343434343434CHAPTER The Colonies Become

New Nations, 1945-Present

Previewing Themes REVOLUTION Independence movements swept Africa and Asia as World War II ended. Through both nonviolent and violent means, revolutionaries overthrew existing political systems to create their own nations.Geography Which continent witnessed the greatest number of its countries gain independence?

POWER AND AUTHORITY Systems of government shifted for one billion people when colonies in Africa and Asia gained their freedom. New nations struggled to unify their diverse populations. In many cases, authoritarian rule and military dictatorships emerged.Geography According to the time line, which southeast Asian country dealt with dictatorship in the years following independence?

ECONOMICS The emergence of new nations from European- and U.S.-ruled colonies brought a change in ownership of vital resources. In many cases, however, new nations struggled to create thriving economies.Geography Which colonial power had enjoyed the resources from the greatest number of regions of the world?

Essential Question

In this chapter you will follow the varying paths that colonial lands took on their journeys to independence following World War II.

SECTION 1 The Indian Subcontinent Achieves Freedom

New nations emerged from the British colony of India.

SECTION 2 Southeast Asian Nations Gain Independence

Former colonies in Southeast Asia worked to build new governments and economies.

SECTION 3 New Nations in Africa After World War II, African leaders

threw off colonial rule and created independent countries.

SECTION 4 Conflicts in the Middle East Division of Palestine after World War

II made the Middle East a hotbed of competing nationalist movements.

SECTION 5 Central Asia Struggles Lands controlled or influenced by the

Soviet Union struggle with the challenges of establishing new nations.

What You Will Learn

What independence movements and political confl icts took place in Africa and Asia as colonialism gave way after World War II?

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The Colonies Become New Nations, 1945-Present Israel:

Birth of a Nation

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▼ Health Care

▲ Voting Rights

▼ Agriculture

EXAM I N I NG the I SSU ES

• What are the first steps you would take? Why?

• What might be the most difficult challenge to overcome?

As a class, discuss these questions. Remember what you have learned about what makes a stable and unified nation. As you read about the emergence of new nations around the world, note what setbacks and achievements they make in their effort to build a promising future.

How would you build a new nation?As a political leader of a former colony, you watch with pride as your country becomes independent. However, you know that difficult days lay ahead. You want peace and prosperity for your nation. To accomplish this, however, you need to create a sound government and a strong economy. In addition, food and adequate health care are scarce and many people receive little education. These and other challenges await your immediate attention.

▲ Education

▲ Employment

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TAKING NOTES

The Indian Subcontinent Achieves Freedom

• Congress Party• Muslim League• Muhammad Ali

Jinnah• partition

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

• Jawaharlal Nehru

• Indira Gandhi• Benazir

Bhutto

SETTING THE STAGE After World War II, dramatic political changes began to take place across the world. This was especially the case with regard to the policy of colonialism. Countries that held colonies began to question the practice. After the world struggle against dictatorship, many leaders argued that no coun-try should control another nation. Others questioned the high cost and commit-ment of holding colonies. Meanwhile, the people of colonized regions continued to press even harder for their freedom. All of this led to independence for one of the largest and most populous colonies in the world: British-held India.

A Movement Toward IndependenceThe British had ruled India for almost two centuries. Indian resistance to Britain, which had existed from the beginning, intensified in 1939, when Britain com-mitted India’s armed forces to World War II without first consulting the colony’s elected representatives. The move left Indian nationalists stunned and humiliated. Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi launched a nonviolent campaign of noncoopera-tion with the British. Officials imprisoned numerous nationalists for this action. In 1942, the British tried to gain the support of the nationalists by promising govern-mental changes after the war. But the offer did not include Indian independence.

As they intensified their struggle against the British, Indians also struggled with each other. India has long been home to two main religious groups. In the 1940s, India had approximately 350 million Hindus and about 100 million Muslims. The Indian National Congress, or the Congress Party, was India’s national political party. Most members of the Congress Party were Hindus, but the party at times had many Muslim members.

In competition with the Congress Party was the Muslim League, an orga-nization founded in 1906 in India to protect Muslim interests. Members of the league felt that the mainly Hindu Congress Party looked out primarily for Hindu interests. The leader of the Muslim League, Muhammad Ali Jinnah(mu•HAM•ihd-ah•LEE-JINH•uh), insisted that all Muslims resign from the Congress Party. The Muslim League stated that it would never accept Indian independence if it meant rule by the Hindu-dominated Congress Party. Jinnah stated, “The only thing the Muslim has in common with the Hindu is his slavery to the British.”

POWER AND AUTHORITY New nations emerged from the British colony of India.

India today is the largest democracy in the world.

1

Use the graphic organizer online to take notes on prominent Indian prime ministers from independence through the current day.

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Lahore

New Delhi

KathmanduThimphu

DhakaCalcutta

Hyderabad

Bombay

Madras

Colombo

Karachi

TIBET

KASHMIR

EASTPUNJAB

I N D I A

C H I N A

WESTPAKISTAN

EASTPAKISTAN

AFGHANISTANIRAN

NEPALBHUTAN

BURMA(Br.)

SIKKIM

CEYLON(Br.)

20°N

40°N

80°E

100°E

60°E

ArabianSea

Bay ofBengal

Indu

s R

.

Ganges R. Brahmaputra R.

0 500 Miles

0 1,000 Kilometers

Mostly BuddhistMostly HinduMostly MuslimMostly Sikhs

Present dayboundaries are shown.

The Indian Subcontinent, 1947

Freedom Brings TurmoilWhen World War II ended, Britain found itself faced with enormous war debts. As a result, British leaders began to rethink the expense of maintaining and governing distant colonies. With India continuing to push for independence, the stage was set for the British to hand over power. However, a key problem emerged: Who should receive the power—Hindus or Muslims?

Partition and Bloodshed Muslims resisted attempts to include them in an Indian government dominated by Hindus. Rioting between the two groups broke out in several Indian cities. In August 1946, four days of clashes in Calcutta left more than 5,000 people dead and more than 15,000 hurt.

British officials soon became convinced that partition, an idea first proposed by India’s Muslims, would be the only way to ensure a safe and secure region. Partition was the term given to the division of India into separate Hindu and Muslim nations. The northwest and eastern regions of India, where most Muslims lived, would become the new nation of Pakistan. (Pakistan, as the map shows, com-prised two separate states in 1947: West Pakistan and East Pakistan.)

The British House of Commons passed an act on July 16, 1947, that granted two nations, India and Pakistan, independence in one month’s time. In that short period, more than 500 independent native princes had to decide which nation they would join. The administration of the courts, the military, the railways, and the police—the whole of the civil service—had to be divided down to the last paper clip. Most dif-ficult of all, millions of Indian citizens—Hindus, Muslims, and yet another signifi-cant religious group, the Sikhs—had to decide where to go.

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Location Which Muslim country,

divided into two states, bordered India on the east and the west?

2. Location Which Buddhist countries bordered India to the north and the south?

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Analyzing Causes‑What was the

cause of the conflict between India and Pakistan over Kashmir?

During the summer of 1947, 10 million people were on the move in the Indian subcontinent. As people scrambled to relo­cate, violence among the different religious groups erupted. Muslims killed Sikhs who were moving into India. Hindus and Sikhs killed Muslims who were headed into Pakistan. The following passage is representative of the experiences of people in both the Hindu and Muslim communities:

P r i m a r y S o u r c eAll passengers were forced into compartments like sheep and goats. Because of which the heat and suffocating atmosphere was intensified and it was very hard to breathe. In the ladies compartment women and children were in a terrible condition. Women tried in vain to calm down and comfort their children. If you looked out the window you could see dead bodies lying in the distance. At many places you could see corpses piled on top of each other and no one seemed to have any concern. . . . These were the scenes that made your heart bleed and everybody loudly repented their sins and recited verses asking God’s forgiveness. Every moment seemed to be the most terrifying and agonizing.

Zahida amjad ali, quoted in Freedom, Trauma, Continuities

In all, an estimated 1 million died. “What is there to cel ­ebrate?” Gandhi mourned. “I see nothing but rivers of blood.” Gandhi personally went to the Indian capital of Delhi to plead for fair treatment of Muslim refugees. While there, he himself became a victim of the nation’s violence. A Hindu extremist who thought Gandhi too protective of Muslims shot and killed him on January 30, 1948.

The Battle for Kashmir As if partition itself didn’t result in enough bloodshed between India’s Muslims and Hindus, the two groups quickly squared off over the small region of Kashmir. Kashmir lay at the northern point of India next to Pakistan. Although its ruler was Hindu, Kashmir had a majority Muslim population. Shortly after independence, India and Pakistan began battling each other for control of the region. The fighting continued until the United Nations arranged a cease­fire in 1949. The cease­fire left a third of Kashmir under Pakistani control and the rest under Indian control. The two countries continue to fight over the region today.

modern indiaWith the granting of its independence on August 15, 1947, India became the world’s largest democracy. As the long­awaited hour of India’s freedom approached, jawaharlal Nehru, the independent nation’s first prime minister, addressed the country’s political leaders:

P r i m a r y S o u r c eLong years ago, we made a tryst [appointment] with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will wake to life and freedom.

jaWaharlal Nehru, speech before the Constituent Assembly, August 14, 1947

The coldest WarNo part of Kashmir is beyond a fight for India and Pakistan—including the giant Siachen glacier high above the region. The dividing line established by the 1949 cease-fire did not extend to the glacier because officials figured neither side would try to occupy such a barren and frigid strip of land. They figured wrong. In 1984, both sides sent troops to take the glacier, and they have been dug in ever since. At altitudes nearing 21,000 feet, Indian and Pakistani soldiers shoot at each other from trenches in temperatures that reach 70 degrees below zero. This bitterly cold war was interrupted in 2003 when Pakistan and India declared a ceasefire.

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Jawaharlal Nehru1889–1964

Nehru’s father was an influential attorney, and so the first prime minister of India grew up amid great wealth. As a young man, he lived and studied in England. “In my likes anddislikes I was perhaps more an Englishman than an Indian,” he once remarked. Upon returning to India, however, he became moved by the horrible state in which many of his fellow Indians lived. “A new picture of India seemed to rise before me,” he recalled, “naked, starving, crushed, and utterly miserable.” From then on, he devoted his life to improving conditions in his country.

Nehru Leads India Nehru served as India’s leader for its first 17 years of independence. He had been one of Gandhi’s most devoted followers. Educated in Britain, Nehru won popularity among all groups in India. He emphasized democracy, unity, and economic modernization.

Nehru used his leadership to move India forward. He led other newly independent nations of the world in forming an alliance of countries that were neutral in the Cold War con-flicts between the United States and the Soviet Union. On the home front, Nehru called for a reorganization of the states by language. He also pushed for indus trial ization and sponsored social reforms. He tried to elevate the status of the lower castes, or those at the bottom of society, and help women gain the rights promised by the constitution.

Troubled Times Nehru died in 1964. His death left the Congress Party with no leader strong enough to hold together the many political factions that had emerged with India’s independence. Then, in 1966, Nehru’s daughter, Indira Gandhi, was chosen prime minister. After a short spell out of office, she was reelected in 1980.

