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Geoinformatics 2004

Proc. 12th Int. Conf. on Geoinformatics Geospatial Information Research: Bridging the Pacific and Atlantic

University of Gävle, Sweden, 7-9 June 2004

3D SCANNING AND PHOTOGRAMMETRY FOR HERITAGE

RECORDING: A COMPARISON

W. Boehler and A. Marbs

i3mainz, Institute for Spatial Information and Surveying Technology, Holzstrasse 36, 55116 Mainz, Germany, marbs@geoinform.fh-mainz.de

Abstract

There is a high demand in documentation of cultural heritage objects such as artifacts,

sculptures or buildings. In the past years, laser scanning, or 3D scanning in general, has

been used increasingly for cultural heritage recording and the question arose if this new

method can replace traditional methods like close-range photogrammetry. To investigate

the advantages and disadvantages of both methods, i3mainz has carried out some case

studies for cultural heritage documentation. Different typical objects were chosen and

characteristical parts of them were recorded both by photogrammetry and scanning.

Documented objects include an archaeological stone wall, baroque relief plates, Stone Age

artifacts, ancient statues and the façade of a classical castle. Besides 3D scanning all these

examplary objects were also recorded with standard stereophotogrammetry which is the

most popular heritage recording method so far. Results are usually line drawings, but the

creation of orthophotos or digital surface models is possible, too.

In this paper five case studies are shortly introduced and the results of both measurement

techniques are presented and compared. The aim is to give users (especially those who are

not surveying experts) recommendations, which method is suited best for what kind of

application, or even if a combination of 3D scanning and photogrammetry is advisable.

Criteria like quality of the results, amount of cost and time, required equipment and

occurring problems are to be considered.

INTRODUCTION

In the past years 3D scanning techniques have gained much interest (also in the cultural

heritage sector). Very optimistic people even predicted that traditional surveying methods

like tacheometry or close-range photogrammetry might be completely replaced by 3D

scanning in the future. But there is still a lot of misunderstanding and ignorance concerning

this new method. Many potential users do not know in detail how 3D scanning works,

which results can be expected and how much it costs.

Therefore i3mainz, Institute for Spatial Information and Surveying Technology, decided to

initiate a project with the aim to compare 3D scanning with the common measurement

technique for complex heritage recording tasks: close-range photogrammetry. For this

purpose, several typical objects in architecture, archaeology and cultural heritage were

documented with both methods and compared regarding quality of results, accuracy, cost

and other criteria. As a final result of these investigations, a guidebook was published to

give users recommendations which technique is suited best for their applications. The

publication (Marbs, 2004) will be handed out to German authorities for historical

monuments and other institutions that are involved in heritage recording.

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This paper is a condensed version of the guidebook (which amounts to approx. 50 pages)

and will give a short overview about the case studies and the measurement technologies

used for these projects. In the end, the experiences and insights will be summarized to a

final conclusion.

TECHNOLOGY

3D Scanning

3D scanning (often called laser scanning) is a surface-based three-dimensional

measurement technique. One scan results in a large quantity of points in a systematic

pattern – also called point cloud (Boehler and Marbs, 2002). Final results after processing

of the raw data can be line drawings, CAD models, 3D surface models (with artificial or

photorealistic textures) or video animations.

Many different systems are on the market for all kinds of object sizes, ranges and

accuracies. 3D scanners are already used in industry (e.g. automotive, clothing) for design,

development, quality control and rapid prototyping as well as in engineering and

construction for the documentation of plants, buildings and landscapes. But 3D scanning

offers new possibilities for the recording of objects in archaeology, architecture and cultural

heritage as well, which is the main aspect of this paper.

For the case studies, three different scanners were used: The GOM ATOS II is a structured

light digitizer for small objects. It captures a maximum scanning volume of 1 m³ with

accuracies of 0.02 mm and better. The MENSI S25 is a triangulation type laser scanner that

works best at ranges of 2 to 10 meters with accuracies between 0.5 and 2 mm. Leica’s HDS

2500 ranging laser scanner (former Cyrax 2500) is able to scan objects up to 100 m with a

single point accuracy of 4 mm.

In addition to a relatively expensive scanner (typically between € 50,000 and € 200,000), a

proper software kit is needed to process the raw point data and to achieve satisfactory

results. Normally, the scanner manufacturers provide their own software which might be

adequate. But often this is not the case and an additional software package has to be

purchased. Different stand-alone products are available. Some focus on fitting features and

the creation of CAD models, others are primarily specializing in mesh creation. The latter is

usually the appropriate method for heritage objects. A detailed list of scanner hardware and

software can be found at i3mainz (2004).

Close-range photogrammetry

Analytical stereophotogrammetry is still the predominant method for the geometric

documentation of complex heritage objects. Analogue film contains a maximum of

information and can be archived for a long time. Analytical plotters for aerial photographs

can be used for close-range applications in the same way. Any camera can be used for

photogrammetric purposes, from low-cost 35 mm cameras to high-end large format metric

cameras. But depending on the accuracy requirements, the camera should meet certain

criteria like a stable interior orientation.

A camera like the Rolleiflex 6008 metric middle format camera, which was used for the

case studies, is a good compromise. It is equipped with exchangeable metric lenses and a

built-in grid (réseau) plate with 11 x 11 reference crosses. The camera is calibrated by the

manufacturer for each lens and can therefore be used for any close-range photogrammetric

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application. With a total cost of about € 10,000 (including lens) it is an affordable

investment. The result of photogrammetric plotting is usually a line drawing in 2D or 3D in

a CAD system. This can be used as the basis for restoration, visualization or further

investigations.

CASE STUDIES

Stone wall with archaeological findings

Nearly 2000 years ago, the Romans started to mine the huge tuff deposit in the Eastern

Eifel which originate from the eruption of the Lacher-See volcano 13,000 years ago. Even

today, the tuff is mined there, thus most of the ancient quarries were destroyed. But an area

of 3,000 m² was roofed and protected against further destruction. Today tourists can visit

single mining walls and inspect the underground workplace of the Romans. One of those

tuff stone walls (size 4.5 x 3 m²) was documented with laser scanning and photogrammetry.

