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RECONSTRUCTING BENUE-CONGO PERSON MARKING I:PROTO-BANTOID

Kirill V. Babaev

Center of Comparative Studies,Russian State University for the Humanities, [email protected]

This paper is the first part of the compex comparative research of systems of personapronouns and person mar!ers in "enue#Con$o an$ua$es. %t aims at conductin$ a detaiedanaysis of the systems of person mar!in$ in "antu and "antoid an$ua$es, and reconstructin$the &roto#"antoid system of person mar!in$, a necessary step for achievin$ the &roto#"enue#Con$o reconstruction. This wi cover both the persona pronouns, and verba and nomina personaffixes. 'xistin$ hypotheses wi be verified and new ones wi be proposed for the ways oftransformation of the ori$ina person mar!in$ system into the systems of the present#dayan$ua$es of the famiy.

Cet artice est a premi(re partie de a recherche compexe comparative des syst(mes despronoms persones et mar)ues de personne en an$ues "enue#Con$o. *+artice a un obectif deconduire une anayse d-tai-e des syst(mes des mar)ues personees en an$ues "antoues et"antodes, et puis de reconstruire e syst(me des mar)ues personees pour "antode commune,un pas n-cessaire pour arriver / a reconstruction "enue#Con$o commune. Ce va courir tous esdeux es pronoms personnes independants, et es mar)ues de personne nominaes et verbaes.*es hypoth(ses existant vont 0tre v-rifi-es, et es id-es nouvees vont 0tre propos-es pour esroutes de transformation du syst(me ori$inee dans es syst(mes des an$ues de a famie dupresent.

1. %2TR34UCT%32

The $enetic reationship between the an$ua$es of the 2i$er#Con$o 52C6 famiywas first proposed by 7estermann 589:;6 and ater verified by 6. %t issomewhat pecuiar that the hypothesis caed ?2i$er#ordofanian+ by

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Iourna of 7est African *an$ua$es JJJK.8#: 5:11E6

etymoo$ica dictionary of 2i$er#Con$o was made by Mu!arovs!y 589;=#89;;68, overthirty years a$o. %n the 2C in$uistics, we ac! a $enera $rammatica overview of theproto#an$ua$e, or a basic system of phonetic correspondences soidy verified by athe stoc!s of the famiy. A paradox situation we are facin$ where the $enetic reation of

the an$ua$es of this hu$e famiy is admitted iteray ad hoc.This situation must be chan$ed in order to stren$then the foundation of the 2Chypothesis, and this shoud be done by means of the strict comparative method. %n theAfrican in$uistics of the past century, a number of ess reiabe methods were used toreach concusions about the prehistory of the continent+s an$ua$es, which has awaysbeen under critica fire. A $ood description of most of these methods is found in 53son:116, and we can ony briefy rete it here. The eariest, and probaby the east reiabeof them was the typoo$ica method which aimed at proposin$ an$ua$e affinitiesaccordin$ to their typoo$ica characteristics. However, this has been soidy proven tobe unreiabe, since phonetic features, morphoo$ica and syntactic structures can easiyarise in a an$ua$e due to re$iona infuences and outer borrowin$:. Usin$ this methodin morphoo$y, incudin$ person mar!in$, wi definitey ead us nowhere, since theparadi$matic systems of this part of morphoo$y vary $reaty in 2C, sometimes even

within one $roup of diaects.*ater, the method of ?mass+ or ?mutiatera+ comparison was introduced by

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"A"A'KBReconstructin$ "enue#Con$o person mar!in$ %B &roto#"antoid

The morphoo$y of 2C has been the subect of a number of successfucomparative research wor!s. The issue which attracted more attention than any othersis the noun cass system 57emers 89;8 4e 7of 89;8 Meeussen 89;=

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often caed ?non#ocutor+, the view supported in African in$uistics by Creisses5899>6. They are actin$ much coser in the nomina domain, usin$ cass a$reement andother nomina features. Moreover, in 2i$er#Con$o they often carry distinct si$ns oftheir comparativey recent ori$in from nouns or demonstrative pronounsB cf. Qande h

?it+ h ?thin$+, ! ?he+ "#$V%V ?man+ 5VWX :11EB 81#81D6 the Rin$an$ua$es of 6. The pace of "enue#Con$owithin the 2C macrofamiy proposed by

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4ia$ram 8Ni&er-C!'&!

ordofanian

Atantic#Con$oAtantic Mande

%o#Con$o

%oid4o$on#Con$o

4o$onKota#Con$o

"enue#wa

ru wa

Senufo[ Be'(e-C!'&!

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&ateau, aini and Iu!unoid famiies. However, as a ot of new materias appear aboutthe an$ua$es of the area, the precise composition and number of subbranches of"enue#Con$o is becomin$ cearer.

The atest cassification was presented in 57iiamson L "ench :1116 and

further adapted in sti unpubished 5"ench :116. This is based on vast data anaysedby the two authors and seems reiabe to date. Accordin$ to it, the "enue#Con$oan$ua$e famiy is $eneray divided into two maor branches, which in their turnincude ten stoc!s and three apparenty isoated ton$ues.

4ia$ram :Be'(e-C!'&!

7est 'ast

'doid %$boid 4efoid U!aan aini &atoid Iu!unoid

'!peye 2upoid 3!o %domoid "ete%$bo Centra

4eta \u!uben#uteb 2C 'bira#

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southwest of the confuence of the 2i$er and the "enue, to the west of city of 3!ene.Here, an$ua$es of at east three branches 54efoid, 2upoid, 'doid6 and three isoates53!o, U!aan, and A!pes6 are spo!en. This woud serve a nice ocation for a homeand.

