409

Scftflt jafl fim m sea

Trad* baa played a role •£ paramount importance

la the ec enemy of Kashmir during the period under survey.

It provided a means of livelihood to a large population,

stimulated the indlgen4eus Industrie* and added to the

sources •£ revenue to the state* It aIso removed the

anxieties *f the people by providing them the necessities

•f life* either by importing them from fereig* lands or

by transporting from producing to the distributing areas

of the valley* M#re important is the fact that it was

conducive to foster the cultural exchange and friendly

relations of Kashmir with other countries*

Sktaoial Iraflfti

Kashmir enjoyed a brisk internal trade during the

period. One of the most important factors which contributed

to the development of the internal trade# was the rural-

urban interdependance• It can not be gainsaid that the

rural areas were, for the most part# self-sufficient yet

they were dependant on urban areas for various necessities

of life*4 both of ordinary as well as extraordinary nature*

Ft»r example# the salt which was an important ingredient

of fe»d of all the people# of Kashnir* was Imported fren

outsIde and deposited in the urban areas* Net only this*

but the rural areas also depended on the urban market for

the articles of luxurious nature,* since the rural areas

410

were not devoid ef the luxury liking people. B«sides#

the de^endance for certain necessities ef life and limited

classes ef luxurious goods#' the rural areas were alse

dependent on the ucban areas to sell their surplus ateck,

especially cern#1 pattu# weal etc. which *>mo a success lea of

favourable crops and production left at their disposal or

their United resources compelled them to dispose it off to

2meet the ether needs# even If it was net surplus*

However, the dependance of the villages on the urban

areas was net as Indlspensible as these of the latter on the

former. Taking the nature of the urban societies Into account#

the Inhabitants dwelling there wera either traders or artisans

or government servants. A s a result# they were wholly dependant

•n the rural people# net only for the food stuffs to feet their

bellies but aim for the raw material ef their Industries#’

since the rural areas were the repositories ef all the natural

1 . The Chaks# the Influential class ef nobility and then the rulers of the country lived at Trehgam a far flung area ef Kashmir. Sea alse B .S f ff 47a# 51b# 52a# Shrlvara# pp 208# 246^251# Suka, pp 307,242# 347# 364# 379-8a^ the nobles residing In the different parganas ef Kafchralr•Sea alse S . a » ff 2ob#6a#fa-b#29ab^-the Salylds living In different corners of Kashmir.

2. See Shrivarai p . 119 the peasants selling even their household articles to combat* with the death trap fesnlne. In the absence ef any ether Income except the agricultural productions# the currency at the disposalof a peasant was only kind# a portion ef which# therefore# he had to dispose eff to purchase his ©ther necessaries of llfef

411

seurces ef wealth besides the ether deraestically preduced

raw materials* Taking these facts late acceunt# there was a

brisk trade between the rural and the urban areas.

The cammed it tes internally market-̂ ed constituted

of the imparted enes and these ef indigenously produced

like cloth? salt? spices? sugar candies f- drugs? bear8/

ricef ghei? e i l ^ vegetableif meat* and ether victuals,'

woelem eleth, saffron etc. However, amongst these# salt and

rice farmed a thriving business. There was ne state monopoly

and all the transactions were carried eut by the private

merchants. The assertion that the state was a big trader# in

grain, ts net borneout by the facts. Trade in grains# like

other curamedities, was exclusively in the hands of private

merchants which*w^l be^isctissed^tn-deteijfc later^

3 , T . A rifin# f ,3 3 9 a

4 . Shrivarai p . 327

5 , a . Abrari f .9Zb

6 . Shrivarai p . 188

7 . T .R . (S&D)i p ,4 2 5

8 . Ibid|

9 . shrivarai p . 11810. Ibid| Ghee, o i l , ana s a lt w»re precious commodities;

11. Tempi®, p . 216 ( i i ) T h .A f p . 261

1 2 . Shrlvara? p , 235

3r3.“ -« •> u„

mi

1 5 . See f u j t r * p .

412

.anaJSafifcit&taq structural

An important feature of the tewn planning In

Kashmir, since the ancient times, was the opening •£

the markets and shepplng street*1? Thus, while referringp1

to the foundationsra new town by sultan Zainu* l-Abldin, 1

Jonaraja says#iMHe built Jalnanagirt1? rich with mat has,*

provided with rent free land fer Braharoans and with20a

market places" . These stray references in the contemporary

chronicles leave ne ream to doubt that every tev» e£

Kashmir, built either in the vicinity ef the Srinagar city

er in the dif£erent parts ®£ the valloy by the Hindu or

the Muslim rulers, was a principal coramarcial centre

serving a cenvenlent place fer the disposal ef surplus

cem er geeds produced in the neighbouring areas er inperted

frera ether countries 1?b

The capital city (viz. Shahr-i-Kashmir ef Persian

chroniclers and Shrinagri ef Sanskrit chroniclers) was a

16. 3m Rajt# p .358 fer the regular markets in thecity of Farvarapura built by Parvarasenai ZZ near the Hart Parbat hill*'

17. Jainanagri is the Naushahr ef Persia* chroniclers.

18*. Jonaraja# p-Q7.

18b. The towns and cities built by the Sultans have beenmentioned in the H Z chapter. Fer the towns and cities built by the Hindu rulers see Ray# pp 14-20.

413

big commercial centre and a clearing house far the

whole valley. Ia Srinagar specialized markets were a

usual feature. There were a number ef markets and

normally each craft *r trad# was concentrated in a

separate street or bazar where the craftsmen had their

own workshops, stalls and homes, and each ef thoso

markets was known after the various trades like bazar ef

1Qgold smiths (Baaar-l~ss«rgaran) • bazar of copper smiths

(Bazar~l«raisgaraa) bazar far different kinds of moat

(like beef market) 2*etc. Even upte this date many lanes

and streets sf Srinagar are still known after the various

trades followed like#'Seshagar mohalla' etc. However,

from the contemporary records, it seems that the bazar

system was in its Infancy and little in use in view ef

the fact that the brisk traffic was carried at the doors

of hoote-cum-shops of the traders and craftsmen, whilo

a little was carried on in the epoa markets. Both Mirza

Haidar and Abul Fazl state that almost all the tradesmen

did their business la the soclusioa of their ewa houses2?

19. T . Ariflaf f 47oa.

20. Th.Aj p. 250.

21. Shrlvara; p. 235

22. T.R. (MS f .276b) (£&D) j p . 425 (11) A .A .II (text)p. 351. (Jarrett) t p . 350

414

Mirza Haidar found only the drapers (bazzaz) and

retail dealers (khurda-farosh) la the markets# while

ether tradesmen like grocers# (baqqal)# druggists

(attar)# beer sellers ( fuqgai) aad that class •£

pro vis ion waders who usually frequeated the markets# ̂

did busiaess ia their ®wa houses2!

It is worth te note that besides the specialised

lanes aad heme-<um-sheps# there were s«ne special markets

er maadies ia Srinagar# where the commodities ef geaeral

nature w r« openly marketed. Among these the bazar of

Jam* I -Mas j tfl is worthy *e mentioning. Since it was tho

most important place where the Muslims gathered ia large

numbers m all fridays and festivals2*?! a most flour is hiag

bazar ef Srinagar came into existance. According te a

latter source#1 this bazar came into existance during the

reign of Suites Stkander and continued to be the biggest

and well kaewn bazar of srinagar upte the reign of Maharaja

Ranbir Singh2/ who banned the commercial transactions

2fithere aad iastead faund«{a new bazar 'Maharaj OunJ *

27after his aame .

23. Ibid#

24a. Jaraa-i-MasjId still stands at Srinagar ia Newhatta# which is the heart of the city.

24b. Shrivara? p. 236

25. Maharaja Ranbir Singh# the Dogra ruler of Kashmir ruled the country from ( in ft. /&$$ )

26. Maharaja Guaj is one of the important bazars of modem Srinagar where brisk internal trade of Kashmir is conducted,

27. T .H ., I I . p . 852

415

Another important place ef brisk commerclal

transactions was the ' (pat %? the station ef the boats

where the gosds were loaded to aad unleaded £ r m the

beats. As we will see lateren, the river transport was

the chief means ef communication In the valley carried

on by beats, there were frequent lending places er 'ghats'

en the rivers and navigable water-ways threugheut the

country2® These 'ghats' served as Important transit

depets aad formed the brisk trade centres, where fren

the goods were distributed to the ether parts ef the

locality. The deep rooted tradition ef these 'ghats*

as the most convenient, 1 profitable and active places ef

transactions,^ can be had fr^m the fact that lnsplte of the

overhauling change In the market*ing structure and means

of csuBRunicatlon, 1 these 'ghats* still play a significant

role in Kashmir as the vital places of commercial

transactions. die of the important 'ghats' of Srinagar

29was the ghat of Nawpeora •

Besides,’ the regular shops, the petty dealers and

shopkeepers also carried en their business in movable

stalls. Thus,1 as we find In modern times in Srinagar, the

28. Stein,- An. Gee* p . lol

29. D.Sf I p . 273

416

groaa sellers er flsheriaea er wemea carry lag «a their

business In movable stalls was also c m m m during eur

period3? Am appreciable part ef the domestic trade wag

alse carried on by the different bus inessmea by peddl lag

their ge®ds from village to village,' In the towns and

cities3^

Trafltaa .QBffflaato

Thera ware special classes and particular cooiminitles

In trade* They can be groupad la twe classes (1) These who

war a exclusively traders and traded In the commodities either

brought £r«ra ether countries or lecally produced (2) Those

whe wore producers as well as tha distributers* Of the first

category,1 tha large scale business was in the hands of

few families, who dealt In both the Idlgeaeus and ferotga

goads,1 while as the petty business In towns was also carried

oa by the professional merchants3? Among these merchants and

traders,’ there were s*ame whe undertook a special trade of

a special commodity* Per o xample,' there were the grata

33merchants who specially dealt la grata *

30* Th*A, p * 261

31. Ibid# (11) Templet P« 216 (lit) Jonaraja# |f 19-20 (tv) Shrtvara# p. 125.

32. See lafra p*

33* Shrtvara? p* 113*

417

Of the secoad type ef merchants, meation may be

made ef craftsmea whe seld their finished goods at their

hemes, directly te the easterners er the dealers e£ these

goods?* Similarly, there were the producers •£ such geeds

like vegetables, milk etc whe alse seld their geeds

directly te the customers, either ia the markets ef the

towns er by peddllag from lecality te lecality and

village te villagl? This type ef trade was strictly ia

the haads ef special classes aad was fundamentally heredi­

tary ia aature.