It was demanded that special working traces like wedge holes, cuts and tool marks should

be clearly perceptible in the recordings.

A MENSI S25 laser scanner was used to record the wall with an accuracy of 1 to 2 mm. A

regular point grid of 5 mm was chosen for the whole wall and 2 mm for interesting areas

like the working traces. Since the scanner achieves its highest accuracy at short distances (2

to 3 m) and space in front of the wall was limited, the scanner was not able to capture the

whole wall in one shot. Scans from three different observation points had to be carried out

and were connected using small spheres which were distributed around the scanning site.

The final registered point cloud was used to create a closed surface mesh for visualization

purposes (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Screenshots of a video animation of the stone wall.

The photogrammetric work was accomplished simultaneously with a Rolleiflex 6008

metric middle format camera. The use of a 50 mm lens allowed image scales of 1:60 which

is by far enough to achieve a final output scale of 1:20. Twelve images were taken for six

stereo pairs. For the exterior orientation of the models, 15 reference targets had to be co-

ordinated using a total station. The final result after approximately three hours of

stereocompilation on a Zeiss P3 Planicomp stereo plotter is a vector map and can be seen in

Figure 2.

This project is a typical example for heritage recording, where 3D scanning yields better

results than photogrammetric techniques (within a comparable time). A 3D model of the

stone wall contains by far more information than a line drawing and conveys the three-

dimensional shape of the wall much better. The vector map only shows the most important

features and edges and does not provide any information about the areas between the lines.

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Façade of a classical castle

Figure 2: Vector map of the stone wall.

Close-range photogrammetry is the typical method for the documentation of façades.

Already shortly after the invention of photography in the middle of the 19th

century, people started to develop cameras and measurement techniques for the purpose of conservation, restoration and documentation of architecture. But nowadays, laser scanners also measure contact-free and nearly as fast as photogrammetry and thus can be an alternative solution.

The castle ‘Schloss Herrnsheim’ near Worms, Germany, was used as an exemplary object

for the comparison of both methods. This castle was built in the 15th

century and got its present shape around 1840. The recorded façade is 34 m wide and 13 m high and was documented with the aim of creating a three-dimensional vector map. Six images were taken with a Rollei 6008 for the stereocompilation. Three to four days of work on the stereo plotter resulted in a line drawing that can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Line drawing of Schloss Herrnsheim.

Scanning was accomplished with a Cyrax 2500 laser scanner. Within two hours of scanning

from three observation points, the whole façade was captured using an average point

density of 15 mm. After the registration of the three scans, a plugin allowed the loading of

the resulting 2.7 million points into AutoCAD. Then a line drawing was created on the

basis of the snapped 3D points. This procedure is very time-consuming, because the point

cloud has to be rotated permanently to get a 3D impression and to be able to snap the

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correct points (e.g. on edges). In any case, the resulting lines will have certain deviations

from their correct positions due to the point density of the laser scans.

The line drawing originating from this procedure is similar to the stereoplotting results, but

contains less information. For instance, it is not possible to detect the joints in the brick-

work, which can easily be measured with a stereo plotter. The amount of time for process-

ing the data to a final line drawing is much the same for both methods. But it has to be con-

sidered that the scanning results are of lower quality regarding accuracy and level of detail.

But 3D scanning offers other interesting applications, for example a deformation analysis.

The result in Figure 4 shows the deviations of the scanned wall from a reference plane.

Renaissance relief plate

Figure 4: Deformation analysis.

The Hofkirche at Innsbruck with the tomb of Emperor Maximilian I is probably the most

important art-historical monument in the State of Tyrol. The cuboid shaped cenotaph

(empty tomb) consists of a frame of black marble in which 24 reliefs of white marble (each

approx. 82 cm x 55 cm) are embedded in two horizontal rows around the object. These

reliefs show scenes of Emperor Maximilian’s life. They have a level of detail within the

range of 0.1 mm and had to be documented down to the smallest detail and with the highest

precision available. Due to the uniqueness of the object, a combination of surveying

methods was applied. Both, close-range photogrammetry and high-accuracy 3D scanning

were used.

Due to the complexity of the object, each plate was captured with 12 to 33 scans with a

GOM Atos II light projection digitizer. Up to 25 million points were recorded per plate.

This amount of data had to be reduced intelligently, because current software products do

not allow the handling of more than a few million points. After triangulation of the points,

the resulting mesh had to be edited manually to reduce noise and to fill holes in hidden

parts of the surface (e.g. behind arms, swords etc.). The whole postprocessing work took

about one week for each relief plate.

The photogrammetric work was done with a UMK 1318 large format metric camera. The

stereocompilation of two stereo pairs per relief plate also took about one week. In Figure 5

a comparison of photo, line drawing and 3D model is shown, which gives a good

impression about the level of detail of these representations of the relief. The

photogrammetric vector map is not suited to get a real three-dimensional impression of the

object. It only contains the most important contours and feature lines. The 3D model, on the

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other hand, comprises a virtual copy of the original relief plate with only little loss of

information and detail. See also Boehler et al. (2003b).

Figure 5: Part of a relief plate (about 10 cm x 10 cm): Photo, line drawing, 3D model.

Archaeological artifacts

Up to now the documentation of Stone Age artifacts is usually confined to manual

drawings. Characteristical parts like tool marks or concave and convex faces have to be

highlighted by shading. But this method does not contain any true 3D information and is

very time-consuming. Innovative solutions are desirable for a more automatic documen-

tation of archaeological artifacts.

For this purpose, a Stone Age hand-axe was recorded with both, a GOM Atos II scanner

and a Rollei 6006 camera. A procedure was developed that allows the creation of a closed

3D surface model within 45 minutes, including the scanning time. The stereo plotting of

both sides of the artifact using the Rollei imagery took about four hours. Results of both

methods can be seen in Figure 6. See Boehler et al. (2003a) for more information on this

project.

Figure 6: Stone Age artifact (about 11 cm x 4 cm): Photo, line drawing, 3D model.