Although she ruled capably, Gandhi faced many chal-lenges, including the growing threat from Sikh extremists who themselves wanted an independent state. The Golden Temple at Amritsar stood as the religious center for the Sikhs. From there, Sikh nationalists ventured out to attack symbols of Indian authority. In June 1984, Indian army troops overran the Golden Temple. They killed about 500 Sikhs and destroyed sacred property. In retaliation, Sikh bodyguards assigned to Indira Gandhi gunned her down. This violent act set off another murderous frenzy, causing the deaths of thousands of Sikhs.

In the wake of the murder of Indira Gandhi, her son, Rajiv (rah•JEEV) Gandhi, took over as prime minister. His party, however, lost its power in 1989 because of accusations of widespread corruption. In 1991, while campaigning again for prime minister near the town of Madras, Rajiv was killed by a bomb. Members of a group opposed to his policies claimed responsibility.

Twenty-First Century Challenges India's prime minister, Manmohan Singh, is a Sikh—the first non-Hindu to hold the job. He and his nation face a number of problems. Simmering religious tensions still occasionally boil over in episodes of violence and reprisal. Also, India’s population continues to increase and is expected to surpass that of China by 2035. More acutely, Maoist rebels in the nation's eastern states continue to pose a serious military threat to the government's authority.

Even more troubling are India’s tense relations with its neighbor Pakistan, and the fact that both have become nuclear powers. In 1974, India exploded a “peaceful” nuclear device. For the next 24 years, the nation quietly worked on building up its nuclear capability. In 1998, Indian officials conducted five underground nuclear tests. Meanwhile, the Pakistanis had been building their own nuclear program. Shortly after India conducted its nuclear tests, Pakistan demonstrated that it, too, had nuclear weapons. The presence of these weapons in the hands of such bitter

RESEARCH WEB LINKS Go online for more on Jawaharlal Nehru.

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1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

enemies and neighbors has become a matter of great international concern, espe-cially in light of their continuing struggle over Kashmir:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C ENow that India and Pakistan have tested nuclear weapons . . . [There is] fear that a remote but savage ethnic and religious conflict could deteriorate into a nuclear exchange with global consequences. India and Pakistan must learn to talk to each other and move toward a more trusting relationship.

The New York Times, June 28, 1998

In 2002, the two nations came close to war over Kashmir. However, in 2003 a peace process began to ease tension.

Pakistan Copes with FreedomThe history of Pakistan since independence has been no less turbulent than that of India. Pakistan actually began as two separate and divided states, East Pakistan and West Pakistan. East Pakistan lay to the east of India, West Pakistan to the north-west. These regions were separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian territory. In culture, language, history, geography, economics, and ethnic background, the two regions were very different. Only the Islamic religion united them.

Civil War From the beginning, the two regions of Pakistan experienced strained relations. While East Pakistan had the larger population, it was often ignored by West Pakistan, home to the central government. In 1970, a giant cyclone and tidal wave struck East Pakistan and killed an estimated 266,000 residents. While inter-national aid poured into Pakistan, the government in West Pakistan did not quickly transfer that aid to East Pakistan. Demonstrations broke out in East Pakistan, and protesters called for an end to all ties with West Pakistan.

Pakistan

India

1977Ali BhuttoPrime Minister Ali Bhutto of Pakistan is deposed in a coup led by General Zia. Bhutto is later ahnged for having ordered the assassination of a political opponent.

1988General Zia, president of Pakistan, dies in a mysterious plane crash.

1999General Pervez Musharraf siezes control of government in a military coup.

2007Benazir Bhutto

Ali Bhutto’s daughter also

comes to a violent end, the

victim of a suicide bomber while campaigning for

parliamentary elections.

1984Indira GandhiIndira Gandhi is

gunned down by two of her Sikh

bodyguards. Her murder is in

retaliation for an attack she

ordered on a Sikh temple.

1991Rajiv Gandhi

Rajiv Gandhi is killed by a bomb while

campaigning. The bomb is carried by a

woman opposed to Gandhi's

policies

2008Ten gunmen attack

the Indian city of Mumbai, in which more than 170 are killed. The

attack was planned in and staged from

Pakistan, which raised tensions between the

two nations.

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Pakistan

India

Myanmar

Philippines

Bangladesh

United States

10 20 30 40 50

Percentage of population in poverty

Source: The CIA World Factbook, 2010

24%

25%

32.7%

32.9%

36.3%

12%

Poverty Levels in Asia

hswh12fs_c34s010012nd pass5-11-10LKell

On March 26, 1971, East Pakistan declared itself an independent nation called Bangladesh. A civil war followed between Bangladesh and Pakistan. Eventually, Indian forces stepped in and sided with Bangladesh. Pakistan forces surrendered. More than 1 million people died in the war. Pakistan lost about one-seventh of its area and about one-half of its population to Bangladesh.

A Pattern of Instability Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the first governor-general of Pakistan, died shortly after independence. Beginning in 1958, Pakistan went through a series of military coups. Ali Bhutto took control of the country following the civil war. A military coup in 1977 led by General Zia removed Bhutto, who was later executed for crimes allegedly committed while in office.

After Zia’s death, Bhutto’s daughter, Benazir Bhutto, was twice elected prime minister. However, she was removed from office in 1996. Nawaz Sharif became prime minister after the 1997 elections. In 1999, army leaders ledby General Pervez Musharraf ousted Sharif in yet another coup and imposed mil-itary rule over Pakistan. By 2007, however, he faced growing polit ical opposition at home. Meanwhile, Benazir Bhutto had returned from exile abroad, only to be assassinated in December 2007. By August 2008, Musharraf had resigned, with Bhutto's widower, Asif Ali Zadari, winning the presidency the following month.

Bangladesh and Sri Lanka Struggle Meanwhile, the newly created nations of Bangladesh and Sri Lanka struggled with enormous problems of their own in the decades following independence.

Bangladesh Faces Many Problems The war with Pakistan had ruined the econ-omy of Bangladesh and fractured its communications system. Rebuilding the shat-tered country seemed like an overwhelming task. Sheik Mujibur Rahman became the nation’s first prime minister. He soon took over all authority and declared Bangladesh a one-party state. In August 1975, military leaders assassinated him.

Over the years Bangladesh has attempted with great difficulty to create a more democratic form of government. Charges of election fraud and government cor-ruption are common. In recent years, however, the government has become more stable. The latest elections were held in December 2008, and Hasina Wazed took over as the nation’s prime minister.

Bangladesh also has had to cope with crippling natural disasters. Bangladesh is a low-lying nation that is subject to many cyclones and tidal waves. Massive storms

▼ Overcrowded and poor villages are a common sight throughout Bangladesh.

Comparing

How does the history of Pakistan in 1971 parallel the history of India in 1947?

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first third

second

▲ This emblem of the separatist group Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam represents the struggle for independence of the Tamils.

CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A GRAPHIC

Research the current percentages of religions in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, or Sri Lanka. Create a graphic of your choosing to illustrate your findings.

USING YOUR NOTES2. What tragic connection did

many of the leaders share?

MAIN IDEAS3. Why did British officials

partition India into India and Pakistan?

4. In what way did Pakistan also undergo a partition?

5. What is the main cause today of civil strife in Sri Lanka?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

regularly flood the land, ruin crops and homes, and take lives. A cyclone in 1991 killed approximately 139,000 people. Such catastrophes, along with a rapidly growing population, have put much stress on the country’s economy. Bangladesh is one of the poor-est nations in the world. The per capita income there is about $360 per year.

Civil Strife Grips Sri Lanka Another newly freed and deeply troubled country on the Indian subcon-tinent is Sri Lanka, a small, teardrop-shaped island nation just off the southeast coast of India. Formerly known as Ceylon, Sri Lanka gained its independ-ence from Britain in February of 1948. Two main ethnic groups dominate the nation. Three-quarters of the population are Sinhalese, who are Buddhists. A fifth are Tamils, a Hindu people of southern India and northern Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka’s recent history has also been one of turmoil. A militant group of Tamils has long fought an armed struggle for a separate Tamil nation. Since 1981, thousands of lives have been lost. In an effort to end the violence, Rajiv Gandhi and the Sri Lankan president tried to reach an accord in 1987. The agreement called for Indian troops to enter Sri Lanka and help disarm Tamil rebels. This effort was unsuccessful, and Indian troops left in 1990. But in 2009, a government military offensive decisively defeated Tamil separatist forces.

As difficult as post-independence has been for the countries of the Indian subcontinent, the same can be said for former colonies elsewhere. As you will read in the next section, a number of formerly held territories in Southeast Asia faced challenges as they became independent nations.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. SYNTHESIZING Why might India’s political and economic

success be so crucial to the future of democracy in Asia?

7. ANALYZING ISSUES How did religious and cultural differences create problems for newly emerging nations?

8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Why has the conflict between India and Pakistan over Kashmir become such a concern to the world today?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Write several paragraphs detailing the problems shared by leaders of India and Pakistan.

• Congress Party • Muslim League • Muhammad Ali Jinnah • partition • Jawaharlal Nehru • Indira Gandhi • Benazir Bhutto

SECTION ASSESSMENT1

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1946

1954

1957

1965

1949

19541954

19481954

BURMA

CHINA

INDIA

BANGLADESH

CAMBODIA SOUTHVIETNAM

PHILIPPINESTHAILAND

LAOS

MALAYSIA

I N D O N E S I A

NORTHVIETNAM

BRUNEI(Br.)

EAST TIMOR(Port.)

BORNEO

Rangoon

Bangkok

PhnomPenh

Hanoi

Vientiane

Saigon

Singapore

Kuala Lumpur

Manila

Jakarta

0° Equator

120°

E

160°

E

I N D I A NO C E A N

P A C I F I CO C E A N

SouthChina

Sea0

0

1,000 Miles

2,000 Kilometers

Former British colonyFormer Dutch colonyFormer French colonyFormer U.S. colonyContinuously independentDate of independence1945

Southeast Asia, 1945–1975

TAKING NOTES

Southeast Asian NationsGain Independence

• Ferdinand Marcos

• Corazón Aquino

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

• Aung San Suu Kyi

• Sukarno• Suharto

SETTING THE STAGE World War II had a significant impact on the colonized groups of Southeast Asia. During the war, the Japanese seized much of Southeast Asia from the European nations that had controlled the region for many years. The Japanese conquest helped the people of Southeast Asia see that the Europeans were far from invincible. When the war ended, and the Japanese themselves had been forced out, many Southeast Asians refused to live again under European rule. They called for and won their independence, and a series of new nations emerged.

The Philippines Achieves IndependenceThe Philippines became the first of the world’s colonies to achieve independence following World War II. The United States granted the Philippines independence in 1946, on the anniversary of its own Declaration of Independence, the Fourth of July.

The United States and the Philippines The Filipinos’ immediate goals were to rebuild the economy and to restore the capital of Manila. The city had been badly damaged in World War II. The United States had promised the Philippines $620 million in war damages. However, the U.S. government insisted that Filipinos approve the Bell Act in order to get the money. This act would establish free trade between the United States and the Philippines for eight years, to be fol-lowed by gradually increasing tariffs. Filipinos were worried that American busi-nesses would exploit the resources and environment of the Philippines. In spite of this concern, Filipinos approved the Bell Act and received their money.