Zt is curieus te aete ttet the sources are completely

sileat about brokers, whe playpd aa lapertaat part ia the

cemmerclal transactions e£ the Indian subceatlnent during

the period35^ * But the silence ef the seurces can aot lead

us te believe that they did aet figure ia the cemmerclal

transactions ef the period.

Higgling, cheating, adulteratiea, cornering, black-

marketing aad iaflatiea by the busiaessnea aad shepkeepers

was a common feature and caa be expected to be werst ia the

absence e£ preseat market regulations. Zt was because of this

knavery e£ the Kashmiri merchaats that the Sufis, ia order

te earn aa heaest livelihood, (at'lroa'lf halal) Insisted ea

34. T.R.(MS), f .276 (E&D) /p425 (it) A.A . (Jarrett) p3S0

35. Temple* p. 216(ii ) Jonaraja; p . 19-20 (lli)Sh rlv ara ; p .125 (iv) T h .A , p .261

35b« c£« K.S. Lai'History ef Khiljis*

418

th«lr discipline that# instead ef trade# they should

undertake sue It ere less lens like arts and crafts and

cultlvatie»?5(c*

The stiepkaepsrs reserted te strange buslaess

deal lags. They belittled the canned iti os ef ethers se

as te purchase them at lew rates and exteled their own

in erder te soil them at high prices, G*ee sheikh Heeru’dU

Dia, a lead lag salat aad the feuader ef Rishl Order la

Kashmir# put te task such a dishonest merchaat who# while

hiss elf purchasing a cammed tty# exposed all its defects

and drawbacks to seller aad as a result bought that

cammedity at a lew price. After a short while a customer

came to him aad waated the same commodity. The merefcaat#!

instead ef petatiag out aay ef its defects# ̂ praised it

lavishly and demaaded double tho cost price. The customer

was extremely eaticed by the higgliag of the merchant aad

payed him the ameuat charged?®

Abdul Fazl gives us aa interesting account about

adulteration 1)1 Saffrea which, curiously oneugfc, centiaues

upte this time. He says that for defraadiag the iaaeceat

customers#1 the people often cuaningly intermixed the yellow

stameas with these ef red which yield the saffron'

35c. e#Ari£iaj ff. 2 oa -21a36. F.Kubraviy»f F.l09b

3 7 . A.A. vol I (Biechmaaa)p

419

Cantering# bearding and black marketing were the c&amwm

Habits e£ the merchants. Me seener did the ceuatry face

the seariscity ef any cscornedity# either due te the failure

ef crepe er the bleeka.de ef reads letding te the fereign

lands#1 than the merchants reserted te bearding te Jack the

38prices ef their cssmedities up. Inspite ef the warnings

and regulatlens by the state against cern^ng and black-

marketing, merchants Indulged in such malpractices3? We

are teld that a Khar! ef rice# which was seld at 300 dinnars

in nermal times# was seld at 1500 dinnars daring the days

ef scacfcity and was net even ebtalned easily by the peeplef1

The merchants net enly charged exerbltant rates but

expleited the suffering cenditlens ef the pesple by exchamg*

ing their cenmedities with precieus articles which were net

duly paid? Sultan Zainu'l Abidin Is the smly Sultan whe

teek s eme definite steps te prevent cetnering and black-

marketing, He Issued a decree in his kingdem that the articles

imperted by merchants sheuld net be hearded but sheuld be

seld te the public at a lew prefit}^ Hew far did the Sultan

succeed in implementing His decree is net knewn. However#*

the meat Impertant step taken by t|re Sultan te check the

fluctuatlem ef prices and te save the peeple fr«n the fradulent

38 • Shrlvara# «p. 117-18# 32739. T.A#' (Text) P.6014A. Shrivara, P .U 842. Ibid,! p.11943. T.A. (Text)#: p. 601

€11) T.F.(T«xt)# p. 342

420

attitude ef the merchants, was the intreductien ef price

control. Te regulate the prices ef articles the Sultan

inscribed the pricea ef different cemmedities an the cepper

plates and fixed them at all Impertant centres fer the

infermatien ef the general public. He she* alse made a plea

44te his would be successors te maintain the practice”

But it appears that these regulations ceuld net check the

rise in prices, since we find that during his very regies

and alse after him, the merchants raising the pricea ef

different cararaadities t» their liking, especially during

45ths times ef scartcity. As a result ef these fluctuations,

the conditions ef the masses became very pitible. A number

ef people, while net afferdtng te pay these exorbitant rates,1

perished,* especially when the prices ef their staple feed

i.e . rice shet up while as the merchants delighted In such

times t7

Banking

Te give a baest te the commercial enterprise and

te previde eppertunities fer undertaking the business te

these did net pessess the herC&itary wealth, there was

a fairly l a r g e class ef meney lendars who thrived an the

44, Ibid45, Shrlvara, p, 32746, Shrivarai pp. 117-1947, Zbid

421

business •£ leading neney. With regard te the lending

ef meney fer conanercial purposes, there were twe types

e£ neney lenders* The first grwip ef meaey lenders were

knewn as 'Sarrafsi There was a sizable and prospfreus

class ef 'Sarrafs' whose exclusive business was te give

leans en usuary. They had accumulated a huge wealth by

charging the mest profitable rate e£ interest* W« find

a 'Sarraf*, named M#han Das, whe pessed three lakhs efJO

rupees. In the absence ef any Information, it is net

possible te ascertain tha rate ef interest# but there is

ne doubt that these unsurleus leans prevdkd mere e£ harm

than ef help te the people, whether merchants er ether

classes* They led te heavy Indebtedness ef the people.

The meney lenders gave a lean ef fruition but demanded

a hard repayment ef principle and interest. That is why

I*alla wails ftor geing te a country where there was ne

system ef debts ner any one that lends. 'Happy indeed*#1

She sayn^ "is the contended soul e£ when he (the neney

lender) refuses te make the lean*^ Bends were executed

between the credlter and debtor#0 specifying probably the

name ef the credlter, the ameunt ef lean and rate ef

Interest charged. The leans were previded net only te the

48. T. Arifinj f . 402a

49. Griersoni pp. 48-49 il) Temple p 185

50. Shrlvaraj p. 119

422

merchants but alse te ether classes ef pe«ple«

Hewevrsr, the mest benlflclal and a selld improve­

ment upea the usurleus leans was 'j aaether type e f leading

meney kaewa as *Muzarabat*. It is tl»e Islam ic Way e f

Commercial meney leading and was evidently introduced

in Kashmir by the Muslims, Si the language e f the law#

'm auzarabat' sign ifies a ceatract e f cepartaershtp/ la

which eae party (namely the preprieter er the meney

leader) is entitled te a p refit ea account e f stack er

meney he leads/ he being daaemiaated 'Rabbu'l- Mal'

• r preprieter e f s~teck er meney. (which is termed Rasu*l

Mai) and the ether party Is oatitled te a p re fit ea account

e f his labeur, and this last is deaemiaated the rauzarib (er

maaager) ,1 la as much as he derives a beatflt frem his

ewa labeur said endeavours?2 Thus, ualike the leaaa^

'rauzarabah' was free fr«a aay usuary and ceuld net be

established witheut a participation ia the p re fit betweea

the preprieter (er crediter) and debter (er m aaager). We

find a number e f references la eur cmtamperary chreateles

abeut 'muzarabat* which might have been mere pepular as

54cellared te the usurleus laeas.

Aaether Islamic way e f leadlag meaey iatreduced

55by the Muslims in Kashmir was kaewa as "q a rzi has and*.

However, It was net lend fer commercial purposes,* but was

51 . Ibid

5 2 . Hughes T .P . 'A dictlenary e f Islam* p . 426

5 3 . Ib id .5 4 . T . Arfittf f f . 373 b , 387a5 5 . Ib id , f . 412b

51

423

provided te the peer aad dewa trodden people. It waff

free from any usuary aad te be repaid at the pleasure

•£ the berrewer.