3D scanning offers new possibilities for analyzing archaeological findings. Once scanned,

those findings are available as a digital copy (e.g. via internet) worldwide. At present,

algorithms are in development at i3mainz for an automatic extraction of characteristical

dimensions (e.g. sizes, volumes) and features like edges, concave and convex surfaces.

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Antique statue

The statue of Pharaoh Pepi I is the oldest known life-size metal sculpture in the world. It is

dated to about 2300 BC and was excavated in 1897. In 2001, after a several years lasting

process of restoration, conservation and technological investigation, the statue was

documented geometrically. The shape of the sculpture was recorded using a Mensi S25

laser scanner. Special features like the seams between the copper sheets forming the statue

and the rivets connecting them were measured using close-range photogrammetry (Figure

7a). A model was generated from the scanner data (representing the surface) as well as a 3D

vector map of the line features (mainly the rivets which cannot be distinguished in the

scans) from the stereo images. Besides these single results, both were combined for

visualization purposes (Figure 7b) such as video sequences of the rotating sculpture or a

combination with reconstructed vanished parts of the statue (Figure 7c).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7: Pharaoh Pepi I (178 cm high). (a) Results of stereoplotting. (b) 3D model (semi-transparent) combined

with rivet positions. (c) Virtual reconstruction of the original sculpture with crown and loincloth.

In this project, only a combination of 3D scanning and photogrammetry could yield the

necessary documentation results. For more information see Heinz (2002).

SUMMARY

The question, which measurement technique is “better” than the other, cannot be answered

across the board. Each method has got its advantages at different working fields. In many

cases, a combination of different techniques might be a useful solution.

When an object can be described predominantly by point- or line-based structures, close-

range photogrammetry will be the perfect solution in most cases. Especially when the

object has distinct textures, photogrammetric methods have to be preferred. A vector map

as a final result is able to reproduce those objects very accurately, but on the other hand it

does not contain any information about the object shape between the recorded lines and

points.

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Instead of traditional line drawings, orthophotos might be alternative solutions for the

documentation of flat, regular shaped objects like architectural façades. Besides geometric

accuracy, orthophotos contain radiometric information (gray or color values). But it should

be noted that orthophotos are always only two-dimensional.

Further advantages of photogrammetry for heritage recording are the short time needed for

the recording on site, particularly when no stable recording platform is available, and the

storage qualities of photographic film which can be archived for a long time.

On the other hand, 3D scanning techniques have to be preferred when very complex and

irregular objects like sculptures, reliefs or archaeological findings are to be documented.

Due to its surface-based working principle, those objects can be captured by 3D scanners

very accurately and in full detail. In addition the results of scanning projects can be

presented and visualized much better than the results of any other geodetic method. By

using artificial illumination and surface textures for the visualization of 3D models,

impressive realistic presentations can be achieved which are often more valuable for

inspection than the original object itself (see Figure 5 left and right).

In many cases, a combination of scanning and photogrammetric techniques is the best

solution. When both, line- and surface-based structures have to be captured, one single

method often does not produce satisfactory results.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The project was funded by the Federal German Government (BMBF) in its aFuE program

(grant 170 26 02). G. Heinz from Roemisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, M. Bordas

Vicent and C. Treber from i3mainz contributed data from their projects. The photogram-

metric line drawing (Figure 5) was produced by Linsinger Vermessung, St. Johann, Austria.

REFERENCES

Boehler, W., Boehm, K., Heinz, G., Justus, A., Schwarz, C. and Siebold, M., 2003a:

Documentation of Stone Age artifacts. The ISPRS International Archives of

Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. 34, Part 5,

506-510

Boehler, W., Bordas Vicent, M., Hanke, K. and Marbs, A., 2003b: Documentation of the

German Emperor Maximilian I’s tomb. The ISPRS International Archives of

Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. 34, Part 5,

474-479

Boehler, W. and Marbs, A., 2002: 3D scanning instruments. CIPA – ISPRS workshop on

scanning for cultural heritage recording, Corfu, Greece. http://www.isprs.org/

commission5/workshop/

Heinz, G., 2002: Pharaoh Pepi I.: Documentation of the oldest known life-size metal

sculpture using laser scanning and photogrammetry. CIPA – ISPRS workshop on

scanning for cultural heritage recording, Corfu, Greece. http://www.isprs.org/

commission5/workshop/

i3mainz, 2004: WEB site of i3mainz about 3D scanning in cultural heritage.

http://scanning.fh-mainz.de/

Marbs, A., 2004: Vergleich von 3D-Scanning und Photogrammetrie zur geometrischen

Dokumentation im Denkmalbereich. Edited and published by i3mainz. In print.

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Canadian Digital Archaeology: On Boundaries and Futures

Katherine Cook+ and Mary E. Compton*

Th e d ig it a l tu r n in a r chaeolo gy has been promoted through—and

really hinges upon—the promise of the bright and shiny future that techno­logical advances might offer. In many ways, the use of digital technologies is becoming so ubiquitous that “digital archaeology” is used synonymously with contem porary practice. At the same time, digital archaeology has historically proved challenging to categorize. There is a tendency to construct binary clas­sifications of digital archaeology and the role(s) that we see it playing. For exam­ple, there are those who see the incor­poration of technology as employing a tool or set of tools (Evans et al. 2006:7) and those who see it as a paradigm shift (Zubrow 2006:9; see also Huggett 2015 for broader discussion). Likewise, there are those who argue that digital archae­ology should be recognized as a distinct subfield (Graham et al. 2017), which stands in contrast with those who see it as permeable or universal to all archaeol­ogy (Evans et al. 2006:7). Confusion and tensions are further amplified by the fact that such binaries do not necessarily align but rather are deeply entangled in complex conceptual networks. Nev­ertheless, the categorization of digital archaeology has serious implications for the way that it is positioned within the discipline, including for grant and career structures. Looking retrospec­

tively, the push to see digital archaeology as a distinct subfield or specialization can make it seem ignorable by those who “don’t do that kind of archaeology”, while those who view it as a universal (we all use computers therefore we are all digital archaeologists) often limits the recognition that there is a need for more intensive training, in addition to rigor­ous ethical guidelines and implementa­tion when it comes to the computational turn in archaeology.