The United States also wanted to maintain its military presence in the Philippines. With the onset of the Cold War (see Chapter 33), the United States needed to protect its interests in Asia. Both China and the Soviet Union were rivals of the United States at the time. Both were Pacific powers with bases close to allies of the United States and to resources vital to U.S. interests. Therefore, the United States demanded a 99-year lease on its military and naval bases in the Philip pines. The bases, Clark Air Force Base and Subic Bay Naval Base near Manila, proved to be critical to the United States later in the staging of the Korean and Vietnam wars.

ECONOMICS Former coloniesin Southeast Asia worked to build new governments and economies.

The power and influence of the Pacific Rim nations are likely to expand during the next century.

2

Use the graphic organizer online to take notes on the major challenges that Southeast Asian nations faced after independence.

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1946

1954

1957

1965

1949

19541954

19481954

BURMA

CHINA

INDIA

BANGLADESH

CAMBODIA SOUTHVIETNAM

PHILIPPINESTHAILAND

LAOS

MALAYSIA

I N D O N E S I A

NORTHVIETNAM

BRUNEI(Br.)

EAST TIMOR(Port.)

BORNEO

Rangoon

Bangkok

PhnomPenh

Hanoi

Vientiane

Saigon

Singapore

Kuala Lumpur

Manila

Jakarta

0° Equator

120°

E

160°

E

I N D I A NO C E A N

P A C I F I CO C E A N

SouthChina

Sea0

0

1,000 Miles

2,000 Kilometers

Former British colonyFormer Dutch colonyFormer French colonyFormer U.S. colonyContinuously independentDate of independence1945

Southeast Asia, 1945–1975

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Location Which former Dutch colony is made up of a series of islands spread out from the

Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean?2. Region From what European country did the most colonies shown above gain their

independence?

Making Inferences

Why might the United States have been interested in maintaining military bases in the Philippines?

These military bases also became the single greatest source of conflict between the United States and the Philippines. Many Filipinos regarded the bases as proof of American imperialism. Later agreements shortened the terms of the lease, and the United States gave up both bases in 1992.

After World War II, the Philippine government was still almost completely dependent on the United States economically and politically. The Philippine gov­ernment looked for ways to lessen this dependency. It welcomed Japanese invest­ments. It also broadened its contacts with Southeast Asian neighbors and with nonaligned nations.

From Marcos to Ramos Ferdinand Marcos was elected president of the Philippines in 1965. The country suffered under his rule from 1966 to 1986. Marcos imposed an authoritarian regime and stole millions of dollars from the pub­lic treasury. Although the constitution limited Marcos to eight years in office, he got around this restriction by imposing martial law from 1972 to 1981. Two years later, his chief opponent, Benigno Aquino, Jr., was assassinated as he returned from the United States to the Philippines, lured by the promise of coming elections.

In the elections of 1986, Aquino’s widow, Corazón Aquino, challenged Marcos. Aquino won decisively, but Marcos refused to acknowledge her victory. When he declared himself the official winner, a public outcry resulted. He was forced into exile in Hawaii, where he later died. In 1995, the Philippines suc­ceeded in recovering $475 million Marcos had stolen from his country and deposited in Swiss banks.

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Aung San Suu Kyi1945–

Aung San Suu Kyi won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991 for her efforts to establish democracy in Myanmar. She could not accept the award in person, however, because she was still under house arrest. The Nobel Prize committee said that in award ing her the peace prize, it intended:

to show its support for the many people throughout the world who are striving to attain democracy, human rights, and ethnic concili­ation by peaceful means. Suu Kyi’s struggle is one of the most extraordinary examples of civil courage in Asia in recent decades.

As she took the oath of office, Aquino promised to usher in a more open and democratic form of government.

p r i m A r y S o u r c eI pledge a government dedicated to upholding truth and justice, morality and decency in government, freedom and democracy. I ask our people not to relax, but to maintain more vigilance in this, our moment of triumph. The Motherland can’t thank them enough, yet we all realize that more is required of each of us to achieve a truly just society for our people. This is just the beginning.

corAzón Aquino, inaugural speech, Feb. 24, 1986

During Aquino’s presidency, the Philippine government ratified a new constitution. It also negotiated successfully with the United States to end the lease on the U.S. mil­itary bases. In 1992, Fidel V. Ramos succeeded Aquino as president. Ramos was restricted by the constitution to a single six­year term. The single­term limit is intended to prevent the abuse of power that occurred during Marcos’s 20­year rule.

The Government Battles rebels Since gaining its independence, the Philippines has had to battle its own separatist group. For centuries, the southern part of the coun­try has been a stronghold of Muslims known as the Moros. In the early 1970s, a group of Moros formed the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). They began an armed struggle for independence from Philippine rule.

In 1996, the government and rebels agreed to a cease­fire, and the Moros were granted an autonomous region in the southern Philippines. The agreement, however, did not satisfy a splinter group of the MNLF called Abu Sayyaf. These rebels have continued fighting the government, often using terror tactics to try to achieve their goals. In 2000, they kidnapped 21 people including foreign tourists. While the group eventually was freed, subsequent kidnappings and bombings by Abu Sayyaf have killed and injured hundreds of people. The current Philippines president, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, has launched an all­out military response to this group. The United States has provided mil­itary assistance to the government’s efforts.

British colonies Gain independenceBritain’s timetable for granting independence to its Southeast Asian colonies depended on local circumstances. Burma had been pressing for independence from Britain for decades. It became a sovereign republic in 1948. In 1989, Burma was officially named Myanmar (myahn•MAH), its name in the Burmese language.

Burma experiences Turmoil After gaining freedom, Burma suffered one political upheaval after another. Its peo­ple struggled between repressive military governments and pro­democracy forces. Conflict among Communists and ethnic minorities also disrupted the nation. In 1962, General Ne Win set up a military government, with the goal of mak­ing Burma a socialist state. Although Ne Win stepped down in 1988, the military continued to rule repressively.

In 1988, Aung San Suu Kyi (owng sahn soo chee) returned to Burma after many years abroad. She is the

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▼ A glittering sky-line rises above the bustling harbor of Singapore.

daughter of Aung San, a leader of the Burmese nationalists’ army killed years before by political rivals. Aung San Suu Kyi became active in the newly formed National League for Democracy. For her pro-democracy activities, she was placed under house arrest for six years by the government. In the 1990 election—the country’s first multiparty election in 30 years—the National League for Democracy won 80 percent of the seats. The military government refused to rec-ognize the election, and it kept Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest. She was finally released in 1995, only to be placed under house arrest again in 2000. Freed in 2002, she was detained again in 2003. In June 2007, Aung San Suu Kyi’s house arrest was extended for another year.

Malaysia and Singapore During World War II, the Japanese conquered the Malay Peninsula, formerly ruled by the British. The British returned to the penin-sula after the Japanese defeat in 1945. They tried, unsuccessfully, to organize the different peoples of Malaya into one state. They also struggled to put down a Communist uprising. Ethnic groups resisted British efforts to unite their colonies on the peninsula and in the northern part of the island of Borneo. Malays were a slight majority on the peninsula, while Chinese were the largest group on the southern tip, the island of Singapore.

In 1957, officials created the Federation of Malaya from Singapore, Malaya, Sarawak, and Sabah. The two regions—on the Malay Peninsula and on northern Borneo—were separated by 400 miles of ocean. In 1965, Singapore separated from the federation and became an independent city-state. The federation, consisting of Malaya, Sarawak, and Sabah, became known as Malaysia. A coalition of many eth-nic groups maintained steady economic progress in Malaysia.

Singapore, which has one of the busiest ports in the world, has become an extremely prosperous nation. Lee Kuan Yew ruled Singapore as prime minister from 1959 to 1990. Under his guidance, Singapore emerged as a banking center as well as a center of trade. It had a standard of living far higher than any of its Southeast Asian neighbors. In 1997, the Geneva World Economic Forum listed the world’s strongest economies. Singapore topped the list. It was followed, in order, by Hong Kong, the United States, Canada, New Zealand, Switzerland, and Great Britain.

Making Inferences

What do the top economies listed by the Geneva World Economic Forum have in common?

VocabularyHouse arrest is con­finement to one’s quarters, or house, rather than to prison.

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Analyzing Primary Sources

What are the cornerstones of democracy, accord-ing to Sukarnoputri?

VocabularyA coup is the sud-den overthrow of a government by a small group of people.

Indonesia Gains Independence from the DutchLike members of other European nations, the Dutch, who ruled the area of Southeast Asia known as Indonesia, saw their colonial empire crumble with the onset of World War II. The Japanese conquered the region and destroyed the Dutch colonial order. When the war ended and the defeated Japanese were forced to leave, the people of Indonesia moved to establish a free nation.

Sukarno Leads the Independence Movement Leading the effort to establish an independent Indonesia was Sukarno (soo•kAhr•noh), known only by his one name. In August 1945, two days after the Japanese surrendered, Sukarno pro-claimed Indonesia’s independence an d named himself president. A guerrilla army backed him. The Dutch, supported initially by Britain and the United States, attempted to regain control of Indonesia. But after losing the support of the United Nations and the United States, the Dutch agreed to grant Indonesia its independ-ence in 1949.

The new Indonesia became the world’s fourth most populous nation. It consisted of more than 13,600 islands, with 300 different ethnic groups, 250 languages, and most of the w orld’s major religions. It contained the world’s largest Islamic popu-lation. Sukarno, who took the official title of “life-time president,” attempted to guide this diverse nation in a parliamentary democracy.

Instability and Turmoil Sukarno’s efforts to build a stable democratic nation were unsuccessful. he was not able to manage Indonesia’s economy, and the country slid downhill rapidly. Foreign banks refused to lend money to Indonesia and inflation occasionally soared as high as one thousand percent. In 1965, a group of junior army officers attempted a coup. A general named Suharto (suh•HAHR•toh) put down the rebellion. he then seized power for himself and began a bloodbath in which 500,000 to 1 million Indonesians were killed.

Suharto, officially named president in 1967, turned Indonesia into a police state and imposed frequent periods of martial law. Outside observers heavily criticized him for his annexation of nearby East Timor in 1976 and for human rights viola-tions there. (See the map on page 1005.) Suharto’s government also showed little tolerance for religious freedoms.

Bribery and corruption became commonplace. The economy improved under Suharto for a while but from 1997 through 1998 the nation suffered one of the worst financial crises in its history. Growing unrest over both government repression and a crippling economic crisis prompted Suharto to step down in 1998. While turmoil continued to grip the country, it moved slowly toward democracy. The daughter of Sukarno, Megawati Sukarnoputri, was elected to the presidency in 2001.

Upon taking office, the new president hailed the virtues of democracy and urged her fellow Indonesians to do what they could to maintain such a form of government:

P r I M a r y S o u r c e Democracy requires sincerity and respect for the rules of the game. Beginning my duty, I urge all groups to sincerely and openly accept the outcome of the democratic process . . . . In my opinion, respect for the people’s voice, sincerity in accepting it, and respect for the rules of game are the main pillars of democracy which we will further develop. I urge all Indonesians to look forward to the future and unite to improve the life and our dignity as a nation.

MeGawaTI SukarnoPuTrI, July 23, 2001

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Nation

The Philippines

Burma

ChallengesFollowingIndependence

Indonesia

▲ An earthquake off the coast of Indonesia on December 26, 2004, triggered a devastating tsunami. The tidal waves and floods killed more than 150,000 people.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. CLARIFYING How did World War II play a role in the

eventual decolonization of Southeast Asia?