2fratta»*cfca.Ua»

Beat was the p i vet e£ all commerce ia Kashmir

during the per led5? Slace Kashmir abounded ia rivers,

lakes aad streams accessible te boats, beat was the chief

mode e£ transporting the goods frera eae place te another,

besides a cenraea ferra e£ csaveyance. It was a ls e easiedt

speedy aad cheap meaas e£ traaspertatlea, aet ealy ia the

absaace e f stedera meaas •£ coamualcatiea bat evea ia

these e f medieval tines sine® the carriages were alse

57practically uakaewa te the people here.

The produce e f the ceuatry was thus breught

te the great centres by beats. Villages situated evea at

a great distaace had ae deu t Jis t a£ the preseat day,'

their leadiag places (Kashmiri Yarbal) ea the river er the

eaaear aavigable waterway.

The Impertaace e f river traffic ia Kashmir may

be measured by the fact that aecerdiag te Abul Fazl^« there

56 . A *A .I (te x t ), p . 161 (Bochnaaa) p . 290(i i ) XI (text) p . 351 (Jarrett) p , 351 (l it ) Tuzuk (text) p . 3o2 (HfitB) I I p 142 .See alse P.H> (Text) V e il , p . 24

5 7 . S te in . Aac. Gee# p . 100

5 8 . Ib id , p . 101

424

were mere thaa th irty theut-aad beats Ia Kashmir wm the

goeve e f the Hughal eccupatlea e f Kashmir *^aad the number

e f beatinea engaged according te Jahangir amounted te

74006 0 .

Besides making the use e f beats# the rivers aad

canals •£ Kashmir were alse used fer transportation ef

such materials like weed* Wood as we fiad ia medera times

was frequently breught fr«n the meuatalas by means e f

canals aad rivers wltheut aay help e£ beat.

The mest important highway e f Kashmir was river

Jehlam# £r«n Khaaabal62 te Baramulla? At Khaaabal, the

Jehlum# as new# became aavigable and continued te b e so

ea Its whele ceurse threugh the valley t ill it reached

the aerth west end e f the valley# a dlstaace e£ 102 m iles.

Thus its value fer the development e f iateraal trade ef

Kashmir c aa hardly be underestimated.

The ceaveaieat aad cheap aature e f the river

transport can alse be had by the fact that Sultan Za inu 'l

Abidin ceas true ted a canal known as 'Mar caaal* within the

5 9 . A .N .f I I I (Beveridge)# p .835

60. Tuzuk (Text)# p . 302 (R&B) XI p . 142

6 1 . T h . A , p . 586 2 / Khaaabal is situated aear Aaaataag aad “ its part ea the

Jehlemw1

6 3 . Baramulla is a town#* situated m the Jehlem 34 milesWest e f Srinagar.4

425

city su fficleat to admit the boats e f considerable

burden,- am that the d ifferent cammed it ies cauld be

carried by th is m a ss late the heart •£ the city*

A detailed acceunt •£ th is canal w ill be glvea

presently*

The aeceadary means •£ iateraal transportation

64were the peales aid pertars. They were used la the

areas which were far frem the access e f rivers .

Steas takes by the sultana to aacwiragqt Ahfi

The Sultaas taak seme impertaat steps which

might have given a great impetus te the iateraal trade •£

Kashm ir. First aad foremast was the ceastructlaa e f

bridges aad caus e-ways. Befere the Sultaas there were

ae permonant bridges la Kashmir. The beats were bound

together by chains,' aad threugh the b r i d e s a way cauld

65be spaaed far the river t r a ffic . However, these boat

bridges cauld be easily brekea up at the approach ef

the army er la danger ef fire causiag great disturbance

to the Iateraal trade e f Kashmir. It gees te the credit

e f the Sultaas who fer the first time tatreduced la

6 4 . A .A j EC (Text) p . 351 (Barrett), p . 351

6 5 . Raj itr I I p . 449

66 . Ib id .

426

Kashmir the system ef permaaaat bridges. These bridgesia Kashmir ware ceastructed accardiag ts the caatllavarp rin c ip le . The mala supports er piers were farmed ef

layers ef deedar lags rest lag aa a feuadatlaa ef staaes67cemented with lima* Thasa bridges ware sa streag that

same af them existed upt* the first half af the twentieth century aad have afton beea described by the medieval aad madera travellers?8 ‘The sacret af their stability nay perhaps be attributed ta the skalta* piers ef fer lag little ar aa reslstaace,* ta the large velume af water braught dawa at fleed time.*

The first parauuicat bridge accardiag ta the auther af Nawadlru*l Akfebar) was ceastructed by Sultaa All Shah (1412«2o) la the aarna af All Kadal*9 The Other well kaewa brld^i namely Zaiaa Kadal was ceastructed by Sultaa Zalau* 1-Abidia?* Thea there ware the bridges like Fateh Kadal aad Habba Kadal caa struct ad by Sultaa Fatah Shah (1486-1515) aad Sultaa Habib Shah (1957-61) respectively?1

67* Tuasuk (Text) p. 302 (R&B) ZZ p 142(il) S.K, XZ (text) pp*31-3268* Ibid far the nadara absarvarsSee Vlgae; XZ 23/ Lawraace# p 3669. M* Akhbari f. 32bTo* ShrIvara; p. 127 See alse N. Akhbar; f. 34a71. T,Hf Z# p* 310

427

These were constructed ia the main city aad have often been described by the Mughal historians with high laud?2 The Sultans alse built a number e£ such bridges in the different parts of the country* while referring te this shrivara says "The King (Sultan ZaUu'l-Abidin) had constructed a bridge en the vitasta# named Zainaftadali (Zain Kadal) and it was the tenth bridge en the way from the Darad villages to the c^3/! It should bo noted, however, that the construction of boat bridges was not entirely given up by the Sultans, Sharafu'd-Din Ali Yazdi, the author of Zafar nama notices the existence of such bridges across the Jehlast «nd Is

72• lor example Muhammad Salih Kumbo#, says" , y

S.H. XX, pp.31-32 73. Shrivarai p. 127

428

also corroborated by tike local chroniclers.Te facilitate the business of the traders and

travellers, the Sultans also built a number e£ cause-ways

which shortened the distance and made the transportationof goods easy from one place to Mother* Sultan Zainu’l-Abldln constructed a causeway of clay and stone over theDal LaIce, connecting the Pargana Phak te the city,1 which

75was one 'Ices' In length . Another causeway was built over76 77the Wuiar lake connecting Seporo to Andarkot • It was

built of stones cemented with line and a number of bridgesto give way te the water, sultan Zainu' 1-Abidin assigned

78the revalues ef a village for its maintenance • While following the steps of their Sultans,' the nobles also did not lag behind in constructing the cause ways. Thus referring to a causeway constructed by Naureas/ the son of Haik Ahmad Vatu, the wazlr of Sultan Hasan Shah,1 shrivara says, "Nauruja (Naurez) constructed a stone causeway from the tewnC?) to

74

74. Zbldi pp. 127, 229 (11) Z.N.II (text) p. 179 for a number of boat bridges which spanned the river Jehlam.75. A.A* II (Jarrett)f pp. 360-61.76. Sepere is a town on both sides of the Jehlam situatedIn bat. 34.17* long 74 31'. Its ancient name wasSuyyapure, built by Suyya, the minister of Avantlwarraan. (Rajt. Book. V. NOiUi,)77. Andarkot Is a village situated In Lat. 34 13*long 74 42* on the Sanfcal lake absut twelve milesnorth west of Srinagar.̂78. S.A# f.l7a .

429

the Kshiptika, and when it was completed as far as the Island ia the river the people o£ the town ceased to vender at the sight e£ long causeway supported on pillars" ®9

Besides linking the primary producing areas with the collecting aad distributing centres, the coastructioa •£ these bridges aad causeways considerably shortened the distaace and ensured a free movement beth of the people and the goods. Thus were the great Incentives te the development ef trade.

^e have also evidence that due attention was paidtowards the development of river transport, which as alreadyreferred to was the main means of communication. Theremarkable step taken In this direction was the constructionof Mar canal. It was constructed by sultan Zalnu'l-Abldlnthrough the heart of the clty,i with sufflclant water/servicable to the heavy boats of considerable burden," sothat the different commodities like grain, wood/ vegetables

81etc. would be brought easily into the heart?? of the city.This canal continued to play a significant role in the internal trade aid commerce of Kashmir upte the recent times. While describing the commercial importance of the canal Meercraft writes la the first half of the lgth century.79. I cannot Identify the place Kshiptika.80. Shrivara* p. 226.81. Ibid; p. 143.

79

430

"Tim canal new called the Mala Mfcr proceeds through the tmm passing under the several bridges/ being the roest servlcable ef any ef the canals,? although net kept In very good order. It has water sufflclant te adiBlt the beats ef considerable burden# and grain was brought by this means Inte the heart ef the cl(ty8#*,H»wever# ever the years due te the Indifferent attitude ef the la titer rulers/ the maintenance ef the canal was neglected and all the sevage of the Interler city was directed towards this canal. The result was that this canal net enly lest Its commercial value, but became a health hazard, theugh It was this canal mere picturesque than sweet smelling, which had once led te the frequent comparis ons ef Srinagar with Venice8?

Another mest remarkable step taken by the sultans was that the streets and markets ef the cities and touts were paved with stones. Mlrza Haider while admiring this developed aspect ef market" Ing structure ef Kashmir says," The passage In the markets aad the streets ef the city, are all paved with hewn stones"

82. Meercraft# U p * 116.83. Stetu, Anc Gee* p. l04,«4. As a result the canal has recently been filled up by the state.84. T.Rf (E&D) p . 425.