Most $enera wor!s on "enue#Con$o 57iiamson 89;8, 89E9 Coo! 89;8

"ennett L Ster! 89;; "ench 89E96 are devoted to the issues of the famiy+scassification rather than to the comparative anaysis. There have been a few attemptsto reconstruct the "enue#Con$o proto#an$ua$e, even despite its dubious nature asnoted above. 4e 7of 589;8B D86 proposed the reconstructed phonetic system of whatis now caed 7est "enue#Con$o. However, as "ench 5:116 usty notes, he $aveitte ustification for his reconstructions. At the same time, "ench himsef proposes aphonetic system of &"C, which at present is the ony reference of the !ind, $ivenbeow. 4ifferent from that of 4e 7of+s, it contains more affricates, fricatives andimposives, and treats the "enue#Con$o vocaic system as ?;K+, instead of ?DK+ of 4e7of.

586 ConsonantsB

5:6 KowesB

5Prom "ench :11.6

Most of "enue#Con$o an$ua$es represent deveoped tona systems, whichpresupposes the same for &"C. The exact number and features of this system are yet tobe reconstructed, but most widespread structure contains three basic tonesB hi$h 5]6,ow 5^6 and midde, not mar!ed in this paper.

There is sti no systematic reconstruction of the &"C morphoo$y to date,thou$h )uite a number of comparative wor!s are avaiabe on its certain branches

5those wi be treated beow6. Koorhoeve L 4e 7of 589=96 and 4e 7of aone 589;86presented a $ood reconstructed noun cass system. 7e are not aware of anyreconstructions of &"C pronouns or subect mar!ers.

Pinay, athou$h we sti ac! a comparative etymoo$ica dictionary for thefamiy, the two#voumed "enue#Con$o Comparative 7ordists 57iiamson LShimiu 89=E 7iiamson 89;>6 were a $reat step towards it, as we as the 7estAfrican *an$ua$e 4ata Sheets 5ropp 4a!ubu 89;=#89E16, aso a vauabecompement for both morphoo$ica and exica data on "enue#Con$o.

8>;

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7e wi now $o throu$h the maor branches of the "enue#Con$o an$ua$efamiy, $atherin$ and systematisin$ data to contribute to the concusive obectives ofthis paper.

8. &R3T3#"A2TU."antu an$ua$es which are a part of the "antoid stoc!, are most numerous 5D8>

an$ua$es6 within the "enue#Con$o famiy and have been studied very we over theast 8D1 years. A number of detaied reconstructions for the &" pronomina systemhave been proposed in the recent fourty years, and there is not much we can do tocontribute here but to compare our own anaysis with the most credibe of the existin$reconstructions and to $enerate a subse)uent su$$estion of the consensus version.

B 8=D 2urse :11;B >=;#>=96.

Since B 8;>#8;96. They are basedon both exica $roupin$ 5the Tervuren $roup extensivey used exicostatistics6 and theanaysis of innovations in morphoo$y. They ony more or ess a$ree that the2orthwestern an$ua$es of the "antu area, comprised 5mosty6 of A, " and C $roups,with sometimes a contribution from northern H and others, shoud be emphasied asthe first $roup to fa apart &". *ater subdivisions of the remainin$ stoc! 5one of themcaed Savanna "antu6 are sti under discussion. Therefore, the ony subcassificationfeature that oo!s reiabe by now is the division between 2orthwestern 5ones A, ", C6and other "antu an$ua$es.

The phonetic system of &" as it was posited by Meeussen 589=;6 and ustified byHyman 5:11>B :6 and Schadeber$ 5:11>B 8=6 mi$ht have oo!ed the foowin$ wayB

5>6 consonants vowels) * + , bN /Nl 0N1 &N2 i (

3 ' e ! a

The number varies from 1 to =E1 accordin$ to different estimations 52urse L &hiippson :11>aB:6.

8>E

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7hat is uncear for the consonant reconstruction, is a6 whether the second rowconsisted of voiced stops or continuants, and b6 whether the two paatas "+ and "0were stops or affricates 5or whether they were denta "4 5 "6at a6. A specia set ofprenasaied consonants is sometimes reconstructed. As for the vowes, the ?;K+

scheme above seems to enoy $enera consensus, with the ton$ue root positionadvanced in the hi$her row 5_ATR6 or retracted 5#ATR6. %t is usuay accepted aso thatan$ua$es of $roups A and " modified the ori$ina &" system of phonemes )uitesi$nificanty 5Hyman :11>B DE6.