7. MAKING INFERENCES Why do you think that the United States demanded a 99-year lease on military and naval bases in the Philippines?

8. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING What was similar and different about the elections that brought defeat to the ruling governments in the Philippines and in Burma?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY ECONOMICS Write a two-paragraph expository essay contrasting Singapore’s economy with others in Southeast Asia.

SECTION ASSESSMENT2

• Ferdinand Marcos • Corazón Aquino • Aung San Suu Kyi • Sukarno • Suharto

CREATING A TELEVISION NEWS SCRIPT

Locate several of the most recent news articles about one of the countries discussed in this section. Combine the stories into a brief television news script and present it to the class.

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

CONNECT TO TODAY

Indonesia's current president, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, faces enormous challenges, including ethnic strife and government corruption.

East Timor Wins Independence As Indonesia worked to overcome its numerous obstacles, it lost control of East Timor. Indonesian forces had ruled the land with brutal force since Suharto seized it in the 1970s. The East Timorese, however, never stopped pushing to regain their freedom. Jose Ramos Horta, an East Timorese independence campaigner, won the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize (along with East Timor’s Roman Catholic bishop) for his efforts to gain independence for the region without violence.

In a United Nations-sponsored referendum held in August 1999, the East Timorese voted for inde-pendence. The election angered pro-Indonesian forces. They ignored the referendum results and went on a bloody rampage. They killed hundreds and forced thousands into refugee camps in West Timor, which is a part of Indonesia. UN interven-tion forces eventually brought peace to the area. In 2002 East Timor celebrated independence. In May 2007, Jose Ramos Horta won the presidency. Today, President Horta faces the challenges of developing the resources of his young nation.

As on the Indian subcontinent, violence and strug-gle were part of the transition in Southeast Asia from colonies to free nations. The same would be true in Africa, where numerous former colonies shed European rule and created independent countries in the wake of World War II.

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which nation faced the

greatest challenges? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. Why did the retention of U.S.

military bases in the Philippines so anger Filipinos?

4. What was the outcome of the 1990 Myanmar election? How did the government respond?

5. How did Suharto come to power in Indonesia?

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s HousingThe luxury apartment building (background) in Jakarta, Indonesia, towers over the shabby and polluted slum of Muarabaru (foreground). Indonesia declared its independence in 1945, but was not recognized by the United Nations until 1950. Since independence, Indonesians have enjoyed relative economic prosperity, but bridging the gap between rich and poor is an issue that faces Indonesia and much of Southeast Asia.

Changing Times in Southeast AsiaAs you have read, many countries in Southeast Asia have undergone revolutionary changes in their political and social organization. The region continues to struggle with its past and to face new challenges, but democratic reforms are becoming more common.

The past and present exist side by side throughout much of Southeast Asia. For an increasing number of Southeast Asians, housing, transportation, even purchasing food are a mixture of old and new. These images explore the differences between traditional and modern, rich and poor, past and present.

RESEARCH WEB LINKS Go online for more on life in Southeast Asia. s t Transportation

The water buffalo-drawn cart (shown above) is a common sight in rural Thailand. It is a mode of transport that reaches deep into the past. In Bangkok, Thailand (shown below)—with its cars, motorcycles, and public buses—transportation is a very different thing. These distinctly past and present modes of transportation symbolize the changes many Southeast Asian countries are facing.

1010

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Source: World Trade Organization

ASEAN Exports, 1990–2005

1990 1995 2000 2005

500

600

700

400

300

200

100

0

144

321

427

653

Billions

of

Dollar

s

1. Drawing Conclusions Why might some countries in Southeast Asia have more successful economies than others?

See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R10.

2. Forming and Supporting Opinions Are the issues facing Southeast Asians discussed here also a concern for Americans? Why or why not?

SOUTHEAST ASIA

Geography• Eleven countries are generally

referred to as Southeast Asia: Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

Population• About 9 percent of the world’s

population lives in Southeast Asia.

• Indonesia is the world’s fourth most populous country, behind China, India, and the United States.

Economics• Ten Southeast Asian nations—

Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Myanmar, and Thailand—make up a trading alliance known as the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN)

▲ ▼ MarketsAs the post-colonial economies of Southeast Asia grow, traditional markets, like the floating market in Thailand (shown below), give way to the modern convenience of stores with prepackaged foods, like this street-side store (above) in Vietnam.

▲ ▼ TransportationThe water buffalo-drawn cart (shown above) is a common sight in rural Thailand. It is a mode of transport that reaches deep into the past. In Bangkok, Thailand (shown below)—with its cars, motorcycles, and public buses—transportation is a very different thing. These distinctly past and present modes of transportation symbolize the changes many Southeast Asian countries are facing.

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TAKING NOTES

SETTING THE STAGE Throughout the first half of the 20th century, Africa resembled little more than a European outpost. As you recall, the nations of Europe had marched in during the late 1800s and colonized much of the conti-nent. Like the diverse groups living in Asia, however, the many different peoples of Africa were unwilling to return to colonial domination after World War II. And so, in the decades following the great global conflict, they, too, won their inde-pendence from foreign rule and went to work building new nations.

Achieving IndependenceThe African push for independence actually began in the decades before World War II. French-speaking Africans and West Indians began to express their growing sense of black consciousness and pride in traditional Africa. They formed the Negritude movement, a movement to celebrate African culture, heritage, and values.

When World War II erupted, African soldiers fought alongside Europeans to “defend freedom.” This experience made them unwilling to accept colonial domination when they returned home. The war had changed the thinking of Europeans too. Many began to question the cost, as well as the morality, of main-taining colonies abroad. These and other factors helped African colonies gain their freedom throughout the 1950s and 1960s.

The ways in which African nations achieved independence, however, differed across the continent. In Chapter 27, you learned that European nations employed two basic styles of government in colonial Africa—direct and indirect. Under indirect rule, local officials did much of the governing and colonists enjoyed lim-ited self-rule. As a result, these colonies generally experienced an easier transition to independence. For colonies under direct rule, in which foreigners governed at all levels and no self-rule existed, independence came with more difficulty. Some colonies even had to fight wars of liberation, as European settlers refused to surrender power to African nationalist groups.

No matter how they gained their freedom, however, most new African nations found the road to a strong and stable nation to be difficult. They had to deal with everything from creating a new government to establishing a postcolonial economy. Many new countries were also plagued by great ethnic strife. In colonizing Africa, the Europeans had created artificial borders that had little to

New Nations in Africa• Ahmed Ben

Bella• Mobutu

Sese Seko

REVOLUTION After World War II, African leaders threw off colonial rule and created independent countries.

Today, many of those independent countries are engaged in building political and economic stability.

• Negritude movement

• Kwame Nkrumah

• Jomo Kenyatta

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

3

Use the graphic organizer online to take notes on ideas, events, and leaders important to African countries' histories.

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VocabularyPan-African refers to a vision of strengthening all of Africa, not just a sin-gle country.

Contrasting

How did the granting of inde-pendence to the British colonies of Ghana and Kenya differ?

Jomo Kenyatta1891–1978

A man willing to spend years in jail for his beliefs, Kenyatta viewed independence as the only option for Africans.

The African can only advance to a “higher level” if he is free to express himself, to organize economically, politically and socially, and to take part in the government of his own country.

On the official day that freedom finally came to Kenya, December 12, 1963, Kenyatta recalls watching with overwhelming delight as the British flag came down and the new flag of Kenya rose up. He called it “the greatest day in Kenya’s history and the happiest day in my life.”

do with the areas where ethnic groups actually lived. While national borders sepa-rated people with similar cultures, they also enclosed traditional enemies who began fighting each other soon after the Europeans left. For many African nations, all of this led to instability, violence, and an overall struggle to deal with their newly gained independence.

Ghana Leads the WayThe British colony of the Gold Coast became the first African colony south of the Sahara to achieve independence. Following World War II, the British in the Gold Coast began making preparations. For example, they allowed more Africans to be nominated to the Legislative Council. However, the Africans wanted full freedom. The leader of their largely nonviolent movement was Kwame Nkrumah(KWAH•mee-uhn•KROO•muh). Starting in 1947, he worked to liberate the Gold Coast from the British. Nkrumah organized strikes and boycotts and was often imprisoned by the British government. Ultimately, his efforts were successful.

On receiving its independence in 1957, the Gold Coast took the name Ghana. This name honored a famous West African kingdom of the past. Nkrumah became Ghana’s first prime minister and later its president-for-life. Nkrumah pushed through new roads, new schools, and expanded health facilities. These costly projects soon crip-pled the country. His programs for industrialization, health and welfare, and expanded educational facilities showed good intentions. However, the expense of the programs undermined the economy and strengthened his opposition.

In addition, Nkrumah was often criticized for spending too much time on Pan-African efforts and neglecting economic problems in his own country. He dreamed of a “United States of Africa.” In 1966, while Nkrumah was in China, the army and police in Ghana seized power. Since then, the country has shifted back and forth between civilian and military rule and has struggled for economic stability. In 2000, Ghana held its first open elections.

Fighting for FreedomIn contrast to Ghana, nations such as Kenya and Algeria had to take up arms against their European rulers in order to ultimately win their freedom.

Kenya Claims Independence The British ruled Kenya, and many British settlers resisted Kenyan independence—especially those who had taken over prize farmland in the northern highlands of the country. They were forced to accept African self-government as a result of two develop-ments. One was the strong leadership of Kenyan nationalist Jomo Kenyatta. The second was the rise of a group known as the Mau Mau (MOW mow). This was a secret society made up mostly of native Kenyan farmers forced out of the highlands by the British.

Using guerrilla war tactics, the Mau Mau sought to push the white farmers into leaving the highlands. Kenyatta claimed to have no connection to the Mau Mau. However, he refused to condemn the organization. As a result, the

RESEARCH WEB LINKS Go online for more on Jomo Kenyatta.

The Colonies Become New Nations 1013

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GHANA1957

TOGO1960

DAHOMEY 1960

COMOROS1975

MAURITIUS1968

SÃO TOMÉAND PRÍNCIPE

1975

SOUTH-WESTAFRICA

(NAMIBIA)

SOUTHAFRICA LESOTHO

1966

SWAZILAND1968

BOTSWANA1966

RHODESIA(BR.)

MOZAMBIQUE1975

MALAGASYREPUBLIC

1960

MALAWI1964

ZAMBIA1964

ANGOLA1975

TANZANIA1961

ETHIOPIASOMALIA1960

AFARS ANDISSAS TERR.(FR.)