431

Stops were also taken by tile Sultans to guarantee

peace and security te the trader* and merchants# both from

o ffic ia l oppression and other anti-social elements. They

took serious action against these officials# whe happened

te be tyrannical towards the traders and merchants even

though at a miner scale . For example ence an attendant of

the son of Sultan Ghazi Shah Chak (1561*63) wea charged

with taking away forcibly a small quantity o f fruits from

a petty merchant and when the sultan came te know of this#

he ordered for the aitfeilatien e f the hand of the attendant.

This event strained the relations between Ghazi Shah and

his son to the extant that Ghazi Shah had te issue an order

35far the execution e f his sen . Moreover# no stone was le ft

unturned by the Sultans to eradicate the robbery and theft

in the valley . Means e f livelihood were provided to those

who committed theft because of the lack of provisions •

Another check for preventing theft was the introduction of

sort of collective responsibility by making the headman ofa

87a v illage responsible for any theft • Moreover# guards

(passbaas) were appointed to guard the property of the

3 5 . Suka; p . 339 (11) H.Mf p .62 See also Jonarajai p . 65 fer the exilement o f an influential person whe was charged far taking forcibly seme m ilk from a m ilk woma*.

8 6 . Shrlvara; p p . 101-2

3 7 . Ibid# (l i ) T .A # & U 0tS)cxp¥(Bny) XXX. p . 436 .

432

people aad I f any body was charged with robbery or

theft# be was heavily penalized* Gfece according te suka

a th ie f had stolen a fish frwn some fisherman a penality

ef twe hundred pieces e£ geld coins were imposed m i

k lm F

as a result ef these measures, te quote the

centeiqperary authorities# “Men slept In peace 1b their

houses and travelled in safety even through the forests

and lonely p l a c e s * T h e absence e£ robbery and theft

In Kashmir astonished even Abul Fazl who could not but

to remark*#Yet* strange to say# notwithstanding Its

numerous population and the scantiness of the means o£

91subsistence thieving and begging are rare* ? Under

these circumstances trade was bound to flourish*

88

88,’ N . Naan; £ .35la

89* Suka; p* 389

90* Shrivarai p* lol (11) T .A . ifcnxfck (Dey), XIX p* 436

91* A»A| XX (Jorrett) ; p* 349

433

fiKtanwl Twdfl*-

locked country. Access te Kashmir Has net been easy ,

Nevertheless, Kashmir has had commercial intercourse with

02distant parts ef the war Id . A source relevant te the

15th - 16th century Kashmir refers te a Kashmiri merchant

whe was carrying en trade simultaneously with Ind ia , Tibet

and parts of Central A s ia «. a matter of cons id er able

importance*

Though from some stray references in the contemporary

literature and numismitic evidence, we learn o f the wide

•pread external trade of Kashmir* i f judged by the medieval

standard, yet the paucity of the material prevents us from

making a detailed study o f the subject* The following account,

which has been pieced together with the help of fragmentary

and scanty data available , may, therefore be regarded as

Illustrative rather exhaustive*

The period under review c®nstitues an important

era In Kashm ir's economic life * Xt witnessed the founda­

tion and establishment o f Muslim Sultanate which gave a new

boost to the external trade activities o f Kashmir, which

had stagnated as a result of the threat of the foreign

Kashmir has, since remote past, been a mountain

9 2 . T *A r ifia ; f . 385 b .

434

invasions and continuous civil wars in the Valley^?

Favoured by the political stability in the

neighbouring countries which reduced the p o ssib ilities

e f foreign invasions#* instead helped in maintaing

friendly relations with them9? worthy and strong leader­

ship o f Kashmiris who not only maintained peace and order

in the country# and resisted its past glory by conquering

its surrounding htlly states95 but also conducted cultural

93* To quote A.lbe-runi who wrote long before the establish­ment o f Muslim Sultanate in Kashmir* "They (Kashmiris) are particularly anxious about the natural strength of their country# and therefore take always much care to keep a stronghold upon the entrances and roads leading into it . Sb consequence it is very d iffic u lt to have any commerce with them* In former times they used to allow one or two foreigners to enter their country/ particularly Jews# but at present they do not allow any Hindu, whom they do not know personally to enter#' much less ether people* A1 Biruni# V e l, I# p . 2 0 $ , However# this was the condition during the powerful rulers# but under their weak successors the condition changed# they no doubt le ft the reads# leading to the outside world un­guarded but due to their weaknesses Kashmir was thrown into an uncontrolled p o litical turmoil which did not come to an end upto its logical c a n d us ion of the establish­ment o f Muslim s-ultante. As a result of the internal chaos and confusion whatever l it t le trade might have been carried en during the times of the serious foreign invasions was further curtailed ,

9 4 . s ,c . Hay asserts that the rise of Islam in the neigh­bouring countries also proved an obstacle to the foreign trade of the Hindu rulers* Ray S ,C , j p ,9 1 *

9 5 , For more than one hundred and thirty years (1339*1472)# Kashmir enjoyed complete peace and prosperity. Due to the efforts of some strong rulers like Sultan $hihabu'&- Di&& Sultan Zainu*l-Abidin not only the internal peace aad prosperity was maintained but they sutbdued a ll the frontier territories adjoining Kashmir, These conquests helped the foreign trade of Kashmir in two ways. F irst these conquests might have created fresh markets for Kashmir goods in these territories and vice verse. Secondly by conquering these territories a free and fearless passage was ensured to other countries.

435

aad friendly relations with distant rulers^ Kashmir

•n e e again stimulated the growth o f its foreign trade.

Secondly during th is parted net only the eld arts

and crafts were revived and Improved «pon but num erous new

•n es were intreduced and cultivated on acceunt e f the31

whele hearted patronage ef the Sultans • It is th is per ted

te which net enly most e f the modern arts and o*ra£ts e£

Kashmir ewe their existence and encouragement but Kasfcalr

gained werld wide significance as the greatest and only

98distributer e f seme e f thera.

Mere ever under the Sultans a new culture a*dt l ife

style was introduced in Kashmir by the influx e f a large

nuniber e f people from Persia and Central A sia , The impact

ef this foreign culture was so profound that the people

could not remain uninfluenced# though they had to defend

for the essentials of its fulfilm ent on the far o ff countries#

aowhich in turn encouraged the foreign trade*

A s ,a result Kashm ir's external trade relations

became so deep rooted that in spite of the d ifficu lties of

means o f communication and even in times of disturbed

96* Zainu'l- Abidin o f Kashmir maintained friendlyrelations with the rulers of Hindustan# CentralAsia# Iraq# Egypt# Macca etc* Shrivara p* 15$«

97* T .R * (JS&D) # p . 434

98* A .a . II(Text)# pp* 350-51

99* See Infra p* l|

436

p o litical conditions and frequent changes e f ruling

fam ilies trade and commerce seems te have flourished

without much interruption.

The literary and nunlsmltlc evidence shews that

Cemmerce e f Kashmir 1 was mere gravitated te its neighbour­

ing countries in the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia ,

T ibet and China.

t r a d e R O P T E S

As Kashmir had been a mountain locked country#

its trade was exclusively conducted through overland routes.

In the great mountain chain# which encircles the Valley#'

there was# as is now, but one narrow gap le ft , near to

the north west end of the Valley, where the river Jehlum

flows o ut. However# it was at this point that the river

ceased to be navigable.

The external trade of Kashmir was thus mainly

conducted by three main routes, each route having a number

o f ancillary roads which connected Kashmir with Punjab#

Ladakh and Baltlstan and thereby with other parts of the

world. Thus Shrafu'd-Dln All Yazdl says that there were

three principle highways leading through Kashmir - the one

to Khurasan, the other to Hindustan and the third one to

Tlbe49°

According to Abul Fazl twenty six routes connected

Kashmir with In d ia .lo i However, It seems that Ban I ha 1 , Sldfru,

loo Z.N .# 11 (Text) p . 180

101 . A .A . XX (Text) # p . 350

437

P lr Pantsal, Tesamadan and BararaulJa routes ware » s t

canvenient aad frequently used . The Banihal read

maintained link with the h ill states ef Eastern Punjab.

This pass was the only reute across the Plr Pantsal

range where the snowfall m s comparatively less aad

through which commun teat ten was pesslble fer the mest

part of the year.

Sidhu and Budil pass, 14000 feet high lies ea

a reute directly connecting Srinagar with Akhnur and

Sallk et . Running up aad dewa high ridges. It m s only

suitable fer fleet tr a ffic , but ewlng te Its shortness

102it was formerly a favourite route with the Kashm iris.

P lr Paatsal, 11 ,400 feet high. Is marked by a

pass known as P lr Pantsal. The route which crosses It

has from early times to the present day been the most

frequented llae of communication between Kashmir and Central

Punjab* The starting point fr«m Kashmir was Hlrpur and

while from the Punjab, Bhlabor. It has remained since ancient

times the chief road by which the produce of the Punjab

lQ3salt mines coming via Jehlum and Bhimber entered Kashm ir.