7e can estimate that persona mar!ers of around :11#:D1 "antu an$ua$es havebeen described so far in more or ess detai, and of them, we wi use over 8D1an$ua$es in the present wor! 5see Appendix6. The comparative wor! in this fied todate has been however much scarcer. The first )uaity comparative anaysis of "antupersona mar!ers was done by "ee! 58E=:#8E=96 and ater foowed by Torrend 58E98B8DD#8;16 with a wider covera$e of an$ua$es. The comparative $rammar by Meinhof5891=6 described re$uarities and pecuiarities in the system of persona pronouns andreconstructed some proto#forms, athou$h )uite superficiay. The &" system wasunder the carefu oo! startin$ ony from Meeussen 589=D 89=;6, who made an attempt

to reconstruct the whoe paradi$m of bound persona mar!ers of the four seriesBsubect, obect, possessive, and stressedB

Tabe 8.8

Person subject object possessive stressed

8s$. "'-

" 7"-'- "89 "i; -'-

:s$. "(- "-(- "-8< "!- 78p. "*(- "-*(- "-8;=< "i; ->

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Tabe 8.>

Person subject object

8s$. "N- "-N-

:s$. "- "--8p. "*- "-*-:p. "3- "-3-

Pinay, the atest research which contributed to the probem was 2urse 5:11;B>;;6 which contains a reconstruction of subect mar!ers based on an extensive databaseof "antu verb morphemes $athered by the author, and $eneray identica to those ofthe predecessorsB

Tabe 8.

Person subject

8s$. "',-:s$. "-8p. "*-:p. "3-

Athou$h a number of researchers described the systems of person mar!in$ in the"antu an$ua$es, there has been no specific wor! devoted to the subect so far.%nternay, there haven+t been substantia anaysis andNor reconstruction of personamar!ers in any sub$roups of "antu either. 3ne exampe to note here is contained in5Hedin$er 89E;6 which is a reconstruction of the proto#an$ua$e for Manen$uba, asma custer of diaects cassified as $roup A8D 5considered by many as a "antoidan$ua$e, see beow6.

To consider the ori$ins of persona mar!ers, it is essentia to anaye bothindependent pronouns and persona mar!ers of the verb to$ether, since they are verycosey connected both $eneticay and typoo$icay, which was observed aready on$a$o 57erner 8989B E=6. The "antu an$ua$es are considered as ?verby+, i.e. the verboccupies a centra position in any syntactic construction and in the morphoo$icasystem in $enera 52urse L &hiippson :11>aB E6. Thus, in the maority of "antuton$ues the person mar!er is in most cases buit into the verba form as an affix. 2urse5:11;B >;D6 $ives the foowin$ structure of the verba form for &"B

56 &re#SM _ SM_ 2'

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A#" ones, some C and H one ton$ues. %n some of them, the independent pronoun isnecessary to use in the phrase to$ether with the subect prefix.

Since the &" an$ua$e is usuay reconstructed with bound mar!ers, it is stiunder discussion how to treat the independent pronouns of the 2orthwest. Meeussen

589=;6 considered &" persona mar!ers as dependent parts of an infectiona verbaform. Therefore, independent pronouns in certain "antu ton$ues were considered byhim an innovation. %t was ater su$$ested by 2urse L &hiippson 5:11>B 8;;6 that theindependent subectNobect pronouns coud be an area deveopment of some of the2orthwest "antu $roups 5A1#AE1, ":1, ";1, C:1 etc.6 accepted under the infuenceof some other adacent 2C an$ua$e branches. %ndeed, it is !nown that the anayticapattern where subectNobect mar!ers act independenty is widespread in the so#caed?Macro#Sudan bet+ from 7est Africa to 'thiopia north of the rainforest area, and themaority of 2C an$ua$e famiies share this feature, so "antu an$ua$es seem a ratherrare exception 5to$ether with ony some Atantic, ordofanian, Iu!unoid and few"antoid ton$ues6 52urse :11;B ::#:>6.

At the same time, there is an idea that "antu coud have morphoo$ised theori$inay independent persona pronouns into bound verba mar!ers which was

su$$ested aready decades a$o by

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-'/Qi-#a%3 5 -3- 5-3a- 5 -3i- 5-3bi- 5 -3

-i-

&! 5 -#(%&e-(- 5 -!--'e- 5 -'!- 5-'/-

-e4 5 -i4 5 -a4! 5-4e 5 4(-h( 5 #h%i-

-'1! 5 -e 5'('i-3(- 5 3i 5 bi-l!- 5 -l- 5 l( 5h(-!-

possessivepronoun Naffix

-a3#e% 5 -e3#e%5 -3 5 -3! 5-#a%3i-a'e 5 -a'i 5-#a%'&( 5 -'&a 5-'&e 5 -'&(-aa 5 -a! 5-#a%a

-!-ae 5 -(e 5-#a%!-&! 5 -!&e 5-2!-!be -a!#a%( -!

-#a%4! 5 -4e 5

-#a%4( 5 -( 5 -i4-a*! 5 -i* 5 -i*( 5-e*! 5 -*h( 5 -er(5 -ir( 5 r!-

-' 5 -i' 5 -#a%'!

5 -#%'( 5 -a#!%5 -i( 5 -e'1(l!-

stressed5emphatic6

pronoun

3 5 a3 5 a3i5 a3e 5 i3 5

e3e 5 e3i3e3 5 3' 53'i 5 3e'! 53e'e 5 3!'!''e 5 ''a 5 i'i 5e'i 5 'e'e#a%'&a 5 #a%'&e

!e 5 (e 5ae 5 5

ie 5 &ee 5'#a%

i4 5 a4 5 #i%4! 5#e%4( 5 -#V%4e 5

#e%4e 5 -4i4 5 4e4e5 -4! 5 *4ehe-i*( 5 i*! 5 -e*! 5-i*h( 5 *e#1e%hi-r!-

3e 5 #i%3i

a 5 i'( 5 #i%'!5 e'( 5 -' 5 -e5 -'e 5 -'1e 5-a'( 5 e'i 5

ee 5 -#a%'e 5'('ih(l!-

%t is worth $oin$ throu$h the forms in the chart to catch some systematic comparativedata.