Ultimately all branches of these bina­ries are true; digital technologies are indeed tools, but they are not neutral or passive and therefore the technologi­cal ecosystem within which archaeology functions must be connected to broader paradigmatic shifts. Consequendy, there is a need for specialisation and focus to fully understand and take advantage of the complexities of technology, and yet it is so universal that all archaeologists must take more responsibility for their digital data, analysis, and communica­tions. What binds these different facets together and demands a critical analysis

f Corresponding author:Department of Anthropology, Universite de Montreal, Lionel-Groulx Building, PO Box 6128, Centre-Ville STN, Montreal, QC H3C 3J7 [dr.krcook@gmail.com]

: Department of Anthropology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C2 [mcompto@uwo.ca]

Canadian Journal of Archaeology/Journal Canadien d’Archeologie 42:38-45 (2018)

CANADIAN DIGITAL ARCHAEOLOGY: ON BOUNDARIES AND FUTURES • 39

o f the place o f the digital in Canadian archaeology is the social, political, eco­nom ic and geographic landscape within the national (and international) bound­aries o f o u r d isc ip line . A lthough the constraints of this paper limit the depth and b read th o f this discussion, a focus on diversification, collaboration, access, and education are m ost pivotal to stim u­lating growth and m ediating appropriate ap p ro ach es to d ig ita l a rchaeo logy in Canada.

Boundaries and DesignationsPerhaps one o f the m ost no tab le con­tr ib u tio n s o f d ig ita l te c h n o lo g y has been the d issolution o f boundaries to accessing archaeological data, results, re se a rc h ers an d know ledge. W hile it has long been cha lleng ing to identify “Canadian archaeology” in general, the globalized nature o f digital approaches fu rther blurs the lines when it comes to identify ing o r ca tegorizing “C anadian digital archaeology”. Many digital initia­tives benefit from and often endeavour to cross national, geographic, and insti­tutional borders to aggregate resources, b roaden access, or highlight the perm e­ability of heritage (see for instance, the Digital Index of North American Archaeology 2018, th e Reciprocal Research Network [RRN] 2014). H ow ever, w hile th e re are pow erful digital projects in reco n ­cilia tion and in d ig en o u s archaeology com ing out o f the U nited States and Aus­tralia, and deeply creative applications of technology in Europe, the historical and contem porary context o f C anadian h er­itage is unique and therefore presents its own fram ework for the developm ent of digital archaeology— one that deserves fu rther attention.

This paper, therefore, takes a flexible definition o f “Canadian digital archaeol­ogy” as those projects that em erge from

or seek to address this particu la r con­text o f research and access to the past th ro u g h in d ig e n o u s-d riv e n re sea rch an d d e -co lon iza tion (C om pton 2017; S upernan t 2017), education and tra in ­in g (C ook e t al. 2018; G rah am e t al. 2017), creative p ractice (C arte r 2017; C om pton 2017), environm ental change (O ’Rourke 2017), sustainability (Ferris an d C an n o n 2009), c a re e r /d is c ip lin ­ary structu res (Perry 2016; Perry e t al. 2015), and governm ent (see also G upta 2017). T h e re are extensive exam ples o f arch aeo lo g is ts in C anada u tiliz ing digital tools to ex tend or enhance tra­d itio n a l a rch aeo lo g y (i.e ., m ap p in g , recording, m anaging data). While these pro jects are re levan t and inform ative, they follow the traditional trajectory of technology adoption and therefore have b een m ore widely covered elsew here. T h is p a p e r will in s te a d e x p lo re an d celebrate approaches th a t innovate or d isrupt traditional archaeology, im agin­ing new roles, so lu tions, and creative practice.

Diversifying Digital ArchaeologyT h e d e sp e ra te w an t o f diversity an d equity perm eates both Canadian archae­ology and the tech world; it is perhaps, th e n , u n s u rp r is in g th a t o n e o f th e g rea test im p ed im en ts to the develop­m en t o f ethical and multi-vocal digital archaeologies has been the struggle for inclusivity. W riting as two female, early- ca ree r research ers , we recognize th a t th e re have b e e n som e in ro ad s m ade h e re , how ever, s tru c tu ra l d isc rim in a­tion, habitual harassm ent, and erasure of voices continues to define this space as one o f privilege and exclusion, ra ther th a n th e d e m o c ra tiz in g id e a ls a n d values typically used to sell o p en sci­ence and digital access. However, if we fail to m ake real changes in who gets to

Journal Canadien d’Archeologie 42 (2018)

40 • C O O K & COM PTO N

do digital archaeology, we run the risk of replicating and even amplifying the same inequities and power structures that have long plagued the discipline. In particular, the public nature of digital archaeology and web-based intel­lectuals make them targets for online harassment, cyberstalking, and abuse, in addition to all the “traditional” forms of abuse, which intensifies the vulnerability of these voices (Perry 2016; Perry et al. 2015). Diverse voices, however, push forward new questions, innovative appli­cations, and enhanced interpretations, as demonstrated, for example, by Kisha Supernant’s pioneering work in indig­enous feminist digital archaeology, using indigenous knowledge to inform GIS (Supernant 2017). Transformation of career structures, recognition of digital outputs (alongside traditional academic publications), and continued policy and awareness building efforts are critical to augment inclusivity, equity, and a sense of relevance to attract and keep diverse voices to this space.

Consultation and Collaboration Community-based research should be the cornerstone of Canadian approaches today, including in digital archaeol­ogy. Consultation and collaboration in advance of and throughout the develop­ment and launch of digital applications are key to challenging existing legacies to decolonize Canadian archaeology (see also interdisciplinary case stud­ies in Taylor and Lauriault 2014). The Inuvialuit Pitqusiit Inuuniarutait: Inu- vialuit Living History (2018) project, for instance, brings together Inuvialuit Elders, youth, and experts, with anthro­pologists, educators, and media produc­ers to research, document, and share collections through a community-based virtual exhibit. Importantly, this project

has placed forging relationships at the center of digital practice to facilitate long-term access, in turn engaging with complex issues of access, intellectual property, and curatorial authority (Hen- nessy 2012; Hennessy et al. 2013). In a similar spirit, the Ikaahuk Archaeology Project (2015) emphasises consultation and collaboration to consider the roles and position of 3D computer models of artifacts and sites (including 3D printing) to find low-cost solutions for increasing access in ethical and engaged ways (Haukass and Hodgetts 2016; see also Compton 2017).