SUDAN1956

EGYPTLIBYA

TUNISIA1956

ALGERIA1962

MOROCCO 1956

SPANISHSAHARA

MAURITANIA1960

MALI1960 NIGER

1960

UPPERVOLTA1960 NIGERIA

1960CENTRALAFRICANREP. 1960

CAMEROON 1960

CONGO1960

ZÄIRE1960

RWANDA1962

BURUNDI1962

GABON1960

EQ. GUINEA1968

CHAD1960

UGANDA 1962 KENYA

1963

SENEGAL1960GAMBIA

1965GUINEA-BISSAU

1974GUINEA 1958

IVORYCOAST

1960

LIBERIA

SIERRA LEONE1961

ATLANTICOCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

Mediterranean Sea

0° Equator

0°

40°E

80°E

40°W

Tropic of Cancer

0 1,000 Miles

0 2,000 Kilometers

Africa, 1975

ALGERIA

FRENCH WEST AFRICA

MOROCCO

LIBYA1951

ETHIOPIA

SOMALIA

TANGANYIKA

COMOROS

NYASALAND

KENYA

RUANDA-URUNDI

UGANDA

BELGIANCONGO

ANGOLA

SOUTHERNRHODESIA

NORTHERNRHODESIA

BECHUANALAND

SWAZILAND

BASUTOLAND

UNION OFSOUTHAFRICA

1910

SOUTH-WESTAFRICA

BRITISHSOMALILAND

FRENCH SOMALILAND

SUDAN

EGYPT1922

SPANISH MOROCCO

TUNISIA

SPANISHSAHARA

GAMBIA

NIGERIA

SIERRA LEONELIBERIA

TOGO

DAHOMEY

CABINDA

RIOMUNI

GOLDCOAST

PORTUGUESEGUINEA

MA

DA

GA

SC

AR

CAM

ERO

ON

S

FRENCH

EQ

UA

TOR

IAL

AFR

ICA

MO

ZAM

BIQ

UE ATLANTIC OCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

Mediterranean Sea

0°

40°E

80°E

40°W

0° Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

Tropic of Cancer

0 1,000 Miles

0 2,000 Kilometers

Africa, 1955

ColoniesIndependent countriesDate of independence1951

INTERACTIVE MAP

INTERACTIVE MAP

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Place Which countries in Africa were already

independent in 1955?2. Location In what decade did most of the African

nations gain their independence?

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GHANA1957

TOGO1960

DAHOMEY 1960

COMOROS1975

MAURITIUS1968

SÃO TOMÉAND PRÍNCIPE

1975

SOUTH-WESTAFRICA

(NAMIBIA)

SOUTHAFRICA LESOTHO

1966

SWAZILAND1968

BOTSWANA1966

RHODESIA(BR.)

MOZAMBIQUE1975

MALAGASYREPUBLIC

1960

MALAWI1964

ZAMBIA1964

ANGOLA1975

TANZANIA1961

ETHIOPIASOMALIA1960

AFARS ANDISSAS TERR.(FR.)

SUDAN1956

EGYPTLIBYA

TUNISIA1956

ALGERIA1962

MOROCCO 1956

SPANISHSAHARA

MAURITANIA1960

MALI1960 NIGER

1960

UPPERVOLTA1960 NIGERIA

1960CENTRALAFRICANREP. 1960

CAMEROON 1960

CONGO1960

ZÄIRE1960

RWANDA1962

BURUNDI1962

GABON1960

EQ. GUINEA1968

CHAD1960

UGANDA 1962 KENYA

1963

SENEGAL1960GAMBIA

1965GUINEA-BISSAU

1974GUINEA 1958

IVORYCOAST

1960

LIBERIA

SIERRA LEONE1961

ATLANTICOCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

Mediterranean Sea

0° Equator

0°

40°E

80°E

40°W

Tropic of Cancer

0 1,000 Miles

0 2,000 Kilometers

Africa, 1975

ALGERIA

FRENCH WEST AFRICA

MOROCCO

LIBYA1951

ETHIOPIA

SOMALIA

TANGANYIKA

COMOROS

NYASALAND

KENYA

RUANDA-URUNDI

UGANDA

BELGIANCONGO

ANGOLA

SOUTHERNRHODESIA

NORTHERNRHODESIA

BECHUANALAND

SWAZILAND

BASUTOLAND

UNION OFSOUTHAFRICA

1910

SOUTH-WESTAFRICA

BRITISHSOMALILAND

FRENCH SOMALILAND

SUDAN

EGYPT1922

SPANISH MOROCCO

TUNISIA

SPANISHSAHARA

GAMBIA

NIGERIA

SIERRA LEONELIBERIA

TOGO

DAHOMEY

CABINDA

RIOMUNI

GOLDCOAST

PORTUGUESEGUINEA

MA

DA

GA

SC

AR

CAM

ERO

ON

S

FRENCH

EQ

UA

TOR

IAL

AFR

ICA

MO

ZAM

BIQ

UE ATLANTIC OCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

Mediterranean Sea

0°

40°E

80°E

40°W

0° Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

Tropic of Cancer

0 1,000 Miles

0 2,000 Kilometers

Africa, 1955

ColoniesIndependent countriesDate of independence1951

▲ Mobuto Sese Seko

Recognizing Effects

Why was the Congo vulnerable to turmoil after independence?

British imprisoned him for nearly a decade. By the time the British granted Kenya independence in 1963, more than 10,000 Africans and 100 settlers had been killed.

Kenyatta became president of the new nation. He worked hard to unite the country’s various ethnic and language groups. Kenyatta died in 1978. His succes­sor, Daniel arap Moi, was less successful in governing the country. Moi faced increasing opposition to his one­party rule. Adding to the nation’s woes were corruption in Moi’s government and ethnic conflicts that killed hundreds and left thousands homeless. Moi stepped down in 2002, and a new party gained power through free elections.

Algeria Struggles with Independence France’s principal overseas colony, Algeria, had a population of one million French colonists and nine million Arabs and Berber Muslims. After World War II, the French colonists refused to share political power with the native Algerians. In 1954, the Algerian National Liberation Front, or FLN, announced its intention to fight for independence. The French sent about half a million troops into Algeria to fight the FLN. Both sides committed atrocities. The FLN prevailed, and Algeria gained its independence in July 1962.

The leader of the FLN, Ahmed Ben Bella, became first president of the newly independent Algeria. He attempted to make Algeria a socialist state, but was over­thrown in 1965 by his army commander. From 1965 until 1988, Algerians tried unsuccessfully to modernize and industrialize the nation. Unemployment and dis­satisfaction with the government contributed to the rise of religious fundamental­ists who wanted to make Algeria an Islamic state. The chief Islamic party, the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), won local and parliamentary elections in 1990 and 1991. However, the ruling government and army refused to accept the election results. As a result, a civil war broke out between Islamic militants and the gov­ernment. The war continues, on and off, to this day.

Civil War in Congo and Angola Civil war also plagued the new nations of Congo and Angola. Congo’s problems lay in its corrupt dictatorship and hostile ethnic groups. Meanwhile, Angola’s dif­ficulties stemmed from intense political differences.

Freedom and Turmoil for Congo Of all the European possessions in Africa, one of the most exploited was the Belgian Congo. Belgium had ruthlessly plundered the colony’s rich resources of rubber and copper. In addition, Belgian officials ruled with a harsh hand and provided the population with no social services. They also had made no attempt to prepare the people for independence. Not surprisingly, Belgium’s granting of independence in 1960 to the Congo (known as Zaire from 1971 to 1997) resulted in upheaval.

After years of civil war, an army officer, Colonel Joseph Mobutu, later known as Mobutu Sese Seko (moh•BOO•too‑SAY•say‑SAY•koh), seized power in 1965. For 32 years, Mobutu ruled the country that he renamed Zaire. He maintained control though a combination of force, one­party rule, and gifts to supporters. Mobutu successfully withstood sev­eral armed rebellions. He was finally overthrown in 1997 by rebel leader Laurent Kabila after months of civil war. Shortly thereafter, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

On becoming president, Kabila promised a transition to democracy and free elections by April 1999. Such elections never came. By 2000 the nation endured another round of civil war, as three separate rebel groups sought to over­ throw Kabila’s autocratic rule. In January 2001, a bodyguard assassinated Kabila.

The Colonies Become New Nations 1015

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Ghana

Kenya

Zaire

Algeria

Angola

Genocide in East AfricaIn East Africa, both Rwanda and Darfur, a region in Sudan, have suffered from campaigns of genocide. In the spring of 1994, the Rwandan president, a Hutu, died in a suspicious plane crash. In the months that followed, Hutus slaughtered about 1 million Tutsis before Tutsi rebels put an end to the killings. The United Nations set up a tribunal to punish those responsible for the worst acts of genocide. In 2004, Sudanese government forces and pro-government militias began killing villagers in Darfur as part of a campaign against rebel forces. In 2007, President Bush announced fresh sanctions against Sudan.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS How did the way in which

European colonialists carved up Africa in the 1800s lead to civil strife in many new African nations?

7. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why do you think the United States and the Soviet Union participated in Angola’s civil war?

8. ANALYZING ISSUES Why do you think revolution swept so many African nations following their indepen dence from European rule?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY REVOLUTION Imagine you are a reporter covering a revolution in one of the African nations. Write a headline and article describing it.

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which item had the greatest

impact on its country? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. Who were the Mau Mau of

Kenya? What was their goal?

4. What sparked the present-day civil struggle in Algeria?

5. What prompted Portugal to eventually grant Angola its freedom?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

INTERNET KEYWORDcountry profiles

SECTION ASSESSMENT3

His son, Joseph Kabila, took power and began a quest for peace. In 2002, the government signed peace deals with rebel groups and neighboring countries. In 2006, Kabila was elected president under a new constitution.

War Tears at Angola To the southwest of Congo lies Angola, a country that not only had to fight to gain its freedom but to hold itself together after independence. The Portuguese had long ruled Angola and had no desire to stop. When an independence movement broke out in the colony, Portugal sent in 50,000 troops. The cost of the conflict amounted to almost half of Portugal’s national budget. The heavy cost of fighting, as well as growing opposition at home to the war, prompted the Portuguese to withdraw from Angola in 1975.

Almost immediately, the Communist-leaning MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola) declared itself the new nation’s rightful government. This led to a pro-longed civil war, as various rebel groups fought the govern-ment and each other for power. Each group received help from outside sources. The MPLA was assisted by some 50,000 Cuban troops and by the Soviet Union. The major opposition to the MPLA was UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola), to which South Africa and the United States lent support. For decades, the two sides agreed to and then abandoned various cease-fire agreements. In 2002, the warring sides agreed to a peace accord, and the long civil war came to an end.

As the colonies of Africa worked to become stable nations, the new nation of Israel was emerging in the Middle East. Its growth, as you will read in the next section, upset many in the surrounding Arab world and prompted one of the longest-run-ning conflicts in modern history.

• Negritude movement • Kwame Nkrumah • Jomo Kenyatta • Ahmed Ben Bella • Mobutu Sese Seko

PREPARING A COMPARISON CHART

Use the Internet to examine the current status of two countries discussed in this section. Choose from various economic, governmental, and social statistics and display your information in a comparison chart.

MULTIMEDIA ACTIVITY

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TAKING NOTES

Conflicts in the Middle East• Anwar Sadat• Golda Meir• PLO• Yasir Arafat

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

SETTING THE STAGE In the years following World War II, the Jewish people won what for so long had eluded them: their own state. The gaining of their homeland along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, however, came at a heavy price. A Jewish state was unwelcome in this mostly Arab region, and the resulting hostility led to a series of wars. Perhaps no Arab people, however, have been more opposed to a Jewish state than the Palestinians, who claim that much of the Jewish land belongs to them.

Israel Becomes a StateThe land called Palestine now consists of Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. To Jews, their claim to the land dates back 3,000 years, when Jewish kings ruled the region from Jerusalem. To Palestinians (both Muslim and Christian), the land has belonged to them since the Jews were driven out around A.D. 135. To Arabs, the land has belonged to them since their conquest of the area in the 7th century.