1st person singular

%t is obvious that the bound persona mar!er shoud be reconstructed as "i-. Thepaata character of the nasa here is seen easiy. The 8st person sin$uar subect prefixis i- in wa!um 5A986, &unu 5">6, 2ande 54:6,

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vocaic shifts in the modern an$ua$es of the famiy are not yet cear, however, thevowe chan$e 5forms i!e 'a- 'e-6 coud express some tenseNaspect or mood meanin$s.

Porms derived from "i-are aso often used to mar! the direct obect. However,they are much more rarey used as possessives or stressed pronouns. %nstead, the other

pronomina root is used in these meanin$s which we reconstruct as "3e.Since the homor$anic "N- woud suppose "3-before abias, it was su$$ested by

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the proto#an$ua$e form shoud have been "\3e.Meinhof 5891=B >D6 su$$ested thatthe prefixed vowe here ori$inated from a demonstrative partice "2a- whichaccommodated its vowe to the foowin$ vowe of the word it was attached to, with "2ater dropped. This view was supported by 7erner 58989B E=#E;6. 7e shoud rather

a$ree with a ater view that this prefixed eement must have been an associativemar!er, )uite widespread across "enue#Con$o, see more detais in the "antoid sectionbeow.

"oth prefixes in possessive and emphatic forms tend to show the ow tone, whichwe therefore reconstruct for &".

Second, in a number an$ua$es throu$hout the famiy the stressed pronouns aresubect to redupication or party redupication 5forms i!e "3e3e "3e36, which istypoo$icay natura for their emphatic meanin$. As we wi see beow, these twofeatures can be stretched out to a pronouns, not ony the 8st person sin$uar. Anotherextension is "-'V5"3e'e6 a$ain habitua a across the paradi$m, and seen in "enue#Con$o beyond "antu.

Havin$ considered this, we may reconstruct the foowin$ three sets of &" formsfor the 8st person sin$uar pronounsB

5D6 "i- subect prefix"#\%3e non#subect pronoun 5obect, possessive6"#]%3e stressed independent pronoun

There are some other 5most probaby innovative6 roots used for the 8st personsin$uar pronouns in "antu. 3f them, et+s mention twoB

i- 5 1i-was recenty su$$ested by \vonne "astin to have a &" ori$in. Sti, wethin! that it is rather a drop of the initia "- X "1- X 6er!, )uite a commonphonetic shift noted outside "antu too.

i- 5 -for subect mar!ers 5ones &, S6 and -aaN -a! 5 -Yafor possessivemar!ers 5ones ', &, S6 and 4i- 5 i- 5 *4i- for subect mar!ers are portmanteauforms, in the atter case with the ne$ative mar!er 5*amba MD '- positive vs.'4i- ne$ative6.

2nd person singular

%n the :nd person sin$uar, it can be shown that the maority of an$ua$es of the"antu famiy aso tend to base their pronouns on two ori$ina roots. 3ne of them, as isceary seen, is k! 5 "(, a bac! vocaic root which is found primariy in the subectseries of pronouns a across the "antu area. The non#abiaied variant is morewidespread in 2orthwestern ones A#C, ocated not far from the "antu ori$inahomeand 57atters 89E9B 8:6 whie the abiaied one dominates ones P#S, which are

sometimes considered more archaic. The &" reconstruction is therefore "- as wassu$$ested on$ before the author of the present paper was born. 7e can ony add a toneto this reconstructionB it was ow, as shown in amost a "antu ones.

Por possessive and independent pronouns the most reiabe modes are #V%ereaised phoneticay aso as #V%&e #V%be. The prefixed vowes here seem the sameas in the 8st personB "\- for the possessive form, and "]- for the stressed pronoun5thou$h the atter is not that evident here6. As for the status of the root consonant,

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shifts 589=;#;8, vo. 8B ;86, is supposed to be preserved as a abia stop in a number ofan$ua$es and even whoe an$ua$e ones which, on the contrary, a show "-- 5"-&-.The ori$ina sound of this form coud have rather been an obstruent "5cosereven to " than to "b6 thus uphodin$ the reconstructions of obstruents for &". %t is a

fricative abiodenta phoneme which can more easiy $enerate sounds i!e & &and b which we observe in the pronomina forms of the maority of seected "antuton$ues.

The obect mar!er root amost everywhere in "antu is -(-N -!-. This suffix isvery pecuiar since it beon$s excusivey to the obect set of persona mar!ers and hasno modifications. %t is not used as an independent pronoun or a possessive affixBB >1:6 mentions some exampes of possessives but admits theycan hardy be connected with the verba suffix. (-sometimes denotes subect but insuch cases its secondary roe can be shownB it is used either diaectay with morecommon ( 5ones ', =6. Some other forms mi$ht have been borrowedB e.$., 4o!o C /`-must be a oanword from some nearby Uban$i an$ua$e.

1st person plural

The most widespread root for the subect and obect mar!in$ is *V- 5reaied as*(- *i- *!- l!- h!-etc.6, for which the proto#form is usuay reconstructed as "*-.

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pronouns with a simiar root, but with a different voweB "i*( "a*(, "*(e, which shoudbe mixtures with the second root beow.