Recognizing the complexity and ethi­cal responsibility of digitising culture, there is still a long road ahead to devel­oping digital policy and practice, how­ever there is also an opportunity here to redevelop relationships with descendant communities to transform understand­ings of the past. These case studies demonstrate the transformative nature of digital archaeology in reshuffling authority and layering multiple ways of knowing with tangible and intangible heritage. Nevertheless, in both diversifi­cation of the discipline and deepening collaboration with descendant commu­nities, the motivation has a significant impact on outcome; there is a need to move beyond box checking and politi­cal correctness to sincere commitment, recognizing that this makes Canadian archaeology stronger and achieves far more.

AccessInaccessibility of archaeological data and knowledge has been challenged recendy, ranging from questions about traditional publication models and paywalls to addressing indigenous rights. The push to use digital technology as a solution to archaeology’s history of wanton inacces-

Canadian Journal of Archaeology 42 (2018)

CANADIAN DIGITAL ARCHAEOLOGY: ON BOUNDARIES AND FUTURES • 41

sibility, particularly evident in the open access (G raham e t al. 2015; see also Kansa 2016) and sustainability move­m ents (Ahmed et al. 2014; Ferris and Cannon 2009), has opened many doors, however it has also stimulated concerns with intellectual property, privacy, and p re se rv a tio n (Brown an d N icho las 2012; C hristen 2012; C om pton et al. 2017). For instance, Boast and Enote (2013:109-111), in comparing projects from Canada (RRN) to Polynesia and Sierra Leone, have highlighted the dan­gers of “Virtual Repatriation”, and the use of digital technology to m aintain neoco lon ia l co llections practices or superficial accommodations for access to cultural patrimony. To date, the majority of research considering digital intellec­tual property rights, access, and ethics have been based in Western European case studies and, while shaped by their own political and cultural com plexi­ties, do not necessarily parallel Cana­dian contexts. It is clear that fu rth e r a tten tion , collaboration, and critical assessment of protocols of access in the context of Canadian archaeology must become a priority.

Public Digital Archaeology and Heritage Public archaeo logy and h eritag e in C anada is an expanding um brella of approaches to community engagement, outreach and collaboration. Social media and blogging, web-based resources, crea­tive media, and mobile applications are being mobilized to transform access and impact, from exploring local collections to sharing the realities and challenges of archaeological research in Canada (see blogs by Halmhofer [2018], Lacy [2018], S u s ta in ab le A rch aeo lo g y , A rch eo - Q uebec, to nam e a few). Relatively simple technology can also be leveraged to challenge trad itio n a l re p re sen ta ­

tions, for example Joanne Ham m ond’s (@ Kam loopsArchaeo) use o f digital image editing and Twitter to re-write and thereby decolonize heritage plaques.

A p proaches to pub lic sh a rin g of archaeological knowledge and experi­ences of the past extend to the realms of augmented and virtual reality (Carter 2017) and interactivity (Heckadon et al. 2018; see also Martin 2018). Far from simply being a novelty, these digital public archaeology experiences can be used to reinvest ourselves in the goal of making the past more accessible, as Dawson eta l. (2011) have demonstrated in using 3D virtual worlds to serve Inuit elders to mobilize traditional knowledge for youth. However, whether using social m edia o r c rea tin g advanced digital experiences, it is critical to analyze the im pact and im plications (Perry and Beale 2015:157-162). W hat do virtual experiences really mean, and are they really inclusive and accessible? And if we are going to invest in these formats, how do we sustain these projects, given the rapid changes in technology, expenses of proprietary software/hardware, and the complexities of data management? The age of openness is incredibly pow­erful, however, unlike a printed book or report, we cannot see digital outputs as finite; these projects must be supported by long-term curation and critical evalu­ation.

EducationDigital literacy and training opportuni­ties are a major gap in archaeology in general (Cook eta l. 2018), but remain particularly lim ited in Canada. Most program s offer no courses that teach practical skills in digital archaeology, and where they do exist, they are typi­cally singular courses that are difficult to maintain due to the speed at which

Journal Canadien d’Archeologie 42 (2018)

42 • COOK & COMPTON

technology shifts and lack the scaffold­ing that effective learning practices require. The Open Digital Archaeology Textbook Environment (Graham et al. 2017), an e -tex tbook and d ig ita l laboratory for students currently in development, will certainly offer new opportunities for enhancing and seam­lessly integrating digital training into archaeological curriculum in Canada (Graham 2017). However, departments and institutions are ultimately respon­sible for ensuring that digital methods and theory are sustained throughout undergraduate and graduate programs for transferrable skills development and professionalization. More broadly, there is a large gap in the opportunities for digital training outside of post-sec­ondary education, including for CRM, museum professionals, and descendant communities.

It is no exaggeration to say that the advancement of archaeology in Canada will need a revolution in digital literacy, data management and informatics, and even social media and web platforms. To date, most digital archaeological appli­cations addressing access have focused on accelerating dissemination but we challenge Canadian archaeologists to explore and experiment with technol­ogy to instead transform access to make space for disrupting traditional narra­tives, to decolonize data collection and management practices, and to innovate learning, teaching, and collaboration (see also Costopopoulos 2017).