After being forced out of Palestine during the second century, the Jewish people were not able to establish their own state and lived in different countries throughout the world. The global dispersal of the Jews is known as the Diaspora. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a group of Jews began returning to the region their ancestors had fled so long ago. They were known as Zionists, peo-ple who favored a Jewish national homeland in Palestine. At this time, Palestine was still part of the Ottoman Empire, ruled by Islamic Turks. After the defeat of the Ottomans in World War I, the League of Nations asked Britain to oversee Palestine until it was ready for independence.

By this time, the Jews had become a growing presence in Palestine, and were already pressing for their own nation in the territory. The Arabs living in the region strongly opposed such a move. In a 1917 letter to Zionist leaders, British Foreign Secretary Sir Arthur Balfour promoted the idea of creating a Jewish homeland in Palestine while protecting the “rights of existing non-Jewish commu-nities.” Despite the Balfour Declaration, however, efforts to create a Jewish state failed—and hostility between Palestinian Arabs and Jews continued to grow.

At the end of World War II, the United Nations took action. In 1947, the UN General Assembly voted to partition Palestine into an Arab Palestinian state and

POWER AND AUTHORITY Division of Palestine after World War II made the Middle East a hotbed of competing nationalist movements.

Conflicts in the Middle East threaten the stability of the world today.

• Camp David Accords

• intifada• Oslo Peace

Accords

4

Use the graphic organizer online to take notes on important political and military events that occurred following the Suez Crisis.

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EGYPT

SAUDIARABIA

JORDAN

SYRIA

LEBANON

ISRAEL

MediterraneanSea

Gulf of Suez

Gul

f of A

qaba

DeadSea

Sea ofGalilee

Nile Del ta

Nile R

iver

Jord

an R

.

SuezCanal

GolanHeights

WestBank

GazaStrip

SINAIPENINSULA

Negev

Cairo Suez

Eilat

Gaza

Tel Aviv

Haifa

BethlehemAmman

Beirut

Damascus

Beersheba

Jerusalem32°N

30°N

34°E

32°E 36

°E

0

0

100 Miles

200 Kilometers

Jewish state under 1947 UNpartition plan for PalestineAcquired by Israel duringWar of Independence, 1948Controlled by Israel afterSix-Day War, 1967Controlled by Israel, 1967–1982Controlled by Palestinian Arabs since2005; Borders controlled by IsraelControlled by Israel with limitedPalestinian self-government

The Middle East, 1947–present

INTERACTIVE MAP

Summarizing

What recom-mendations did the UN make for Palestine?

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Location What was the southernmost point in Israel in 1947 and

what might have been its strategic value?2. Region What country lies due north of Israel? east? northeast?

a Jewish state. Jerusalem was to be an international city owned by neither side. The terms of the partition gave Jews 55 percent of the area even though they made up only 34 percent of the population. In the wake of the war and the Holocaust, the United States and many European nations felt great sympathy for the Jews.

All of the Islamic countries voted against partition, and the Palestinians rejected it outright. They argued that the UN did not have the right to partition a territory without considering the wishes of the majority of its people. Finally, the date was set for the formation of Israel, May 14, 1948. On that date, David Ben Gurion, long-time leader of the Jews residing in Palestine, announced the creation of an independent Israel.

Israel and Arab States in ConflictThe new nation of Israel got a hostile greeting from its neighbors. The day after it proclaimed itself a state, six Islamic states—Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria—invaded Israel. The first of many Arab-Israeli wars, this one ended within months in a victory for Israel. Full-scale war broke out again in 1956, 1967, and 1973. Because of Arab-Israeli tensions, several hundred thousand Jews living in Arab lands moved to Israel.

Largely as a result of this fighting, the state that the UN had set aside for Arabs never came into being. Israel seized half the land in the 1948–1949 fighting. While the fighting raged, at least 600,000 Palestinians fled, migrating from the areas under Israeli control. They settled in UN-sponsored refugee camps that ringed the borders of their former homeland. Meanwhile, various Arab nations seized other Palestinian lands. Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip, while Jordan annexed the

West Bank of the Jordan River. (See the map at left.)

The 1956 Suez Crisis The second Arab-Israeli war followed in 1956. That year, Egypt seized control of the Suez Canal, which ran along Egypt’s eastern border between the Gulf of Suez and the Mediterranean Sea. Egyptian presi-dent Gamal Abdel Nasser sent in troops to take the canal, which was controlled by British interests. The military action was prompted in large part by Nasser’s anger over the loss of U.S. and British finan-cial support for the building of Egypt’s Aswan Dam.

Outraged, the British made an agreement with France and Israel to retake the canal. With air support provided by their European allies, the Israelis marched on the Suez Canal and quickly defeated the Egyptians. However, pressure from the world community, including the United States and the Soviet Union, forced Israel and the Europeans to

VIDEOSuez Crisis

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Recognizing Effects

What were some of the effects of the Arab-Israeli conflicts?

Golda Meir1898–1978

Meir was born in Kiev, Russia, but grew up in the American Heartland. Although a skilled carpenter, Meir’s father could not find enough work in Kiev. So he sold his tools and other belongings and moved his family to Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Meir would spend more than a decade in the United States before moving to Palestine. The future Israeli prime minister exhibited strong leadership qualities early on. When she learned that many of her fellow fourth grade classmates could not afford textbooks, she created the American Young Sisters Society, an organization that succeeded in raising the necessary funds.

withdraw from Egypt. This left Egypt in charge of the canal and thus ended the Suez Crisis.

Arab-Israeli Wars Continue Tensions between Israel and the Arab states began to build again in the years following the resolution of the Suez Crisis. By early 1967, Nasser and his Arab allies, equipped with Soviet tanks and aircraft, felt ready to confront Israel. “We are eager for battle in order to force the enemy to awake from his dreams,” Nasser announced, “and meet Arab reality face to face.” He moved to close off the Gulf of Aqaba, Israel’s outlet to the Red Sea.

Soon after the strikes on Arab airfields began, the Israelis struck airfields in Egypt, Iran, Jordan, and Syria. Safe from air attack, Israeli ground forces struck like lightning on three fronts. Israel defeated the Arab states in what became known as the Six-Day War, because it was over in six days. Israel lost 800 troops in the fighting, while Arab losses exceeded 15,000.

As a consequence of the Six-Day War, Israel gained con-trol of the old city of Jerusalem, the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights, and the West Bank. Israelis saw these new holdings along their southern, eastern, and western borders as a key buffer zone against further Arab attacks. Arabs who lived in Jerusalem were given the choice of Israeli or Jordan ian citizenship. Most chose the latter. People who lived in the other areas were not offered Israeli citizenship and simply came under Jewish control.

A fourth Arab-Israeli conflict erupted in October 1973. Nasser’s successor, Egyptian president Anwar Sadat(AHN•wahr suh•DAT), planned a joint Arab attack on the date of Yom Kippur, the holiest of Jewish holidays. This time the Israelis were caught by surprise. Arab forces inflicted heavy casualties and recaptured some of the terri-tory lost in 1967. The Israelis, under their prime minister, Golda Meir (MY•uhr), launched a counterattack and regained most of the lost territory. Both sides agreed to a truce after several weeks of fighting, and the Yom Kippur war came to an end.

The Palestine Liberation Organization As Israel and its Arab neighbors battled each other, Arab Palestinians struggled for recognition. While the United Nations had granted the Palestinians their own homeland, the Israelis had seized much of that land, including the West Bank and Gaza Strip, during its various wars. Israel insisted that such a move was vital to its national security.

In 1964, Palestinian officials formed the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) to push for the formation of an Arab Palestinian state that would include land claimed by Israel. Originally, the PLO was an umbrella organization made up of different groups—laborers, teachers, lawyers, and guerrilla fighters. Soon, guer-rilla groups came to dominate the organization and insisted that the only way to achieve their goal was through armed struggle. In 1969 Yasir Arafat (YAH•sur AR•uh•FAT) became chairman of the PLO. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s the group carried out numerous terrorist attacks against Israel. Some of Israel’s Arab neighbors supported the PLO’s goals by allowing PLO guerrillas to operate from their lands.

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1947 UN votes to partition Palestine into a Jewish and a Palestinian Arab state.

1993 Israel agrees to withdraw from several Palestinian regions and the

Palestinian Authority recognizes Israel as a state in historic Oslo Peace Accords.

1949 Israel repels attack by Arab states and controls most of the territory of Palestine except the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

1967 Israel wins Six-Day War and

control of East Jerusalem, the West

Bank, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip, and Sinai.

1987 Palestinians intensify their resistance with start of intifada movement (see below).

2000 Israeli leader Ariel Sharon visits the

Temple Mount; Palestinians launch the

second intifada.

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Since the establishment of the State of Israel, its national security policy has been designed to defend its existence, integrity and security, and not for expansionist territorial aspirations. Hence, if Arab confrontation states did not initiate wars against Israel or pose threats to its existence, then Israel would not start a war . . . to extend its territories . . . Our national security policy created from its very beginning the linkage between Israel’s political willingness for peace and Israel’s military capability to repel aggression of any kind and scale.

ABRAHAM TAMIR, quoted in From War to Peace

DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS1. Analyzing Issues Why does Fawaz Turki refer to the Israelis as colonizers?2. Drawing Conclusions What might be the best way for the Palestinians to regain

control of their land, according to Abraham Tamir?

The Palestinian ViewWriter Fawaz Turki articulates the view held by many of his fellow Palestinians—that the Israelis are illegal occupiers of Palestinian land.

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

These people have walked off with our home and homeland, with our movable and immovable property, with our land, our farms, our shops, our public buildings, our paved roads, our cars, our theaters, our clubs, our parks, our furniture, our tricycles. They hounded us out of ancestral patrimony [land] and shoved us in refugee camps. . . . Now they were astride the whole of historic Palestine and then some, jubilant at the new role as latter day colonial overlords.

FAWAZ TURKI, quoted in The Arab-Israeli Conflict

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

The Israeli ViewMany Israelis, including former Israeli General Abraham Tamir, feel that controlling the disputed lands is vital to their security.

Efforts at Peace In November 1977, just four years after the Yom Kippur war, Anwar Sadat stunned the world by extending a hand to Israel. No Arab country up to this point had recog-nized Israel’s right to exist. In a dramatic gesture, Sadat went before the Knesset, the Israeli parliament, and invited his one-time enemies to join him in a quest for peace.

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EToday, through my visit to you, I ask you why don’t we stretch our hands with faith and sincerity and so that together we might . . . remove all suspicion of fear, betrayal, and bad intention? Why don’t we stand together with the courage of men and the boldness of heroes who dedicate themselves to a sublime [supreme] aim? Why don’t we stand together with the same courage and daring to erect a huge edifice [building] of peace? An edifice that . . . serves as a beacon for generations to come with the

human message for construction, development, and the dignity of man.ANWAR SADAT, Knesset speech, November 20, 1977

Sadat emphasized that in exchange for peace Israel would have to recognize the rights of Palestinians. Furthermore, it would have to withdraw from territory seized in 1967 from Egypt, Jordan, and Syria.