This second one, the most widespread mode for stressed and possessive personmar!ers, is #V%4e 5 4e which shoud ori$inate from &" "+e 5 "+(e. The vowe is

de$ree one which causes frication of "+B cf. *u$anda e 5Hyman, p.c.6. This formacts mainy as an independent pronoun and is )uite rarey found in the subect or obectseries. The most fre)uent modes are i-4e 4e and be-4efor stressed independentpronouns, and -a4 or -a4e for possessive suffixes. The "antu puraity prefix "ba-5noun cass :6 as the part of the independent pronoun can be reiaby reconstructed onthe &" eveB the independent pronoun kb-+#(%eis found in ones A, C, 4, P, and H.The front vowe of "b- can be expained by ba- -]- 5Hyman, p.c.6.

The phonetic nature of &" "+ is sti uncear. %t is worth notin$ that modern"antu an$ua$es very rarey have + in these forms, most have a sibiant or, underfurther pro$ress, a voiced vear fricative h. 7e here tend to su$$est the &" "+ wasrather a sibiant not an affricate.

The an$ua$es usin$ both k*- and k+#(%efor different meanin$s are fre)uent inmost "antu ones and are found in the same phonetic surroundin$s, which ma!es them

impossibe to derive from the same &" root.

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conunction "'i ?and, with+ _ :s$. pronoun "(. This hypothesis, however, seems a bitweird from a typoo$ica point of view.

As the resut, we may su$$est the foowin$ reconstructionB

5E6 "3- subect prefix"\'(#e% non#subect pronounk#b-%'(#e% 5 ]'(#e% stressed pronoun

There are two more mar$ina roots we can identify for the :nd person pura mar!ersB

"/(- 5 "l(-for the subect series 5ones A, ", C, 4, H, S6 l this can be a phoneticshift of an earier "'(, )uite fre)uent in other "enue#Con$o an$ua$es.

"a for the obect series 5ones 4#

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three sets of persona mar!ers in the modern "antu an$ua$es. The "-- form shoudbe an innovation for the obect series, introduced in order to distin$uish subect andobect for the most important type of discourseB an address of the 8st person to the :ndperson. %f we su$$est ri$ht sayin$ that the possessive pronouns used to denote a $enera

obi)ue or obective meanin$, then ater, as their meanin$ shifted to possessive, a newobi)ue mar!er appeared to be necessary, especiay for the :nd person. This is how"--may haveappeared, and this too! pace aready in the &" period.

The ori$in of "-- coud be an externa borrowin$ or rather a &" internainnovation made for more distinct differentiation between the subect and the obect inthe :nd person sin$uar.

Therefore, the &" pronomina system reconstructed on the basis of internaanaysis, oo!s the foowin$B

Tabe 8.=

1sg. 2sg. 1pl. 2pl.

subect"i-

_- =^_- "3-

obect "--possessive "#\%3e "#\%e "#\%+(e "#\%'(eindependent "#]%3e "#]%e "i+(e 5 "#b-%+(e "i'(e 5 "#b-%'(e

To summarie the evidence eadin$ to this reconstruction, et+s once a$ain emphasisethe stron$est pointsB

8. 3f the 5$eneray6 four series of the persona mar!ers in the present#day "antuan$ua$es, two pronoun roots can be reconstructed for &". 3ne of them wasprefixed to the verb root and mar!ed the subect, the other was independentand non#subect, i.e. mar!in$ the obect and the possession. The obect did not

have a specia series of pronouns, and the ony 5innovative6 form which wasdesi$ned specificay for the obect in &" was the :nd person sin$uar suffixedform.

:. 2o phonetic environment can prove a common ori$in of both roots, as someauthors supposed they were ceary different in &".

>. &ossessive mar!ers and stressed 5emphatic6 pronouns typoo$icay descendfrom the sin$e pronoun form with the $enera non#subect meanin$.

. The narrow vowe in "b-versus a commony !nown puraity prefix "ba- canbe expained by an earier contamination "ba-]'(e X "be-'(e5Hyman, p.c.6.

The paradi$m we reconstruct as based on the opposition of two ori$ina sets is onyparty supported by previous reconstructions, as seen in the charts above. Meeussen589=;6 accepts this duaism for both pura pronouns, and apparenty finds a threeroots for the :nd person sin$uar.

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an$ua$es of "antu 5"aboe C:16 which seems to be rather cose to the ori$ina &"situationB

Tabe 8.;

Person subject object possessive stressed

8s$. ']- \3j \3j \3j:s$. `- \j \j \j8p. *`- b[4d b[4d b[4d:p. b`- b['d b['d b['d

Here we see how the forms of a four rows act accordin$ to the same pattern. Tworoots are used, one for the subect, the other for the rest of the meanin$s. 3bect,possessive and stressed series coincide with each other. The same prefix is used for thesin$uar non#subect pronouns, and another one l for the pura non#subect forms.Pinay, the tone structure is unified for a subect pronouns, and the same for

non#subect ones. %.e., we see numerous systematic features for the whoe paradi$mwhich, if we ac!ed one or two of its members, woud aow us to reconstruct them)uite easiy.

The pattern is certainy not so precise everywhere. However, we are abe to trac!some paradi$matic system in a modern an$ua$es, and there is no $rounds to thin!that a !ind of system was ac!ed in the proto#an$ua$e. Unfortunatey, no earierresearch can present us with a o$icay based system rather than a set of odd exicareconstructs.

Since the &" period, the system we reconstruct has under$one a number ofsi$nificant chan$es, eadin$ to its present shape in the an$ua$es of the famiy. Themost important was the fiin$ of the obect pronoun set by either the subect boundforms or by derivatives of the independent pronoun.