ConclusionsAddressing the ethical, political, and social dimensions of digital archaeol­ogy, including access, rights, and policy, within diverse Canadian communities is perhaps one of the most urgent issues facing Canadian archaeology today, as

more and more data and research are digitized or even born digital. Diversify­ing the voices and enhancing training opportunities within this space will be critical to framing informed, equita­ble, and representational approaches moving forward. Part of this will also necessitate dealing with current career structures and advocating for labour rights, opportunities, and security, par­ticularly for early career researchers, to stem the current brain drain that has pushed many innovative minds in digital archaeology to look elsewhere for jobs and research prospects. However, the case studies and themes explored in this paper highlight the opportunities for transformative shifts in Canadian archaeology, leveraging technology to method and theory in ways that disrupt colonial legacies, problematic power structures, and ontological challenges. In part based in potential and in part in prophesy, the language of the digi­tal turn in archaeology is undoubtedly futuristic, but also optimistic and, at times, even naive. So where are we going, and toward what end? By asking these questions for archaeology writ-large, and sparking conversations about the impact of our practices in the present (digital and non-), firmly planted within the complexities of Canadian contexts, we can purposefully build a reflexive, inclusive, and ethical digital archaeology for the future.

Acknowledgements. Thank you Gary Coupland for organising this special issue of the CJA and the reviewers of this paper for their insightful and supportive feedback. A further thanks to the innovative, creative and reflex­ive individuals behind the projects cited here and many more that continue to inspire and challenge us to think about what digital archaeology can be in Canada and beyond.

Canadian Journal of Archaeology 42 (2018)

CANADIAN DIGITAL ARCHAEOLOGY: ON BOUNDARIES AND FUTURES • 43

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Virtual Reconstruction and Visualization of Pre and Proto Historic Landscapes in Sri Lanka

R.P.C. Janaka Rajapakse Graduate Institute of Animation and Film Art

Tainan National University of the Arts 72045, Guantian, Tainan, Taiwan

janaka@mail.tnnua.edu.tw

Yoshimasa Tokuyama Department of Media and Image Technology

Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo Polytechnic University 1583, Atsugi, Kanagawa, 243-0297, Japan

tokuyama@mega.t-kougei.ac.jp

Raj Somadeva Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology

University of Kelaniya No. 407, Bauddhaloka Mawata, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka

rajsomadeva@hotmail.com

Abstract— Advanced digital media and 3D computer graphics have long been used to preserve or virtually reconstruct cultural heritage sites. While a number of research work on preservation and virtual visualization of archaeological sites in Europe and Egypt, less effort has been spent on introducing new technologies to visualize and preserve cultural heritage sites in some other regions of the world like south Asia. This research presents a case study focused on the virtual visualization and simulation of pre and proto historic landscapes in Sri Lanka. The transition between prehistory and protohistory of Sri Lanka is not precisely clear, that would have occurred in the mid or late Holocene. Recently, archaeological researchers have found important evidence for the proto historic culture of the Uda Walave River Basin in Sri Lanka. This area has recognized as an environmentally optimal area to investigate and describe the question of pre and proto historic transition in Sri Lanka. The main goal of this paper is to visualize and virtually reconstruct pre and proto historic culture in Sri Lanka; based on recent archaeological evidence and findings in the Uda Walave River Basin and southwestern region of the country.

Keywords- virtual reconstruction; virtual heritage; prehistory; omponent; formatting; style; styling; insert (key words)

I. INTRODUCTION Virtual reality and digital media are increasingly been

employed on reconstruction of cultural heritage sites [1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7] and archaeological museums in Europe and Egypt [8, 9, 10, 11], less effort has been spent on evaluating the use of different Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as well as advanced digital media for reconstructing heritage sites in South Asia. Our previous work has successfully introduced an innovative framework for realistic visualization and haptic rendering of ancient woodcarvings in Sri Lanka [3]. As shown in our previous work, 3D computer graphics and interactive technologies appear to be very helpful tool for simulating and reconstructing

archaeological assets. They can be an immediate way to present information to a public, and can immerse virtual monuments by using interactive technology such as haptic devices. The virtual restoration technic can be a tool for simulating current working hypotheses, which could visually justify and explain the theoretical principals or present tourist information at a high level. These tools often associate with 3D cinema and visual information media in order to show everything which has disappeared: the destroyed or formulated working documentary.

This paper introduces ongoing research project for virtually visualizing and simulating pre and proto historic landscapes in Sri Lanka. Our case study has focused on three main contributions:

� In order to describe the transition between prehistory and protohistory of Sri Lanka, the 3D virtual reconstruction of pre and proto historic culture in the Uda Walave River Basin and southwestern area of the country are considered; based on recent archaeological findings and evidence [12, 13, 16, 17].

� The skeleton reconstruction of hominid, based on photometric visualization technics and archaeological information of fossilized hominid remains [14, 15, 18, 19].

� Real-time rendering for interactive media, based on our previous experience with developing haptic interaction in immersive virtual environment that allows the visitors to explore the shape and geometric details of the archaeological artifacts and hominid remains [3].

The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows. Section II illustrates Background and historical information of the focused case study. Section III shows overview of the modeling methods. Section IV presents the techniques associated with the visualization of the Hominid and animating motion data. Section V shows details of rendering and interactive media applications. Finally, future directions and conclusions are discussed in Section VI.

2011 International Conference on Biometrics and Kansei Engineering

978-0-7695-4512-7/11 $26.00 © 2011 IEEEDOI 10.1109/ICBAKE.2011.69

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2011 International Conference on Biometrics and Kansei Engineering

978-0-7695-4512-7/11 $26.00 © 2011 IEEEDOI 10.1109/ICBAKE.2011.69

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Figure 1. Location of the Uda Walave River Basin (UWRB).

II. BACKGROUND Digital cultural tourism in south Asia is in very early

stage. After ending the three-decade war on LTTE terrorism in Sri Lanka, government and academic sector have recognized the importance of cultural tourism, its potential to magnify the rapid development of the country. The several projects were initiated to develop the tourism. However, the current state of development of cultural tourism indicated that a significant problem lies within the lack of ICT involvements. Traditional activities on the local level do not retain the pace with the changes in cultural tourism growth on the international level. For the purpose of creating 3D virtual visualization of prehistoric landscapes in Sri Lanka we have introduced advanced digital media technology to Sri Lankan archaeology. This project is initiated with the goal to use the advanced media technologies for integrating with heritage preservation and tourism, together with local and international communities.