Abul Faal and Jahangir refer to this road as one of the

two convenient routes which led fr«n Kashmir to Punjab and

vice v erso .10* It was the shortest and the most convenient

102 . Ste in , Anc. Geo, p« 71

10 3 . Ib id p . 75 (11) A.Abrarf f . 121b

104 . (I) a * a , I I (text) p . 350 (11) Tuauk (text) p . 303

438

» f a ll the routes mentioned by the Mughal historians

loSwhich gave passage te Kashmir but it was net communicable

in winter and spring as it became burrled under heavy

s-n« . 106

The last important route across the P ir Pantsal

w t o7range was the Tos&dan pass* It was the shortest raute

into the valley o f Punch and hence te that portion of

western Punjab which lies between the Jehlum and Indus.

Xt was under the old conditions o f road and travel

probably the easiest and safest route in that direction

and remained a favourite trade route until the recent

Jehlum Valley Cart road was constructed. Zt was followed

by Hieunfstang108 and also by Mahraaud of Ghazaavi during

IQQhis unsuccessful expedition to Kashm ir. However,

owing to the elevation o f the pass this route was closed

by the snow for a longer period than that of the Pir

Pantsal.

The last but not the least important route which

connected Kashmir not only with India but also with Persia

105 . ( i ) Ibid (ii ) Ib id ( H i ) P .M . (textl Vel.X .Chapter XX p p . 15-16

106 . P .N . Vol. X Chapter H , pp* 15-16.

107 . This road started fr«a the present villege ofDranga situated at the foot o f the mountain in the Biru Pargana and was a lso known as Dranga road, Shrlvara, p . 327

108 . S .c . Ray, p . 1 3 .

109 . Albiruni,- V o l. X p . 2o7 3 qqj

439

1 1Aand Turkistan was the Baramulla route. It was one e f

the best entrances and commercial reutes recsgnised by

a ll whe travelled te and £r«m Kashmir since ancient times

such as Hieiiafstaag# Oukong, Abul Sfezl, Jahangir# Abdul

Hamid Laheri aad alse almost all the emigrants whe aame

fr«m Persia and Central Asia* Of all the reads which led

te India it was warmer and snowfall was much less* Thus

it was the only passage open te Kashmir in winter and

early spring! 11 This reute was the shertest line e£

communication te the present Hazra d istr ict and the Indus

Valley* It was alse convenient for these whe wished te

go te Atteck and Peshawar* . Kashm ir'* trade with Persia

and western Turkistan was alse conducted through this 112 reute*

It is clear £rem the abeve acceunt that a ll these

reads linked Kashmir te Punjab, thus making it the commercial

depot e£ Kashm ir's expert and import trade with ether parts

e f In d ia . Much e f the trade e f the Punjab with T ib et ;

BaltIstan and Turkistan passed threugh Kashmir. As a result

the trade relationship between Kashmir and Punjab was so

110 . x m It was named as Vitasta er Varamuhla reute by the Sanskrit chr»1»Glers, Baramulla by the Kashmiri Persian writers, Pakhli by the Mughal chr w ild e r a and is known as Jehlum Valley route in present tim es.

11 1 . ( I ) Tuzuk (text) p . 303

( I I ) P .M . (text) Vol. I , Chap. H , P . 15

112 . Many learned scholars and Sufis fr «* Persia and Western Turkistan came to Kashmir by this route.S .A . f f 15a, 31a \

440

Intimate that net only the Kashmiri merchants but alse

the Kashmiri Sultans used to borrow money from the La here

merchants. 13

Ladakh. Tibet, China and Central Aalai.

Another important thoroughfare which connected

Kashmir with Ladakh and thence with Tibet# China and central

Asia was the reute leading ever the Zo jlla pass. This reute

was comparatively better than ether routes which connected

Kashmir with India and Central A s ia , Th is is alse substantiated114

by Shara£U*d«Din All Yazdl, the author e£ zafar Hama « From

Srinagar to Leh i f conveyance was by men only it took a month

er a l it t le more and from Kashmir to China# the joinery was 115

of three months. The town o f Leh la Ladakh was the ch ie f

commercial depot ef Kastatirfs Import and expert trade with

Tibet# Turkistan aad China, There was also another reute which

ceanected Kashmir with eastern Turkistan. This passed through

Baltlstan# twit was very d iffic u lt to traverse as compared to

Ladakh and was followed only when there was any p o litical116

trouble along with Ladakh route.

Cenvevaneot

The available means o f transportation were porters #

horses# asses and elephants,

m l " * #T^A rif in# *f 1373b ( U ) h Im J p . 6 9 ...........................................

1 1 4 . Z .H ,(te x t ) Vol. ZZ# p , 180

115 , Bernier, p . 425

116^ Purchase# S . Pure ha 3 his Pil grimes# London 1905-7vide 'Mfefhlbbul Hasaa» p. 245

441

W m m fiMCiflCaaL wh«« h ills ware steep and covered

with huge mmw neither horses nor elephants# ner any ether

conveyance could be used* Under these circumstances coolies

were the only means e f transport from Kashmir te ferelgn

lands * According te 2afar Nama the reads which led te

Kherasan and Hindustan were se d ifficu lt that i t was net

passible fer beasts e f burden with leads te be driven aleng

It# se the Inhabitants whe are accustomed te such work,

carry the leads upen their own shoulders, u ntil they reach117

a spet where it is possible to lead a horse. The read to

Tibet was easier than these two "but" says Sharf«udUDla

"one finds nothing but poisonous herbs which make the

transit inconvenient for travellers en horse back, since118

the horses perish” • Thus the human carriers became

indispensable for this route also . The trade thus gave

opportunity e f livelihood to a number of people and led

to the emergence of a labour class known as professional

lead carriers . Accerding to the Waqf Name of Khanqah~l<J*u'alla

two hundred lead carriers were permanently employed for119

bringing salt from Punjab fer the kitchen e f the Khanqah.

According to Shrlvara " Zainu* l«Abidin settled a colony e f120

lead carriers at the custom stations of Surapura (Sopere)1*

11 7 . Z .N . (text) I I , 1 p . 1801 1 8 . Ib id .11 9 . Waqf Name is preserved In the Khanqah-l-Mu'alla of

Srinagar. Its contents have been incorporated by Abdul Wahab Neer in his ' Putuhat-l-Kubraviya * MS Research and Publications Deptt. Srinagar, f f . 78a — 79b and P ir Hasan Shah in his *Tarikh-i-Hassan Published by Research and Publication Deptt. Srinagar# V ol. I I ,5 pp 333* 34 .

120 . Shrlvara vide Stein , M .A . Ancient Geography of Kashmir, p . 75 n 2 .

442

which besides shewing the lmportaace •£ lead carriers

la the transportation e f foreign lands shows the beaevolaat

state policy feewards them.

A fter crass lag the h illy aad snew e & d tracks aad

reaching the pi a las the lead was transferred fram human

carriers te the beasts of burden like asses, horses,

elephants aad camels. **e alse find references about horses

and elephants used in the mouataiafteus routes but not121without serious dangers. As * matter of fact beasts of

burdea were mostly used up to the bottom of the mountain

passes. The most common animal used from Kashmir side was 122the a ss / while elephants, camels aad horses were used

123from the sides other thaa Kashmir. We do not knew, however,

the amount p aid for the traaspertatiea.

I w r t a .w d SjXBtsfcai-.

Kashmir exercised an affective demaad for certain

accessaries of life besides certaia lim ited classes of Uxu-nVus

foreign goods aad she vas able to pay for them by exporting

a variety of her own products as she was famous for some

articles aad had the world wide fame of being the only

12 1 . Bernier, p . 407

12 2 . Tuzuk (text), p . 305

123 . (i) a .N . (text) Vol. II#’ p . 180(ti) P .M . (text) Vol. I , Chapt. I I , p . 1 6 .

443

producer and distributor of some of them. Moreover Kashmir

was a channel, through which trade was conducted between124

Punjab, eastern Turkistan and Tibet# a circumstance which

made Srinagar a rich emporium o f trade. Thus Kashmir apart

from handling Its own Imports and experts# was also acting

as a transit depot whic|r greatly added to its ceraaercial

activity*

Imports

The various articles Imported from foreign lands

can be br-oadly classified into three categories* (l)necessar­

ies ; (2) luxurious articles and (3) Raw m aterial* Among

the necessary commodities o f import for which Kashmir was

as is now dependable for foreign lands was salt* Since it

has been an essential ingredient ia food at all times in

a ll places, not only o f a ll classes of people# but for

the diary product! ? 5 its huge consumption and demand rendered

salt an important article o f brisk Import* Zt was ch ie fly126

Imported fr«m Punjab v ia the P lr Pantsal route. Thana was

the *mundi* o f salt where fr«n it was Imported by theus

Kashmiris on their backs# which according to Babu Datad Mlshktt

124*

125*

126 .

Indian Antiquary# 1908# p .1 6 2 vide M&hibbul Hagan* p . 244,4 n2

Sheikh Hooru'd-Din# the founder o f R ishi Movement in Kashmir# though staunch opponent o f luxuries# includes salt as an indispensible article for his sustenance. He saws; _ „ , < „ .-• ?« ,

Saqi# p . 26 See also# N.Nama F 192a fer salt as a diary food.