The anao$ica evein$ of oppositions within the paradi$m of persona mar!ers

has aso been si$nificant. %n a number of an$ua$es, a the series of pronouns are basedon the same root 5"asaa 3?%, me 5sub., ob.6+, 3'?% 5stressed6+. %n the four &oveforms *`- ?% 5sub.6+, #*k-?me 5ob.6+, -\*k?my 5poss.6+,]*k?% 5stressed6+ two first aredervied from "*-but the two ast ones are anao$icay produced repacin$ "\+( 5"]+(. Sometimes, forms of the sin$uar and the pura of the same person coincided lanother common typoo$ica trait for the word an$ua$es 5cf. Umbundu R ( ?you5s$.Np. ob.6+6. Pinay, the vowe unification has in some cases made a pronounssound simiar, so the ori$ina vocaism disappeared.

:. &R3T3#"A2T3%4

The number of the "antoid an$ua$es reaches =E8, ato$ether with the "antufamiy which ma!es up to ;D of this tota fi$ure;. They are spo!en in 'astern 2i$eriaand in most areas of adacent Cameroon. The cosest nei$hbours of the"antoid#spea!in$ peope are various other "enue#Con$o an$ua$e spea!ers to the 7estand 2orth 5mosty Cross River, %domoid, and Iu!unoid6, Adamaua spea!ers to the2orth#'ast, and "antu to the 'ast and South.

The an$ua$es of the "antoid stoc! have a much shorter in$uistic tradition thanthe "antu famiy. Thou$h some of them were first noted and recorded in the eary 89thcentury, it too! a $reat whie since then to come to the $enera issues of cassification,

;%n the present section, for the sa!e of o$ica se)uence, we wi use the term ?"antoid+ to denote aan$ua$es of this stoc! excudin$ the "antu famiy uness specified.

89

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comparative research and the definition of the pace the "antoid ton$ues shoud ta!ewithin the 2C macrofamiy. Moreover, the data for the maority of "antoid an$ua$eshas been sowy comin$ into the hands of schoars mosty in the previous two or threedecades, and sti many an$ua$es we ony !now by name. As a resut, very scarce

wor! in comparative morphoo$y of the "antoid an$ua$es exists.The very term ?"antoid+, introduced by rause 58E9D6, was initiay used todenote a number of an$ua$es of 2i$eria and Cameroon which, athou$h carryin$ someparticuar resembances to "antu, were $eneticay unreated with the atter. Startin$from 6 wor!, where he first su$$ested that the "antu an$ua$es werein fact a subbranch of the ar$er "antoid famiy, the meanin$ of this name has chan$edaccordin$y. Ba'*!i/

2orth South

Ti!ar Iarawan4a!oid Mambioid

"eboid Tivoid '!oid Mbe Mamfe "uru 6, and in some of the ater

8D1

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cassifications 5Se$erer :11E6. There is a hypothesis of puttin$ the Manen$ubaan$ua$es of "antu 5$roup A8D in

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The $enera observation of the pronomina systems in the "antoid an$ua$esdemonstrate that the pronouns tend to be independent from the verb form, uni!e in"antu. 7here they are not, subect mar!ers serve as prefixes to the verb root, andobect ones as suffixes. However, in Iarawan two sets of obective pronouns either

immediatey foow subect mar!ers 5set 86, or a tempora affix is inserted betweenthem 5set :6. &ossessive pronouns often serve as the indirect obect ones. %n most"antoid ton$ues, there are fewer series of persona mar!ers than in "antuB subect andobect pronouns are often identica, there is no specia cate$ory of emphatic 5stressed6pronouns, and an$ua$es where a the four basic meanin$s which are distin$uished in"antu are served by the same pronoun are not uncommon.

%ndependent possessive pronouns are usuay formed by means of addin$ a cassprefix, cf. in "afut 5Tamani :11=6B

596 ]-Zb -m 1-m89#statue 89#my 89#themy statue, the statue of mine 5the one we have been ta!in$ about6

%n such a construction, possessive affixes often become hi$hy fective and are hard toseparateB e.$., in 'simbi the :nd person sin$uar possessive pronouns for variouscasses are e4i b v(, where the consonanta cass prefix can be distin$uished, butthe vocaic persona eement variesE. %t is interestin$ to note that this mode, which iscommon pace in "antoid, is derived from the foowin$ modeB

5816 V 5vowe assimiated by the foowin$ sound6 l cass prefix l possessivepersona mar!er,

where the initia V is an ori$inay independent association partice, otherwise caedassociative mar!er 5AM6, co$nate to the "antu "\- which precedes any attribute,nomina or pronomina. Compare the bound forms of 'simbi -6-i ?your+ 5s$., cass 96

and \emba de-0-(id. 'simbi -bh-3?my+ 5cass :6 and \emba de-)-nid., with thesti free partice in enyan$5886 ba-a n b-a

:#cats AM :#mymy cats 5Ramire 899EB D6

which is structuray identica with a nomina construction i!e 3!u0j3 -a'?dreamof a chid+ 5"ood 8999B =6.

Another common feature of the "antoid pronouns is the wide use of compoundforms for au$mented person mar!in$. "y mer$in$ two simpex pronouns, many"antoid an$ua$es construct new pronouns for dua, incusive and other extendedmeanin$s. These compounds sometimes ma!e the pronomina system amain$y richB7iesemann 589E=B viii6 caims that

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3vera, we can say that the diversity amon$ the forms and the paradi$ms within"antoid is far $reater than in "antu, which is understandabe from a chronoo$icastandpoint, since "antoid is a much oder famiy.