A. Historic Overview The island of Sri Lanka lies in the southern tip of Indian

peninsular (See the left image of the Figure 1). There are strong evidences of settlements in Sri Lanka by 130,000 years ago, probably by 300,000 BP or earlier. From about 34,000 BP onwards the prehistoric record is very much more complete. The transition from the mesolithic Balangoda culture to the protohistoric early iron age has been inadequately documented in Sri Lanka [12]. This unclear hole that exists in the archaeological research in Sri Lanka is the unresolved problem of pre and proto historic transition that would have occurred in the mid or late Holocene. Recently, archaeological researchers have focused on the proto historic culture of the Uda Walave River Basin (UWRB) in Sri Lanka (See the left image of Fig. 1) [13]. As their archaeological findings suggested and identified this area as an environmentally desirable area to describe the question of pre and proto historic transition in Sri Lanka. Based on these findings, it is very important to visualize this prehistoric culture for public. The main goal of our framework is to visualize and virtually reconstruct -

Terrain of the UWRB

Figure 2. Generated terrain based on GIS data, top image shows full terrain of the UWRB, bottom image is a part of the terrain in Autodesk’s Maya 2011.

pre and proto historic culture and landscapes in the UWRB and southwestern Sri Lanka.

III. MODELING Different modeling solutions were considered for the

creation of 3D models. The first task was to reconstruct the terrain of the UWRB by using GIS (Geographic Information System) data. Three-dimensional polygonal models of archaeological artifact and fossil remains were created based on architectural survey data and visual measurements using the image-based and photometric techniques. The Autodesk Maya 2011 software package was selected for the 3D generation of virtual prehistoric hominids, animals and vegetation. Wherever possible, the model’s surfaces were defined as single sided objects in order not to burden the final meshes with an extravagant amount of hidden polygons.

A. Data-driven Terrain Generation In order to create more realistic terrain of the UWRB, we

concerned the height values of the study areas by using GIS data. The surface generation process from raw data in x, y, z format is conducted using AutoCAD 2012 software package. This 3D surface can then be explored and visualized (Fig. 2, top image). After processing and identifying necessary portion of the terrain according to the script, data was then exported to the Autodesk Maya 2011 software package for ground texturing and making 3D layouts with other 3D objects such as stones, animals, vegetation, etc. (Fig. 2, bottom image).

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. 3D reconstruction of a prehistoic stone implement(quarts); (a) input image, (b) generated normal map, and (c) reconstructed 3D model.

Figure 4. Top: photographs of beads found in Galpaya survey, bottom: images of the 3D reconstructed beads

B. Image-based Modeling of Artifacts Critical works of modeling, such as fossil remains, due

to its extremely complex geometrical features, were given special attention to generate relief surfaces of artifacts by using normal estimation methods. We based on previous works called “shape-from-shading” [13, 14], and computed surface normal from the shading information in the image as shown in Fig. 3. In order to model the artifacts with primitive shapes as shown in Fig. 4, we can easily use mesh editing techniques by referring front and side pictures of them. To increase level of details, 2D textures gained from the surface of real objects were mapped to the 3D digital objects. After the 3D reconstruction of the artifacts, their 3D model data were exported to the common 3D file format (Wavefront OBJ file format) for creating a catalog of 3D models for souvenirs. Because visitors of the archaeological sites do not only like to enjoy with cultural attraction, but also interest to buy some souvenirs. The generated 3D models of archaeological artifacts were also used to provide new experiences of digital media technologies and 3D craft making to children and a new learning experience that helps them to obtain knowledge of prehistory in Sri Lanka through entertainment.

C. The Skeleton and Fossil Reconstruction The strong evidences for prehistoric settlements in Sri

Lanka were found in southwestern region and near areas of UWRB [12, 18, 19]. The most of the skeletal remains were found from the cave sites of Batadomba-lena and Beli-lena

(a) image data (b) Constructed 3D surface

Figure 5. (a) Adult mandible, Found in Batadomba Lena 9 [18], source: collection of department if Archeology, Colombo. (b) Reconstructed 3D surface of mandible fossil fragment.

(a) 3D created part (b) Combine with the fragment

Figure 6. Reconstruction of Hominid skulls by means of combining mannually created 3D models and reconstructed 3D model of remaining fossil fragments.

Kitulgala in Sri Lanka [18, 19] (Fig. 5). Our proposed prototype for reconstructing prehistoric landscapes explored possible research methods for digitally reconstructs these skeletal remains. On the other hand these archaeological evidences are very important to accurately model the prehistoric humans. In the pilot segment of this project, it is a big challenge to digitize these remains by using cost effective scanning methods. As shown in Fig. 5, we used image-based techniques [13, 14] to digitize skeletal remains. The generated surfaces were guided to model complete skeleton parts as presented in Fig. 6. These 3D models of partial skeletons will be helpful to construct the full body of the 3D hominid

D. Modeling of Wild Animals and Vegetation 1) Wild Animals:

Wild animals were modeled and added using Autodesk Maya 2011 to suggest occupation of the area. Deraniyagala [17] has investigated Palaeo-environmental activities and climate shifts in the prehistoric Sri Lanka. In the Sabaragamuwa province of Sri Lanka, archeologists Deraniyagala and his father found the remains of upper Pleistocene fauna, including fossils of mammals such as elephants, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, lions, gaurs etc. Their investigations not only covered mammals but also focused on reptiles, aquatic animals, birds etc. Recently, the most of their suggestions were proven with DNA evidence.

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Figure 7. A sample 3D model for rhinoceros.

Figure 8. A sample 3D model for Elephant(right), and left image is a drawing of pre-historic elephant originally painted by Archeologist Deraniyagala Snr.(source image from: [21])

Evidences from known prehistoric archaeological findings and documents were used as the basis for modeling the virtual wild animals and reptiles. Some sample non-textured 3D models for mammals are shown in Fig. 7 and 8. Fig. 9 shows some sample 3D models for reptiles.