(i) A . Abrar f f . 1 2lb , 122b (11) Tuzuk (text)

p . 320

444

the author o f Asrar-ul-Abrar, was a journey of fifteen127 128

days. The Increased pressure en the Punjab sa lt ,• together

with the natural d ifficu lties of cammunication like the

h illy and inaccessible roads, snow and rainfall which closed129

the roads for a considerable time, the canals and reads130

which lnter;pers«ed the way and men made d ifficu lties lik e

the internal and external invasion, which resulted into

the blockade of the roads, were the causes which led to

the consequent shortage of the commodity and a legitimate

cause of the rise In prices resulting in havoc within the

country. According to the eye witness account of Shrivera

once when the passes of the south were closed owing to

po litical troubles, the price of salt In the capital short

very high as a result *the people o f this country had to131

eat their food without s a lt 1* what would have been the volume

of salt trade can be judged by the above mentioned demand,'

however, its method of transit was lim ited 'as a result o f the

d ifficu lties mentioned above. Consequently the prices of

salt rose very high and achieved the epithat of luxurious

article132*

127 . A . Abrar, F .121 b

128 . We do not have any reference about the import of salt from any quarter other than Pun> b .

129 . A*A .XX (text) / p . 3SO (11) Tuzuk (tex t), ’ p .3 0 3 (i l l ) D .N . (text) Vol. I Chapt. XX, pp 1«- 16.

130 . A .Abrar, f . 122b131 . Shrlvara, p . 327

132 . Ray, S .c . p .2 o 7 . Even In present times its legacy is found In some far flung areas of Kashmir, where rock sa lt is bestowed as a token o f congratulation in times of seme happiest ceremonies.1

445

The ether items in th is category consisted •£ the

animals especially herses aad elephants. Accordlag te

Jahangir# there were no lecally«bred herses in Kashmir

prior te the Mughals aad the chief maaas m£ communication

133was a ss . H#wever# except fer the lead purposes this

animal was neither f it fer the conveyance nor f»r m ilitary

pucpeses. Thus as a result e f the eaermeus m ilitary demand#

apart from the problem e f the ne aas e f ceaveyaace and

pleasure riding, the supply e f horses was essential te

the p lace . Pram centernperary accounts we fcaew that the

herse stable was one ef the chief sources of strength £»r

134 .the stab ility e f the state and the Sultaa. Thus it had

been the constant anxiety e f the state to strengthen the

stable by Importing as many herses as it ceuld, which probably

never stepped under the prevailing m ilitary system n ecessiated

by the constant internal feuds aad external a g g r e s s io n s ,^

13 3 , Tuzuk (text) p , 305

134 , The importance of herses fer the m ilitary purposeshas been conspicuously referred te by Sheikh Nog ru'd-Din w h. „ y . .

"That without a herse the position e f a soldier is like that e f a father without a se n ". Saq i; p . 93

Besides we find that the seize of throne was usually

Sreceeded by the capture of the royal stable See hrivara, p , 173 ,

135 , A fter the death of 2ain-ul-Abtdin the period ef Sultaas was characterised by the internal strifes and external invasions. See Mohibul Hasan 'Kashmir uader the Sultaas'# pp 96 sqfy,.

446

Besides under the prevailing m ilitary system,' feet «©ly the

Sultan , but every noble had a substantial m ilitary force,

e f which horses fam ed the essential p art. This alse

increased the demand for the horses. Moreover, we find that

apart from the m ilitary purposes, the horses were Imported

fer the sake of conveyance aad pleasure riding . It was

the cheapest means o f conveyance ef the upper classes

Including the Su fi sa in ts . Shaikh Hamza, the famous salat

o f Kashmir had a stable, attacked to his Khaaqah fu ll e f 136

Imported horses. We find oae Hehidi Chak denoting four137

Turkish horses te the Shaikh 's stable . Thus because e f the

m ilitary demand aad being a sw ift source e f conveyance on

laad, a large number of wealth was spent en the said import.

138Hom os were ch iefly imported from Iraq and Turklstaa.

We also flad references te Arabh .r s J 3 9

which might have

been Imported through Central A s ia . According to t(L ceaten*erary140

source, the cost e f a Turkish horse was Rupees 250} a considerable

amount I f judged by the medieval value o f money.

Besides, horses, the elephants were also Imported

for m ilitary purposes. We have references In the chrenlcles

136 . (1) C . A r ifla , f f . 8oa-b (11) T #A r tfin , f . 4l 8a

1 3 7 . T . Arifla# f . 440b1 3 8 . Ib id ( U ) TuzUk# (text) p . 305

1 3 9 . Q .G .Y .S f f . 6a (l l ) T.A.(taott) p 603

1 4 0 . T .A rifla# f . 440b

447

about the empleyraeat •£ elephants la the w rs side by

side with the herses aad aa elephaat stable like a herse

stable attached te the reyal headquarter1?1 The elephants

were alse bestowed as gifts by the Sultaas te their

faveurites*}2 Elephants were obviously inserted £rem the

eastern parts e£ Indian sub-continent.

kaxurims arttoJLaf*

Ameag the luxury articles imperted mentiea may

ne made ef geld aad silver# textiles# spices# precieus

stsees etc.

A large prapertiea e£ geld aad silver was used

fer display though a small quaatity e£ it was used £er

ce iaagei4? Apart frara the upper class w»menl44geld aad145

silver eraaments w»re used by the Sultaas aad aebles •

Besides 'mahr1 by the upper class Muslims was alse paid

la terms ef silver and geld14? Is add it lea te this the14

uteasils e£ the upper class were made e£ geld aad silver •

141. Jeaaraja; p . 57 (11) Shrivaraf p . 171

142. Suka# p . 393.

143. Seme geld aad silver ceias e£ eur per led are preserved la the Sri Far tap Museum »f Srinagar (Kashmir) .

144. Jeaaraja; p . 87 (11) Th.A, pp 36-37, (111) S.A* £.25

145. Shrlvara, pp 183# 184# Tol, 214# 323.

146. Th. Af p . 68 (11) S.Af £.25a

147. Jeaarajai p . 90

448

demand by the upper strata e f the seciety and constituted

the most wanted item in the l is t e f Imports. According te

148th eextan t sources geld was imparted from Tibet .

O f the textiles imported/ brecadeicloth/

em broidered cleth and cetten cleth are worthy te mentieaw

£-yy\l>Xoic((!YJnPThe brecaded cleth and eatees?«4ed cleth was imported te

satisfy the demand e f the royalty. These were alse bestowed

by the Sultans ea their favourites. However/ the import ef

cotton cleth was more important since it fu lfilled the

demand e f a large number ef people as the summer dress.

Silken cleth was locally manufactured but its use was

confined te the selected few and its use was alse lim ited

149on religious grounds . While as the cotton textile industry

does net seen te have flourished in the country te fu lfill

ISOthe internal consumption . Thus the requirement e f a

considerable m ajority Cor summer dress was fu lfille d by the

148. T .A j (text) p . 7 (11) Morkham/ Mission e f Begel te Tibet# vide M ehibbu'l Hasan* p . 121.

149 . D .S .I f p . 394.

150 . Moore raft writing about Kashmir even in 19th century gives a poor opinion about the progress e f the cotton textile Industry M eorcraft/ «**ad Trebec Travels in the Himalayan prenlces of Hindustan and the Punjab#! la X*adakh and Kashmir ed . by H .H . Wilson# Volf I I /p . 154."

Thus besides the coinage, geld and silver was in large

449

imported cettea clothes. The varieties e f brocade cloth,

embroidered cloth and cotton cloth were imported frera Indian

sub-c«attBe«t15l

Besides Ladakh also imported to Kashmir weaken

fabrics which were sold by the Ladakhi merchants aad were

152suitable for royalty .

Spices was aa another article of Import, To under­

stand the lateaslty ef the demand for specie## we must have

some knowledge of social l ife ef the tim e. As we have seea

that It was this per led te which modern * Kashmiri Wazawam*

owes Its existence* Almost a ll the dishes we find today la

153Kashmir were frequently used by the upper classes , As a

result spleces may almost be described accessaries at this

per led and these had to be bought frem where ever they were

to be fetiad and at whatever exorbltaat rate te sa tisfy the

154 155aeeds of the people * Peppar was bought from Agra aad

156prebably sold at high prices *

151. Shrlvara# p . 151 (11) T* Murshldf ££. 42a*to.

152 . Joaaraja# p . 18

153. (I) Th.A# p p .6 8 ,9 4 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 1 , (ll) T . Arifla# f .4 5 6a , 457a, ( I I I ) Saqi# p . 9 0 .

154* See T . Arifla# p . 4oa» The cook e f Ghazl Shah, the Chakruler ef Kashmir (1561-63) bringing the latter the dishwith sweet smelling sp ices. See also C . Arifla# f .S o a , Sheikh Hamza, the great salat o f Kashmir selling three horses o f his stable for purchasing spices fer the kitchen e f his Khaaqah.

155 . Palsaert# p . 3 6

156 . (I) N . Hama# f.33a- b, (ll) A . Abrar# £ .92b .

450

From Khetan was imperted# Yashab# (oriental Jade)

me ©£ the meat valued precious stones £®r which it has been

famous since ancient times and was the chief source •£

supply te the east. The commercial relations between the

twe countries existed since ancient times as the coins of

Rajas and Sultans have bean discovered there1 According

to a latter source precieus stones were alse imported from

Badkhshan#' Bokhara and Yarqand1?8

Besides these principle.: luxurious articles of

import some miner articles ®£ this category were alse

imported. Musk, China, Wood# rhubarb and memiren were

imperted from China15? According to Zafar Hama sens £ruits

like lemons# oranges and dates which did not grow in Kashmir

3.6ftwere imported from the neighbouring warm regions • This

is also substantiated by other contemporary records* We find

references te dates of Arabia and superior quality ef

pomegranate imported from Jalal-Abad~Pur# Kabul t

157. J .A .S .» . txvtllf pp 28-32# Vide M *hibbu 'l Hasan# p. 246# a . 8

158 . bawrance# p . 6 5 .