U.S. president Jimmy Carter recognized that Sadat had created a historic oppor-tunity for peace. In 1978, Carter invited Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin (mehn•AHK•hehm BAY•gihn) to Camp David, the presidential retreat in rural Maryland. Isolated from the press and from domestic political pres-sures, Sadat and Begin worked to reach an agreement. After 13 days of negotia-tions, Carter triumphantly announced that Egypt recognized Israel as a legitimate state. In exchange, Israel agreed to return the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. Signed in 1979, the Camp David Accords ended 30 years of hostilities between Egypt and Israel and became the first signed agreement between Israel and an Arab country.

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1947 UN votes to partition Palestine into a Jewish and a Palestinian Arab state.

1993 Israel agrees to withdraw from several Palestinian regions and the

Palestinian Authority recognizes Israel as a state in historic Oslo Peace Accords.

1949 Israel repels attack by Arab states and controls most of the territory of Palestine except the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

1967 Israel wins Six-Day War and

control of East Jerusalem, the West

Bank, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip, and Sinai.

1987 Palestinians intensify their resistance with start of intifada movement (see below).

2000 Israeli leader Ariel Sharon visits the

Temple Mount; Palestinians launch the

second intifada.

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

While world leaders praised Sadat, his peace initiative enraged many Arab coun-tries. In 1981, a group of Muslim extremists assassinated him. However, Egypt’s new leader, Hosni Mubarak (HAHS•nee moo•BAHR•uhk), has worked to maintain peace with Israel.

Israeli-Palestinian Tensions Increase One Arab group that continued to clash with the Israelis was the Palestinians, a large number of whom lived in the West Bank and Gaza Strip—lands controlled by Israel. During the 1970s and 1980s, the military wing of the PLO conducted a campaign against Israel. Israel responded forcefully, bombing suspected rebel bases in Palestinian towns. In 1982, the Israeli army invaded Lebanon in an attempt to destroy strongholds in Palestinian villages. The Israelis became involved in Lebanon’s civil war and were forced to withdraw.

In 1987, Palestinians began to express their frustrations in a widespread cam-paign of civil disobedience called the intifada, or “uprising.” The intifada took the form of boycotts, demonstrations, attacks on Israeli soldiers, and rock throwing by unarmed teenagers. The intifada continued into the 1990s, with little progress made toward a solution. However, the civil disobedience affected world opinion, which, in turn, put pressure on Israel to seek negotiations with the Palestinians. Finally, in October 1991, Israeli and Palestinian delegates met for a series of peace talks.

The Oslo Peace Accords Negotiations between the two sides made little progress, as the status of the Palestinian territories proved to be a bitterly divisive issue. In 1993, however, secret talks held in Oslo, Norway, produced a surprise agreement: a document called the Declaration of Principles, also known as the Oslo Peace Accords. Israel, under the leadership of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin (YIHTS•hahk rah•BEEN), agreed to grant the Palestinians self-rule in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank, beginning with the town of Jericho. Rabin and Arafat signed the agree-ment on September 13, 1993.

The difficulty of making the agreement work was demonstrated by the assassi-nation of Rabin in 1995. He was killed by a right-wing Jewish extremist who opposed concessions to the Palestinians. Rabin was succeeded as prime minister by Benjamin Netanyahu (neh•tan•YAH•hoo), who had opposed the Oslo Accords. Still, Netanyahu made efforts to keep to the agreement. In January 1997, Netanyahu met with Arafat to work out plans for a partial Israeli withdrawal from the West Bank.

Clarifying

What was the significance of the Camp David Accords?

VIDEOYitzhak Rabin

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▲ Edward Said (left) and Daniel Barenboim talk about their orchestra, shown above.

Peace Slips AwayIn 1999, the slow and difficult peace negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians seemed to get a boost. Ehud Barak won election as Israeli prime min­ister. Many observers viewed him as a much stronger supporter of the peace plan than Netanyahu had been. The world community, led by the United States, was determined to take advantage of such a development.

In July of 2000, U.S. president Bill Clinton hosted a 15­day summit meeting at Camp David between Ehud Barak and Yasir Arafat. The two men, however, could not reach a compromise, and the peace plan once again stalled. Just two months later, Israeli political leader Ariel Sharon visited Jerusalem’s Temple Mount, a site holy to both Jews and Muslims. The next day, the Voice of Palestine, the Palestinian Authority’s official radio station, called upon Palestinians to protest the visit. Riots broke out in Jerusalem and the West Bank, and a second intifada, sometimes called the Al­Aqsa intifada, was launched.

The Conflict Intensifies The second intifada began much like the first with demonstrations, attacks on Israeli soldiers, and rock throwing by unarmed teenagers. But this time the Palestinian militant groups increasingly used suicide bombers. Their attacks on Jewish settlements in occupied territories and on civil­ian locations throughout Israel significantly raisedthe level of bloodshed. As the second intifada continued through 2007, thousands of Israelis and Palestinians had died in the conflict.

▲ Palestinian and Israeli campers bond at Seeds of Peace, located in Maine.

Signs of HopeAmid the cycle of violence and disagreement in the Middle East, there are small but inspiring efforts to bring together Israelis and Palestinians. One is Seeds of Peace, a summer camp that hosts teenagers from opposing sides of world conflicts in the hopes of creating lasting friendships. Another is the West- Eastern Divan, an orchestra made up of Jewish and Arab musicians—the creation of famous Jewish conductor Daniel Barenboim and prominent Palestinian writer Edward Said.

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Suez Crisis

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. COMPARING How was the creation of Israel similar to the

establishment of an independent India?

7. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Why do you think all the Israeli-Palestinian accords ultimately have failed?

8. ANALYZING ISSUES Some have said that the Palestinian-Israeli conflict represents the struggle of right against right. Explain why you agree or disagree.

9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY In groups of three or four, create a list of ten Interview questions for Gamal Abdel Nasser, Anwar Sadat, Yasir Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, or a current leader of either Israel or Palestine.

SECTION ASSESSMENT4

• Anwar Sadat • Golda Meir • PLO • Yasir Arafat • Camp David Accords • intifada • Oslo Peace Accords

▲ A U.S. magazine cover highlights America’s involve-ment in the Middle East crisis.

CONNECT TO TODAY

USING NOTES2. Which events do you think

were most important? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. What historic claim do both

Palestinians and Jews make to the land of Palestine?

4. What land did Israel gain from the wars against its Arab neighbors?

5. What were the terms of the Oslo Accords?

In response to the uprising, Israeli forces moved into Palestinian refugee camps and clamped down on terrorists. Troops destroyed buildings in which they suspected extremists were hiding and bull-dozed entire areas of Palestinian towns and camps. The Israeli army bombed Arafat’s headquarters, trapping him inside his compound for many days.

Arab-Israeli relations did not improve with Israel’s next prime minister, Ariel Sharon. Sharon, a former military leader, refused to negotiate with the Palestinians until attacks on Israelis stopped. Eventually, under intense pressure from the world community, Arafat agreed to take a less prominent role in peace talks.

In early 2003, the Palestinian Authority appointed its first-ever prime minister, PLO official Mahmoud Abbas. Shortly afterward, U.S. president George W. Bush brought together Sharon and Abbas to begin working on a new peace plan known as the “road map.” But violence increased again in 2003, and talks stalled.Shifting Power and Alliances In the summer of 2005, Israel unilaterally evacu-ated all its settlers and military from the Gaza Strip. Then in 2006, Hamas, a mili-tant terrorist group intent on replacing Israel with an Islamic state, won majority control in Palestinian Authority elections.

Israel refused to recognize the new Hamas government. Instead, in August 2007, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert began a series of formal talks with Mahmoud Abbas. In 2010, indirect talks resumed between Abbas and Olmert’s successor, Benjamin Netanyahu. U.S. envoy George Mitchell acted as go-between, shuttling between the two leaders, but little progress had been made by mid-year.

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

DRAWING A POLITICAL CARTOON

Draw a political cartoon or other type of image that conveys your thoughts about the stalled peace effort today between Palestinians and Israelis.

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Caucasus M

ts.

H i n d u K u s h

T i a n S h a n

K A Z A K H S TA N

GEORGIA

ARMENIA

AZERBAIJAN TURKMENISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

TAJIKISTAN

KYRGYZSTAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

INDIA

TURKEY

I R A N

SAUDIARABIA

IRAQ

R U S S I A

CHINA

Caspian Sea

AralSea

BlackSea

LakeBalkhash

Persian Gulf

40°E

60°E

80°E

60°N

40°N

0

0

500 Miles

1,000 Kilometers

Central AsiaTAKING NOTES

SETTING THE STAGE For thousands of years, the different peoples of Central Asia suffered invasions and domination by powerful groups such as the Mongols, Byzantines, Ottomans, and finally the Communist rulers of the Soviet Union. While such occupation brought many changes to this region, its various ethnic groups worked to keep alive much of their culture. They also longed to create nations of their own, a dream they realized in the early 1990s with the collapse of the Soviet Union. In the decade since then, however, these groups have come to know the challenges of building strong and stable independent nations.

Freedom Brings New ChallengesIn 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed, and the republics that it had conquered emerged as 15 independent nations. Among them were those that had made up the Soviet empire’s southern borders. Geographers often group these new nations into two geographic areas.

Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia make up the Transcaucasian Republics. These three nations lie in the Caucasus Mountains between the Black and Caspian seas. East of the Caspian Sea and extending to the Tian Shan and Pamir mountains lie the five nations known as the Central Asian Republics. They are Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan.

Economic Struggles Since gaining independence, these nations have struggled economically and are today some of the poorest countries in the world. Much of the problem stems from their heavy reliance on the Soviet Union for economic help. As a result, they have had a difficult time standing on their own. Economic practices during the Soviet era have created additional problems. The Soviets, for example, converted much of the available farmland in the Central Asian Republics to grow “white gold”—cotton. Dependence on a single crop has hurt the development of a balanced economy in these nations.

Azerbaijan, which is located among the oil fields of the Caspian Sea, has the best chance to build a solid economy based on the income from oil and oil prod-ucts. Meanwhile, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan are working hard to tap their large reserves of oil and natural gas.

Ethnic and Religious Strife Fighting among various ethnic and religious groups has created another obstacle to stability for many of the newly independent

• mujahideen• Taliban

POWER AND AUTHORITY Lands controlled or influenced by the Soviet Union struggle with the challenges of establishing new nations.

The security issues in these nations pose a threat to world peace and security.

Central Asia Struggles• Transcaucasian

Republics• Central Asian

Republics

MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

5

Use the graphic organizer online to take notes on main ideas and details.

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Caucasus M

ts.

H i n d u K u s h

T i a n S h a n

K A Z A K H S TA N

GEORGIA

ARMENIA

AZERBAIJAN TURKMENISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

TAJIKISTAN

KYRGYZSTAN

AFGHANISTAN

PAKISTAN

INDIA

TURKEY

I R A N

SAUDIARABIA

IRAQ

R U S S I A

CHINA

Caspian Sea

AralSea

BlackSea

LakeBalkhash

Persian Gulf

40°E

60°E

80°E

60°N

40°N

0

0

500 Miles

1,000 Kilometers

Central Asia

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Location Which Transcaucasian Republic nation extends the

farthest east?2. Place Which is the only Central Asian Republic that neither

contains nor has access to a sea or lake?

countries of Central Asia. The region is home to a number of different peoples, including some with long histories of hostility toward each other. With their iron-fisted rule, the Soviets kept a lid on these hostilities and largely prevented any seri-ous ethnic clashes. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, however, long-simmering ethnic rivalries erupted into fighting. Some even became small regional wars.