The virtual restoration process of surface details and texture composition process were conducted using Autodesk Mudbox and Adobe Photoshop CS 5 software packages. In order to enhancing realism and visual impact of the virtual animals, UV-mapping techniques and material editing were concerned with real photographs and advanced material models. To adding fur to the animals, polygonal models with properly mapped UV coordinates that lie within a 0 to 1 range in texture space were considered. For some animals, fur is not uniformly across the surface of a model. For example, in lion character, mane is hair-like and longer than other furs. To control exactly where the different fur grows, separated models were used (see Fig. 10). The several attributes maps were used to control fur parameters such as colors, length, baldness, direction, etc. Dynamic hair curves in Maya were used to create dynamic motion for fur.

Figure 9. Sample 3D models for reptiles.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 10. Adding fur to the animals. (a) A sample 3D model for lion, (b) Adding fur (lion-mane) to the separate model of lion’s head, (c) A sample fur model for lion-mane

(a) (b)

Figure 11. A sample 3D model (a) and textures version of Banana tree (b).

2) Vegetation: As a result of Asian monsoon interact with mountainous

region of UWRB, it was predicted that this landscape was ascribed with rainforests and grasslands. Kourampas et al. explored geoarchaeology of focused area in south-western Sri Lanka [20]. Their preliminary investigation found that late Pleistocene evidence for abundant charred seeds of wild banana (Musaspp.), breadfruit (Artocarpus sp.), and Canarium nuts. In order to model the vegetation, we considered and based on palaeo-environmental vegetation and archaeological data [17, 20]. Fig. 12 shows a sample model and textured version for banana tree.

Real photographs of barks, stems and leaves were used to make realistic textures. The placement of the trees was based on the palaeo-environmental evidence and the script of the animation, scalar variation was based on noise and fractals. For creation of big tree like a breadfruit, low-polygon versions were used with texture per branch as shown in Fig. 12. Maya Paint Effects and our original MEL scripts were used to model grasses and variety of vegetation effects

(b) (b) (c)

Figure 12. Samples of low-polygon 3D models of breadfruit tree (a & b) and textures for leaves and stems (c)

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Figure 13. A sample 3D model of a reptile in Autodesk’s MotionBuilder-

2012 with a skeleton.

IV. ANIMATION Techniques of key-framing and kinematics were used to

make animation for peoples and animal characters. To make animated animals look real, anatomical structure guided joint hierarchies known as a skeletons, were created and placed inside the 3D models by using Maya software package. Inverse kinematics rigs, technique of smooth binding of skin geometry and Maya muscle were used in order to create realistic deformation for character rigs. Different quadrupeds have varying models of walking and galloping,

The process of complex motion editing and scaling were carried out by using Autodesk’s MotionBuilder software package as depicted in Fig. 13. The creation of animated visual effects and natural phenomena such as water, rain, flood, smoke, fire, and tornados were used particle and fluid simulation techniques in 3D. The second phase of the animation will use captured motion data and mapping to the 3D hominid characters, that would be able to generate realistic hominid animations.

V. RENDERING AND RESULTS This research project is envisaged not only to just create

a virtual reconstruction of landscapes, but also motivated to comprise the creation of several presentation Medias such as animated film, advanced interactive hypermedia, web etc. The first phase of the proposed prototype was performed on a standard PC equipped with a 3.33 GHz Intel Xeon CPU and a NVIDIA Quadro FX 4600 graphics board with a 768MB video memory. Making of documentary-style animated film (8 minutes long) is considered. Script of the animation is based on archaeological survey data and experts opinions. As we are already low on computing facilities and time, rendering of 3D stereoscopic version of the animation will be focused on the second phase of the project.

A. Rendering for Interactive Media The Haptic technologies provide tactile stimulation and

force feedback. One of the main objectives in this research is to introduce new media for interacting with pre and proto historic archeaological findings. An advantage of this interface is possible to make haptic interaction with 2.5D relief surfaces of the complex artifacts and reconstructed 3D models of Hominid remains and fossils. Through the use of our previous framework [3], visitor/user feels the shape and

geometric details of the pre and proto historic artifacts and Hominid remains while looking the realistic visualization in the screen as shown in the Fig. 14. To enhance intuitive haptic interaction, we used the Reachin display that integrates a PHANTOM omni haptic device with stereoscopic vision glasses. This segment of the project prototype was developed using C++ in Visual Studio 2008 development environment and is based on OpenGL API and the OpenGL 2.0 Shading Language (GLSL) for the graphics, on the “OpenHaptics” and “QuickHaptics” libraries for controlling the operations of PHANTOM haptic device.

Figure 14. user feels the shape and geometric details of the pre and proto historic artifacts and Hominid remains.

Normal map

Specular Map

Visual and Haptic Interaction 3D model

Displacement map

Image

Occlusion map

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B. Rendering for Web Applications Current open source multi-user 3D application servers

have potential to develop applications of online 3D virtual heritage sites [22, 23]. These virtual worlds are attracting the interest of many users around the world. Our current developments are investigated to implement web version of this prehistoric landscapes in Second Life. Low-resolution versions of generated digital contents are using to create the proposed web version of 3D virtual landscapes. Future phases of the research will be focused on implementation of haptic-enabled version of the prehistoric landscapes in Second Life, which will help visually impaired user to investigate and explore the reconstructed 3D prehistoric landscape by utilizing force feedback of haptic devices.

VI. CONCLUSION This paper has presented the initial phases of ongoing

research project to develop a prototype for virtual visualization and simulation of pre and proto historic landscapes in Sri Lanka. The development of this pilot prototype as well as its interaction techniques has taken an innovative approach to introduce advanced media technologies to visualize Sri Lankan prehistoric landscapes. The results are helpful to stimulate localities and create a cultural tourism attraction among young communities.

Future work will plan to use scanning technologies and simulation models, which allow to acquisition of more accurately digitized data of fossilized remains. This would enable an accurate reconstruction of fossil remains of hominid and artifacts. Future work should also include studies on how the advanced multimodal media interaction can work more closely with archaeological researches.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to acknowledge Resta Fernado at

Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology, Sri Lanka for her great help with providing archaeological information and image data. Authors also wish to thank Indika Prasanna at Hong Kong Polytechnic University for providing GIS data and valuable comments on terrain generation issues.

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