%n the charts beow, we wi demonstrate pronomina forms from a chosen set of

"antoid an$ua$es of different subbranches.1st person singular

Tabe :.8

subject object possessive stressed /emph

Samba#4a!a 52,4a!oid69

p_ p_ 3 '`

4on$ 52, 4a!oid681 bMambia 52,Mambioid688

3 3e 3! 3e

Kute 52, Mambioid,Su$a#Kute68:

3i 3i 3!` 3i

Ti!ar 5268> 3_ 3 g 3s'1jtu _p u 3

3

Tiv 5S, Tivoid68 3gw 3_w 3d -3g- 3k -a3 -n&h -nv 3kMesa!a 5S, Tivoid68D 3- 3] 3]'simbi 5S, Tivoid[6 3e- 3n- i3i -3i -3 -3( i3i2a!i 5S, "eboid68= 3[ 3]2oni 5S, "eboid68; 3e N- -e3Mbe 5S68E 9_- -x -3y 5

-3z-3y

enyan$ 5S,Mamfe689 3 '- 5 -

3 -a p_p_

*imbum 5S,Z6:8*imbum possessive prefixes are aophones, dependin$ on the foowin$ sound.::57ard 89>E6, 5Hombert 89E16

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subject object possessive stressed /emph

\emba 5S,8

3y

Mbua 5S, Iarawan6 3yy3 3yy3uun$ 5S, Iarawan6 3i'n3 33i'n3

4u$uri 5S, Iarawan6 3yThe foowin$ observations can be made out of the $iven chart.

The subect pronoun is based on "3e. Porms in '-, the denta sonant, arewitnessed in

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The possessive pronouns either have the independent form "3V where the vowemay sometimes differ from that of the subect form, or "-\3in case they are suffixed.%n the former case, it is the nomina system that sometimes dictates the vocaismB e.$.,in Kute, the additiona en$thenin$ or a vocaic syabe is added to possessive

pronouns ust i!e to any noun in associative form 5Thwin$ 89E;B =D6. Suffixedpossessive mar!ers add the association partice "-\-which was aready mentionedabove, and have reduced their fina vowe. The resuted "-\3was reduced to -a inthose an$ua$es 5i!e enyan$, *imbum, "amum6 where the fina "-3 was droppedeverywhereB

58:6 Tiv]-9p_?anima+ "amie!e '\3, *amnso+ -n3 om -np_,but enyan$ -\"amie!e b_p_?bey+, *amnso+ -gp_, but *imbum -bTiv [-[3n ?heart+ "amie!e *c3, om]-*j3but enyan$ -=gTiv '3-b!r ?ton$ue+, "amie!e ld3, *amnso+ -ln3 om lj3[,but *imbum ld enyan$ -g etc. 57iiamson L Shimiu Y89=EZ7iiamson Y89;>Z Piore L &ec! Y89E1Z6.

Since in the maority of "antoid an$ua$es subect pronouns are morphoo$icayindependent, the domain of stressed pronouns in the ri$htmost coumn of the chartabove remains to mar! emphasis. A possibe morphoo$ica means for this isredupication seen in enyan$ and Mundani. %n "antu, as we remember, it is aso avery widespread construction. %n many "antoid an$ua$es, however, stressed pronounsare not used as a specia series and are identica to the subect pronouns.

The obect mar!ers in "antoid are used everywhere, but do not constitute a specificsetB they are identica to either the possessive forms, or the subect forms, as is cearyseen in the chart above. The obect series is seen here as an innovation, ust i!e in"antu proper.

To summarie, here are the forms of &roto#"antoid 8st person mar!ersB58>6 "'- subect 5prefixed6

"3e non#subect 5obect, stressed, possessive6"-\3 possessive

%n the 2nd person singular, we observe the foowin$ formsB

Tabe :.:

subject object possessive stressed /

emphatic

Samba#4a!a

'n m\ __

4on$ 'Mambia

+i Kute ( ( !` (Ti!ar 5 s s 1s 5 b 5 4 s 5 sTiv da c d c d -!( dMesa!a ]- _ _'simbi !- - (v( v(

8DD

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2a!i n

2oni ! ! -(Mbe `- - 5 - -

enyan$ - g - *imbum _w _w

1g- g- lg- 3g- _w "amum ! -! -(5tone6\emba ` s s -("amie!e k k ] k ` -` ]Mundani \ _ -_

\_Meta \ _A$hem ` `*amnso+ ~_w ` ~_w om \ v\ -\ va

Iarawa n' *n 5set 86,n 5set :6 -a' -a'5afternasas, s6,]_g95arch.6 n'

"waa d]Mbua duun$ 1kk4u$uri

The common modes for the subect pronoun here are "! "(and "!5e. "oth seemto correspond phoneticay with the "antu forms, which are reconstructed above as "-5prefixed subect mar!er6 and "V-e5non#subect pronoun6. There is a cear distinctionin "antoid between forms in ! and in ( 5 ( 5 ewhich cannot be traced bac! to thesame proto#an$ua$e root. More o$ica woud be to su$$est that in &roto#"antoid therewere two pronouns, one of them "!-5"antu k- the prefixed subect form6, the otherone "!5e5the non#subect independent form6.