Such was the case in Azerbaijan. Within this mostly Muslim country lies Nagorno-Karabakh, a small region of mainly Armenian Christians. In the wake of the Soviet Union’s collapse, the people of this area declared their independence. Azerbaijan had no intention of letting go of this land, and fighting quickly broke out. Neighboring Armenia rushed to aid the Armenian people in the district. The war raged from 1991 through 1994, when the two sides agreed to a cease-fire. As of 2007, the status of Nagorno-Karabakh remained unresolved.

Afghanistan and the WorldJust to the south of the Central Asian Republics lies one of the region’s more promi-nent nations. Afghanistan is a small nation with both mountainous and desert ter-rain. It is one of the least-developed countries in the world, as most of its inhabitants are farmers or herders. And yet, over the past several decades, this mostly Muslim nation has grabbed the world’s attention with two high-profile wars—one against the Soviet Union and the other against the United States.

Struggle for Freedom Afghanistan has endured a long history of struggle. During the 1800s, both Russia and Britain competed for control of its land. Russia wanted access to the Indian Ocean through Afghanistan, while Britain wanted control of the land in order to protect the northern borders of its Indian Empire. Britain fought three separate wars with the Afghanis before eventually leaving in 1919.

▼ The terrain of Central Asia varies widely, from mountains to plains.

Clarifying

Why was there little ethnic or reli­gious strife in Central Asia during Soviet rule?

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Destroying the PastAmong the Taliban’s extreme policies that stemmed from their interpretation of Islam, one in particular shocked and angered historians around the world. In the years after gaining power, Taliban leaders destroyed some of Afghanistan’s most prized artifacts—two centuries-old Buddhas carved out of cliffs. The Taliban deemed the giant statues offensive to Islam. Ignoring pleas from scholars and museums, they demolished the ancient figures with dynamite and bombs. One of the two statues was thought to have dated back to the third century a.d.

That year, Afghanistan declared itself an independent nation and established a monarchy. The government implemented various reforms and tried to modernize the country. In 1964, the country devised a constitution that sought to establish a more democratic style of government. However, officials could not agree on a reform pro-gram and most people showed little interest in the effort to transform the govern-ment. As a result, a democratic system failed to develop.

Pushing Back the Soviets Nonetheless, Afghanistan had grown stable enough to establish good relations with many Western European nations and to hold its own on the world stage. When the Cold War conflict between the United States and Soviet Union broke out, Afghanistan chose to remain neutral. However, over the years, it received aid from both of the opposing superpowers.

Situated so close to the Soviet Union, however, Afghanistan could not hold out against the force of communism forever. In 1973, military leaders overthrew the government. Five years later, in 1978, a rival group with strong ties to the Soviet

Union seized control of the country. Much of the population opposed the group and its strong association with commu-nism. Many Afghanis felt that Communist policies con-flicted with the teachings of Islam.

The opposition forces banded together to form a group known as the mujahideen (moo•JAH•heh•DEEN), or holy warriors. These rebels took up arms and fought fiercely against the Soviet-supported government. The rebellion soon prompted the Soviet Union to step in. In 1979 and 1980, Soviet troops rolled into Afghanistan to conquer the country and add it to their Communist empire.

With the Soviets’ superior military force and advanced weaponry, the war had all the makings of a quick and lop-sided affair. But the Afghan rebels used the land and guer-rilla tactics to their advantage. In addition, the United States provided financial and military assistance. After nearly 10 years of bloody and fruitless fighting, the Soviet Union withdrew its troops. The Afghanis had taken on the world’s Communist superpower and won.

Rise and Fall of the Taliban With the Soviets gone, vari-ous Afghan rebel groups began battling each other for con-trol of the country. A conservative Islamic group known as the Taliban emerged as the victor. By 1998, it controlled 90 percent of the country. Another rebel group, the Northern Alliance, held the northwest corner of the country. Observers initially viewed the Taliban as a positive force, as it brought order to the war-torn nation, rooted out corrup-tion, and promoted the growth of business.

However, the group followed an extreme interpretation of Islamic law and applied it to nearly every aspect of Afghan society. Taliban leaders restricted women’s lives by forbidding them to go to school or hold jobs. They banned everything from television and movies to modern music. Punishment for violating the rules included severe beatings, amputation, and even execution.

Even more troubling to the world community was the Taliban’s role in the growing problem of world terrorism, which you will read more about in Chapter 36. Western

Drawing Conclusions

Why do you think the Soviets finally decided to leave Afghanistan?

INTERNET ACTIVITY Go online to highlight the top archaeological treasures of a country.

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Freedom Brings New Challenges A. B.

Afghanistan and the World A. B.

▲ In the Afghanistan elections, the ballot included photographs of the candidates and symbols for each party.

leaders accused the Taliban of allowing terror-ist groups to train in Afghanistan. The Taliban also provided refuge for terrorist leaders, including Osama bin Laden, whose al-Qaeda organization is thought to be responsible for numerous attacks on the West—including the attacks on the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001.

In the wake of the September 11 attacks, the U.S. government demanded that the Taliban turn over bin Laden. After its leaders refused, the United States took military action. In October 2001, U.S. forces began bombing Taliban air defense, airfields, and command centers, as well as al-Qaeda training camps. On the ground, the United States provided assistance to anti-Taliban forces, such as the Northern Alliance. By December, the United States had driven the Taliban from power.

Challenges Ahead While the Taliban regrouped in remote parts of Afghanistan and Pakistan, Afghan officials selected a new government under the leadership of Hamid Karzai. Later, in 2004, he was elected president for a five-year term. His government faced the task of rebuilding a country that had endured more than two decades of war-fare. However, in 2006, the Taliban appeared resurgent, and NATO troops took over military operations in the South. Heavy fighting with the Taliban continued into 2007.

The challenge before Afghanistan, is neither unique nor new. As you will read in the next chapter, over the past 50 years countries around the world have attempted to shed their old and often repressive forms of rule and implement a more demo-cratic style of government.

CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A TIME LINE

Choose one of the countries discussed in this section and create a time line of the eight to ten most significant events in its history over the last 50 years.

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which challenge for the

Central Asian nations is most difficult to overcome?

MAIN IDEA3. What countries make up the

Transcaucasian Republics? the Central Asian Republics?

4. Why did Afghanis oppose the notion of Communist rule?

5. Why did the United States take military action against the Taliban?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. MAKING INFERENCES Some historians call the Soviet-

Afghan war the Soviet Union’s “Vietnam.” What do they mean by this reference? Do you agree with it?

7. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Why might Afghanis have been willing to accept Taliban rule by 1998?

8. IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS Why did the new nations of Central Asia experience such economic difficulties?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Imagine you are a speechwriter for Hamid Karzai. Write what you feel would be an appropriate first paragraph for his initial speech upon taking power.

• Transcaucasian Republics • Central Asian Republics • mujahideen • Taliban

SECTION ASSESSMENT5

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The Struggle for Independence

1945

1955

1965

1975

The time line shows the dates on which various countries in Asia and Africa achieved their indepen-dence after World War II. It also shows (in parentheses) the countries from which they achieved independence.

1946 the Philippines (United States) 1947 India, Pakistan

(Great Britain)

1948 Israel (Great Britain)

1949 Indonesia (The Netherlands)

1957 Ghana (Great Britain)

1971 Congo (Belgium)

1962 Algeria (France)

1963 Kenya (Great Britain)

1965 Singapore (Great Britain, Malaysia)

1971 Bangladesh (Pakistan)

1975 Angola (Portugal)

Challenges for Newly Independent Nations

TERMS & NAMESFor each term or name below, briefly explain its connection to colonial independence around the world after World War II.

1. partition 5. Jomo Kenyatta

2. Jawaharlal Nehru 6. Anwar Sadat

3. Indira Gandhi 7. PLO

4. Corazón Aquino 8. mujahideen

MAIN IDEASThe Indian Subcontinent Achieves Freedom Section 1 (pages 997–1003)

9. What two nations emerged from the British colony of India in 1947?

10. Briefly explain the reason for the civil disorder in Sri Lanka.

Southeast Asian Nations Gain Independence Section 2 (pages 1004–1011)

11. What were some concerns the Filipinos had regarding the Bell Act?

12. Who was Sukarno?

New Nations in Africa Section 3 (pages 1012–1016)

13. Why were Kwame Nkrumah’s politics criticized?

14. Why did Zaire face such difficulty upon gaining independence?

Conflicts in the Middle East Section 4 (pages 1017–1023)

15. What was the Suez Crisis?

16. What were the Camp David Accords?

Central Asia Struggles Section 5 (pages 1024–1027)

17. Which nations comprise the Transcaucasian Republics?

18. What was the Taliban?

CRITICAL THINKING1. USING YOUR NOTES

Use a web diagram to show some of the challenges that newly independent nations have faced.

2. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS REVOLUTION Do you think there should be a limit to the methods revolutionaries use? Explain your opinion.

3. ANALYZING ISSUES ECONOMICS Why have so many of the new nations that emerged over the past half-century struggled economically?

4. DRAWING CONCLUSIONSIn your view, was religion a unifying or destructive force as colonies around the world became new nations? Support your answer with specific examples from the text.

Chapter 34 Assessment

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Use the following excerpt from the Balfour Declaration and your knowledge of world history to answer questions 1 and 2.

His Majesty’s Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.

ARTHUR JAMES BALFOUR, in a letter to Lord Rothschild, November 2, 1917

1. The intent of the British government was to

A. give all of Palestine to the Jewish people.

B. leave Palestine in the hands of the Arabs.

C. divide Palestine between Jews and Arabs.

D. ensure justice for Jews around the world.

2. The group most likely to have opposed the Balfour Declaration was the

A. Arabs.

B. Jews.

C. French.

D. Americans.

Use the political cartoon about Corazón Aquino’s election victory and your knowledge of world history to answer question 3.

3. Aquino was expected by many to “clean up” the Philippines by ending years of

A. slavery.

B. dictatorship.

C. business corruption.

D. unchecked pollution.

For additional test practice, go online for:

• Diagnostic tests

• Strategies

• Tutorials

Creating a DatabaseUse the Internet, library, and other reference materials to create a database showing the economic growth of any four countries discussed in this chapter. Create one table for each country, with column headings for each measure of economic growth you chose to record and row headings for each 10-year period. Then insert the most current data you can find. Consider the following questions to get started.

• What statistics will be most useful in making comparisons between nations?

• Which nations have capitalist economies? What other types of economies did you discover?

• Which nations have “one crop” economies?

On page 996, you discussed the most important areas to address in building a new nation. Now that you have read about the efforts by so many former colonies to forge new countries, do you think that you focused on the right areas? Work as a class to identify the main factors that determine whether a new nation struggles or thrives. Be sure to cite specific examples from the text.

MULTIMEDIA ACTIVITY

STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT

POWER AND AUTHORITY Select one of the leaders discussed in this chapter. Review the decisions the leader made while in power. Write an evaluation of the leader's decisions and his or her impact on the country. Consider the following:

• the leader's views on government and democracy

• the leader's handling of the economy

• the leader's accomplishments and failures

FOCUS ON WRITING

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