159 . Berntar* pp 425-426

1 6 0 . 2 .N . (text)# IX p . 179

161 . T* Morshid# ff 45b~46a (it ) T. Arifin# f ;44 2b

451

* m ftatagUigA

The mest Important e f all the articles imported

was probably the raw materials* ea which depended the twe

celebrated industri.es v iz Shawl aad S ilk which net wily

earned a large amount ©f fereiga currency but prevlded

livelihood te a large number e£ people. We have seea that

twe aerts •£ shawls were manufactured ia the ceuatry

(1) Alacha Shawls--these which were made e£ the wool •£ the

ceuatry and ( 2) Tus shawls— these which were made •£ the weel

•£ aa animal e f that aame which inhabits Great T ibet^f2

Hewever# the kiad e f shawl which was unrivalled and made

the ceuatry faraeus la the whole world#'* fer its lightaess#

warmth# durability and seftness was the Tuz Shawl1? 3 Thus

te retain its fame aad te preserve a chle£ source ef income#

Kashmir had te depend fer its raw material exclusively ea

Tibet# the ealy preducer ef this quality e f weel16f Besides#

te meet the lacreasing demand e f shawl weel " i t had beea the

usual business ef the Kashmiri merchants te travel from

meuntaia te mountain te collect the fine weel with which

*165shawls were manufactured . Ladakh and Yarqand alse supplied

162* a .A . I I (text) ff 352 (11) Bernier# p . 403

163 . Ibid#

164 . Ib id (11) T . A rif in# £ .49 lb (il l ) Tuzuk (text) p i3o f

165 . Beraier* p . 419.

452

shawl wo®l te Kashmir1 #6 Accord lag to Moor era ft by an

ancient agreement Tlbets shawl wool was exported only te

Ladakh aad sim ilarly by ancient custom and engagements Its

export from Ladakh was confined to Kashmir alone. A H

a t t e s t s to convey It to other countries were punished by

16?confiscation . However# we do net know the quantity o f

shawl wool imported during our period. But la the time of

Heeecraft about 800 horse loads were Imported annually

168each weighing about 23 trakhs • Another Important article

of th is class of Imports was the silk worm eggs aad s ilk

yarn to rua an Important industry v iz s ilk Industry o f

Kashmir. We have seen that the sllkea clothes were the

favourite dress of the royalty aad were frequently conferred

by them ea their favourItJtes . Thus te meet the exhaustive

demand o f the royaltty, the state patronized the silk

Industry. The silk Industry had to meet its extra needs

apart from those met by Kashm iri's own plentiful local culture

of raw s ilk 1! 0 The additional raw s ilk was imported from

its northern neighbours where It was found In great abundance

16 6 . Irwin# Kashmir and Its Shawl# p p .31-32.

167 . Meorcraft# Vol. I# 347

168 . Ibid# V o l. H # p . 165

169 . Shrlvara# p p . 151# 138# 20?# 230 .

170 . T .R . (M .S) f.277a (ll) A .A .I I (text) p . 351 ( H i ) Tuzuk (text)# p . 304.

453

and with which Kashmir had close commercial r e la t io n s .

It is important to point out here that the basis of Kashmiri

raw s ilk v is the s ilk worm eggs were imported from G ilg it

and B altistaa3’? 2

jBxoortai

The exports of Kashmir were many but among the

principal articles of expert for which Kashmir had been

celebrated throughout the world was its Shawl and Saffron.

From the accounts o f <-bu*l Fazl and Jahangir it

become quite clear that the shawl industry was the most

flourishing industry of Kashmir under the Sultans and had

dominated the world market. As a result of the natural

quality which bestowed Kashmiri shawl with softness and

delicate stexture/ Kashmir became the only distributor of

such shawls in the world* Its range of asqaort had no lim its .

It was exported to the various parts of the Indian sub­

continent# Central A sia , T ibet, China fed to borrow the

metaphor of Abu* 1 Fazl *to every d i m e ' 1! 3 The volume of

this export must have been very large ia view of the prodigious

171

171. J .A .S .B , ixv iiif p p . 28-32.

172 . A*Aj I I (text) p* 351 (i i ) Tuzuk (text) p* 304

173* (i) a .A| I I (text) p p . 350-35.1, See also Ain- UAkbariV ol. I (te x t ); p . 74 for the export of shawls to Indiaprior to the Mughal occupation o f Kashmir*

454

quantity ef shawls manufactured and exported .

Saffron# for which Kashmir has been famous since

times immemorial, was an equally important and profitable

175article e f expart. The extensive cultivation o f saffron j

its unparalled flavour and its position of being an

176important source of revenue to the state te stify to

177its overwhelming demand as an article of foreign trade .

Due to the paucity e f material we are unable to mention

the lands where it was sent. However#' incidentally there

is a reference of two traders who dealt in regular supply

17Sof saffron to India • What was the quantity o f export

is also not ferth-ceming but ws can in£er its large income

from the fact that once the saffron o f a merchant was

179looted on his way the cost o f which was 8s. lO+OOO/* •

Next to these two important articles# mention may be made

o f the export of paper known as 'Kashmiri Kagkaz1®0 It

was in great demand in Hindustan whore it was used for

131writing the Holy urans and other documents . For the dxport

1 7 4 . Ibid#

175 . Ibid# I# p . 69 (ii) Tuzuk# (text)p . 46

176 . Ibid#

177 . The absence of foreign market was responsible for the extreme poverty of same industries o£ Kashmir# See Jk ^ra p . 2.7̂

1 78 . * T . Arifin# £ .374b

1 7 9 . Ibid#

1801' See supra p »Jt

181 . Ibid# p .

174

455

It Is better te quote George Forster who wrote la 1783

that "the Kafchmiris fabricated the best writ lag paper

e f the East and that It was formerly aa article e f extensive

182traffic . Other articles ef export were musk, crystals#

lead# weiien cleth1 .^ Babur Includes musk# lead and cepper

184among the Important articles sf expert ef Kashmir •

Besides a ll the foreign travellers who travelled te Kashmir

during eur period ©r immediately after it have tremendously

praised Kashmir for its abundance « f delicious fruits and

vegetables ̂ ^ B u t there is n© reference in c hr m i d es te

their expert# which became a regular supply te India after

181its conquest by the Mughal3 in 1586 .

value of Kashmir paper during the parted trader review

182* Forester# G .A . Journey fr«m Bengal to England#through the Northern part e f In d ia / Kashmir etc*#Volf I I p. 19

133* Babar-Nama (Saver Idge) , I I . p. 485(II ) T .A . (text) p . 603(I I I ) T.Jf. (text) p . 344 . There Is a reforeace In the Shah Kama e f Firdusl te Kashmiri woelea stuffs kaowa to the ancient perslans/ as It Is kaowa to ua for Its warmth and durability . Among the cwnmesslorate r e q u is it e s necessary for a new army# Yazdigird, the last ef the Sassanian kings mentions the cloth o f Kashmir# journal Royal Asiatic Society / Bombay/l095# XDC# p . 241.

18#. Ibid*

186. (I) T .R . (E&D)f p . 276(I I ) A .A .f I (t<*xt) pp 50-51( I I I ) Tuzuk (text) p . 304 .

187 . A .A . (text) | V o l. I# p p . 50-51

456

D iffic u ltie s in conducting the f arei^p trade and

tt<S .lfM?SCit«!ii ..........................in .m w ■ ■■ i . uni . i . i , ............. mm i. i . i

Although literary evidence testifies te the

fact that Kashmir had much scope for Imports as well

as exports but its progress was hampered by many factors

both natural as well as man made. First and foremost was

the absence of easy means o f communication. The traders

had to pass through the tedious and troublesome jungles/

snow clad and inaccessible mountains, often visited by

the snows, r a in fa ll / cold winds, etc . Some ideas of the so

d ifficu lties can be had from the aaceunt o f S t . Xgvier,

who accompanied Afcbar from Lahore t® Kashmir through the

P lr Pantsal route. He says "How much trouble wo had in

getting through these mountains/ which are much bigger

than those of our Pyreness# and when we had passed one/

there was another s t ill worse. For eight er ten days,' wo

went from mountain to mountain/ from snow to snow/ and under•» lag

great c e ld / though it was the end of Hay . These

conditions were thus inconsistent even with the mere

189walking or the conveyance effected by the pack animals

not to mention the passage of any heavy tr a ffic . As a

result the foreign trade was badly hindered.

188 . Journal Asiatic Soceity Bengal/ Volt X X III , 1927 /Not I , p . 116 .

18 9 . Z .N .(t e x t )I V ol. Ilf p . 180.

457

Secondly these routes remained blecaded fer the

mast part e f the year because e f 3new1f0Thus trade could

net be conducted throughout the year.

Thirdly since the routes passed through the

mountaHlaiK areas, where travelling was mostly effected

by walking en feet, leng Intervals, as a result elapsed

In the passage of a carvan. Thus a jeuraey frera Srinagar

191to Ladakh occupied more than one month .

