- signals

Lipids include fats, oils, and steroids.
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Fats are triglycerides

one glycerol molecule linked to three fatty acids

fatty acid chains often differ

Fatty acid
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Saturated fats lack double bonds

solid at room temperature (lard)

Fatty acids of unsaturated fats contain doublebonds

liquid at room temperature (plant oils)

Trans fats have wrong way double bonds

Figure 3.8C
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Waxes form waterproof coatings and can preventorganisms from drying out or getting wet

QuickTim e and a TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor are needed to see this picture.
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Steroids are often hormones

testosteroneestrogen

Anabolic steroids

Hormone Replacement

Therapy


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Cholesterol

Membranes

Precursor toVitamin D,

bile salts

Figure 3.9x1

HDL High Density Lipoprotein

LDL Low Density Lipoprotein
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Proteins are involved in

cellular structure

movement

nutrition

defense

transport

communication

Enzymes regulate chemical reactions

Proteins are essential to the structures andactivities of life

Figure 3.11

P t i th t t t ll d
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Their diversity is based on differentarrangements of amino acids

Proteins are made from just 20 kindsof amino acids

Proteins are the most structurally andfunctionally diverse of lifes molecules
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Each amino acid contains:

an amino group

a carboxyl group

an R group, which distinguishes each of the 20

different amino acids

Aminogroup

Carboxyl (acid)groupFigure 3.12A
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Each amino acid has specific properties

Leucine (Leu)

Figure 3.12B

Serine (Ser) Cysteine (Cys)

HYDROPHOBIC HYDROPHILIC
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Cells link amino acids together by dehydration

synthesis

Peptide bonds

Amino acid Amino acid Dipeptide

Dehydration

synthesis

Carboxylgroup

Aminogroup

PEPTIDEBOND

Figure 3.13

A t i ifi h d t i it f ti
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A protein consists of polypeptide chains foldedinto a unique shape

shape determines the proteins function

A protein loses its function when itspolypeptides unravel

A proteins specific shape determines its function

Figure 3.14A Figure 3.14B

A t i i t t i it i id
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A proteins primary structure is its amino acidsequence

Secondary structure is polypeptide coiling or

folding produced by hydrogen bonding

Figure 3.15, 16

Amino acid

Hydrogenbond

Alpha helix

Pleated sheet

Primary

structure

Secondarystructure
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Tertiary structure is the overall shape of apolypeptide

Quaternary structure is the relationship among

multiple polypeptides of a protein

Figure 3.17, 18

Polypeptide(single subunitof transthyretin)

Transthyretin, with fouridentical polypeptide subunits

Tertiarystructure

Quaternarystructure

E bl
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Enzyme(sucrase)

Activesite

1

2

3

Substrate(sucrose)

Enzyme availablewith empty activesite

Substrate

binds toenzyme withinduced fit

Substrate isconverted to

products

4

Products arereleased

Glucose Fructose

enzyme isunchanged andcan repeat theprocess

Figure 5.6

A specific

enzyme

catalyzes

each cellular

reaction

Enzymes enable

chemical reactions
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What can denature a protein?

High temperature

pH, low or high

High salt concentration


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Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA serve asthe blueprints for proteins

They ultimately control the life of a cell DNA sequence is inherited by progeny

Nucleic acids are information-rich polymers ofnucleotides
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The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides

Phosphategroup

SugarFigure 3.20A

Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar,phosphate, and nitrogenous base

Nitrogenousbase (A)


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The sugar and phosphate form the backbonefor the nucleic acid

Sugar-phosphatebackbone

Nucleotide

Figure 3.20B


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DNA consists of twopolynucleotides held

together by hydrogen bonds

Figure 3.20C

The sequence of the

four kinds ofnitrogenous bases inDNA carries geneticinformation

Nitrogenousbase (A)

Basepair

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Chemical energy used by allcells

Energy is released by breakinghigh energy phosphate bond

ATP is replenished byoxidation of food fuels


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How ATP Drives Cellular Work

Figure 2 20
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3,4 b130carbon,polymers

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