Fourthly there was the problem o f security of

l ife and property o f the merchants. The roads were

Infested with cobbers and thugs and the danger of the

loss of property was too great to permit the passage of

small or unprotected convoys. There aro many references

In the •Tnzkirao* to the looting of the property of the

merchants by the robbers and * thugs ‘ on their way which

led**the Indian sub-continent1 . 2

Another grave d ifficu lty In this context was the

Internal disturbances and external Invasions19! which

besides affecting the trade in many ways resulted Into

—• —• — . — • —* —* —* — • —• —»—• *•*—*—• • •

1 9 0 . A*A| I I (text) p . 350 (11) Tuzukf (text) p . 303 (il l ) P .N . (text) Volj I , Chapter H # pp 15-16

191 . Journal Royal Asiatic Society, X I I (185o) i p . 373

192 . T . Arlflni f . 340b , 372b, 374b, 41oa.

193 . The Internal disturbances and external Invasions became coalmen In Kashmir after the death of Suit

Zainu'l-Abidin.

458

gave passage to foreign lands and thus disrupting the

194commercial activities of Kashmir •

These and sim ilar other problems affected the

pro ress of foreign trade of Kashmir and thereby the

economy of Kashmir a whole. First the scope for this

method of transit was strictly limited to the goods of high

value in proportion to their bulk and promising a v e ^ large

proportionate profit at their destination* This speaks

why only shawl and saffron achieved tremendous external

commercial value and why the other equally Important

commercial goods like fruits and veget^bl s , Doedar wood

195etc , lost the same or why the occasional famines in

196Kashmir became so severe •

Secondly due to the blockade of roads, the merchants

often indulged in hoarding of the imported articles to sore

the prices up in times o f scarcity . That is why when Zainu'l-\ ■■

Abidin issued an order to the merchants not to indulge in \

the blocade of the roads, especially of those which

194. Shrlvara# p . 327.

195. From the account of A bu 'l Fazl it seems that fruits began to be exported to Hindustan only after Kashmir became a part of the Mughal empire. The statementof A b u 'l Fazl also makes it cl#ar that the export of fruits and vegetables from Kashmir to Hindustan was fostered by the Mughal emperors who were extremely impressed by the sweet and delicious fruits and vegetables of Kashmir, a .A# I (text)# pp. 50-51.

196* In view of the geographical nature of the country we do not have any reference in the chronicles to import of any sort of food stuffs in the midst of severe famines which occasionally visited Kashmir during our period, as a result of which they took heavy toi»l of l i f e .

459

hoarding aad black market-.ing, he made a particular

reference te these articles which were imported frera

1q 7foreign lands * These factors alse explain the weakness

ef m arket ing structure, economic under development and

unfavourable position o f the volume o f foreign trade,

l̂ gfcata.tfhteh. tha.Trafoi

Inspite of the a b w e mentioned d iffic u lt ie s ,

which no doubt hampered the external trade of K ashm ir

yet the trade flourished i f measured by the then standards

and the geographical condition of the valley* This could

not have been possible without sone definite reasons*

First the outlets which connected Kashmir with

foreign lands had a number of alternative routes which

could be taken when the need ar#se. For example according

to A b u 'l Fazl twenty six routes connected Kashmir with

India1?8 and the same was the case with other routes which

connected Kashmir to the other parts e£ the world* These

different routes had their different characteristics* Some

were warmer but more d iffic u lt , while others were cold but

easy for passage* Thus those which were warmer were used in

199cold days and vice versa * As a result trade activities became

possible inspite of the high mountains which encircled the

valley*

197* (i) T .A# (text) p . 6ol (ii ) T .f * (text) f p . 342*

198* A*Aj(text) Vol. I I ; p* 350

199* (!) A.Af I I (text) p* 350 (ii) Tuzuk# (text) p* 303(ii i ) P .N .I . Chapter I I (te x t ); p p . 15-16.

460

However, the most important factor which contributed

te the development e f trade was the patronage e f the state

which may be b rie fly outlined as £ollewss«

The Sultans net only revived and enriched the eld

industries e£ Kashmir# but alse introduced a number of new

sues such as paper industry#' carpet in d u stry ^^ e tc . These

Industries were given full state patronage as a result

which Kashmir became heme ef arts and crafts and achieved

world wide fame as the producer of seme fine and unrivalled

pieces ®£ arts# which dominated the markets of a ll its

neighbouring countries. Besides due to the flourishing

industries, its scape widened as the greatest importer

of the raw material far same o f its advanced industries

like shawl industry.

Secondly the Sultans maintained ftftondly relations

with the rulers o f far e££ countries like ffars# Iraq#

S i j is tan, Gllan# Egypt#’ Mecca# besides the Indian

sub-continent# Persia and Central A s U ^ T h l s tremendously

widened the scope of external trade of Kashmir .-

200. Supra# pp

201 . Shrivara# p . ISo# ( I D T .A . (text) p . 603# (t il) T .P . (text) p . 304.

461

Another and most important step taken by the state

to promote the trade e£ Kashmir was the construction of a

network o f inns and places of protection within the city# in

2«2the v illages , close to the mountains and oven within the

forest* 203 to facilitate the journey of the traders and

travellers. It is important to note that same inns wore provided

not only with shelter arrangements but even food was provided

to them by the stato^^Besides, tanks were also constructed

close to the mountains for the benefit of the travellers2*®

Last but not the least step taken by the state was

to facilitate the transport of gvads aa far as they could.

Apart from constructing a number of permanent bridges in the

valley,' some Sultans like Zainu '1-.Abidin bu ilt a colony o f load

carriers at an important outlet , to make the transport available

to the traders near to the needful places, since the load carriers

were the only means ©f transport an the passes• A ll these factors

contributed ta the development of foreign trade of Kashmir during

our per iod.

202 . Jonaraja# p . 35

203 . Ibid# p . 82

204. Ibid# p . 36 . Jonaraja says that s'me rest houses b u iltby Zainu*l-Abidin at the outskirts of villages woro supported by v illagers.

20 « . Ib id ; p. 35

206 . Stein, Anc. Goo# p . 75^2

462

In return for the peace and prosperity which the

merchants enjoyed, they had te bear same charges. Custom

houses were established en the passes leading te the foreign

countries where the duties had to be paid &a the conmodltles

both imported as well as exported20! what was the rate of

duty paid on the articles is net known, however/ ws can

infer that the scales of customs dies were dlstlncly moderate

since there is net even a passing reference te shew that

exorbitant rates were charged on the commodities.

Besides# the main routes an which the custom houses

were posted# there were by-passes which were used oometimes

to escape from the country when the main routes used te be

properly guarded2?8 There is little roam to doubt that these

routes might have been alse sometimes taken by the traders

to escape from the levy of taxes on their goods or for

smuggling purposes or to escape frsm the passport system

introduced to regulate the course of commerce and te check

2qqunauthorised emigration or e s c a p e ™

Trading ..

A few words must be alse said about the fam ilies of

Kashmir the members o£ which had specialized especially In

207 . Jonarajaf p . 97 (il) Shrlvaraj p . 140

208. Jeaarajaj p . 66

2o9• (1) Shrlvara# p . 271# ( I D Sukaj p . 340

463

conducting the foreign trade. The most prominent

communities among the Muslims were 'A s h a te ^a k ?10#

Kawoosa2* } Katjee21? Nawchee2^ 3 Baaday2}:4 Ganle215 The

castes among the Hindus who also carried the trade are

sot known.

However# the doors for conducting trade were

not closed to other communities who did not possess the

hereditary wealth since as we have seen to use the medern

term banking was not unknown.

The paucity of material does not allow us to throw

any light on the composition o f forelcpa merchants who

conducted trade In the country.

It is Impossible ts> make even a rough estimate

of the net profit ©btaiaed by Kasimlr from foreign trade.

However# the passing evidences show that the merchants

gained considerable p ro fits . They were the wealthy men o f the

210 . T . Arlfln# ft 410a

211. Ibid# f .413b & 452b

212.’ -Cbldf f . 387b

213 . Ibldf f .340b

214 . Ibid# £ .488 a-b

2 1 5 . Ibid# £ .374 a&b>

464

society* Besides, we find Kashmiri merchants giv ing

"(£arzi feusana" even to the people ef far flung countries

like Kashgar21!

In short, the varied trade ef Kashmir benefitted

directly and indirectly every section e f the society.

It gave rise te a very prospers*** merchants cemmuntty

whose p ro fit was shared by the state, the labourer, the

broker, the money lender, the transporter e tc . I t gave

a boost to the indigenous industries which indirectly

benefitted the whole community.

Secondly K ashm iris foreign trade was not merely

an exchange of c«offleditles* I t also reflects the growing

understanding and friendship o f Kashmir with these countries

and their concern for one another's v ital needs*

Moreover, the fact that Kashmir has already a *

extensive experience over the past hundreds of years to

expand its trade with far* flung areas inspite of the

stumbling block o£ the means o f communication and other

d ifficu lties of then tiroes, is the firm guarantee that

in the coming days and years this mutually benef itted trade

relations would expand steedily in view e£ its importance

as a dominant factor in the economic growth and development

o f a country and the fact that Kashmir is now no more an

isolated country*

216* T . Ajrifin# (text) f . 38?a