Some "antoid forms with both !and a5mcan be co$nate to &" " zthe exica correspondences indicated in 5"ench :116. The possessive suffix, where itis different from the subect pronoun, is "-(or "-(, which is a reduced subect formwith a homor$anic associative partice in the front.

7e can reconstruct &roto#"antoid forms for the :nd person sin$uar pronounsB

586 "`- subect5prefixed6"#\%! 5 "e non#subect"-(#% possessive

1st person plural:

Tabe :.>


emphatic

Samba#4a!a n n kk4on$ vrMambia bele5dua6 bele5dua6 bele5dua6 bele5dua6

8D=

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subject object possessive stressed /emphatic

v(5inc.6bel5exc.6

v(5inc.6bel5exc.6

v(5inc.6 v(5inc.6bel5exc.6

Kute '[3 '[3 '[3 '[3Ti!ar b( 5 b[ b( 5 b[ _u u b[ Tiv 4d#a% 4e -4d- 4dMesa!a ]- b]h] b]h]'simbi 4i- #%bh4 #%bh42a!i ~g 4]2oni be4e bee'e5inc.6 -4e4eMbe d- -#%1 -#%1enyan$ 4- _ - _*imbum

4_5dua645inc.6

r5exc.6

4_5dua645inc.6

r5exc.6

4_-5dua64# 5inc.6

dr- 1dr-ldr- 3dr-5exc.6

4_5dua645inc.6

r5exc.6

"amum ) )! -=_5inc.6,-5exc.6

5tone6\emba )`k5dua6

pgq_5inc.6) 5exc.6

(5dua61[3)5inc.6e5exc.6

-e

"amie!e 5inc.6b\n&5exc.6

8w 8 uw

-n&

Mundani )n n -n b\n

Meta *] jnA$hem 8w _5inc.6

&h\Y 5exc.68w _5inc.6

&h\Y 5exc.6*amnso+ `4`5dua6

_ '5inc.6_5exc.6

`4` 5dua6

_ '5inc.6_5exc.6

s$. 4!p. v4!

5dua6s$. e4',p. ve4'

5inc.6s$. er,

p. ver5exc.6

`4` 5dua6

_ '5inc.6_5exc.6

om &he4i'\{

5inc.6&h45exc.6 &he4i'\5inc.6 -45inc.6&he4i5exc.6Iarawa 1[r...-[r *[...-#1%ir5set

86,'[...-#1%ir 5set

:6

-ir 1[r

"waa 4[3Mbua _p

>:Porms i!e this in om are often, more correcty, caed ?emphatic possessives+ 5"ood 8999B 886.

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subject object possessive stressed /emphatic

uun$ 4c34u$uri 4c

The "ba-prefix in both pura pronouns is a cear mar!er of noun cass : 5pura6,common for both "antu and "antoid an$ua$es. %ts initia correspondin$ soundsincude )- in \emba and 2$omba, and v-5- in *amnso+ and *imbum. However, whiein "antu it is used mosty in emphatic 5stressed6 pronouns, in other "antoid branches itacts in the subect forms too, a$ain for the simpe reason that the independent subectpronouns have repaced prefixes in the maority of the "antoid an$ua$es we oo!edthrou$h. %n Rin$ an$ua$es, another cass : concord prefix "&h- is used with the samefunction for both pura pronouns.

The common root for the 8st person pura mar!er is "4e. The Mesa!aobectNemphatic b]h] $oes bac! to "be4e which is found in cose 'simbi. Iarawanan$ua$es show "4(-where the vocaism is cose to &roto#"antu "+(-e. However, other"antoid $roups do not seem to have this "-(-, apart from probaby forms in - 5 v-5Samba#4a!a, Mambia6, which coud have under$one "+- X "-.

The Kute pronoun '[3is an innovation constructed anao$icay accordin$ to the:nd person pura sampe and usin$ the 8st person sin$uar -3.

The vocaic subect mar!er]-in Mesa!a is the puraity mar!er used in a thethree persons of the pura, and besides for the >rd person sin$uar 5]-4gg -&by vn?animas didn+t come+6 5Cassetta L Cassetta 899B =6. The use of independentpronouns in the verba phrase is obi$atory. 2ote that the A$hem incusive form n, aswas noticed on$ a$o, corresponds with the cass : 5pura6 mar!er n-5Hyman 89;96,so vocaic prefixes of the pura met here and there in "antoid seem to be non#personaby ori$in.

The cusivity 5and duaity6 feature in the pronomina system of a number of"antoid an$ua$es is a cear innovation, mosty ori$inatin$ its forms from the nomina

domain. The A$hem form in the previous para$raph is a $ood exampe in some otheran$ua$es incusive forms are compound by ori$in 5e.$. "amie!e bj6, the phenomenonwe discussed above, cf. 3!u possessive suffixes -458p. excusive6, -4! 58st dua6,-4e'58p. incusive6 5"ood 8999B E6.

%n the >6.

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The "amie!e 8st person pura pronouns with a fina - 5"be-6 is thedescendant of the same "+ 5Hyman, p.c.6 as the 2orthern and 7est

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2nd person plural:

Tabe :.


emphaticSamba#4a!a [ bc vc vZk'4on$ 3rMambia be'e5dua6

be'5p.6be'e5dua6

be'5p6be'e be'e

5dua6be'5p.6

Kute '1[ '1[ '1[' '1[ Ti!ar b[ b[ ] 5 b[ 5 4[ b[ Tiv 'd 'da 'e -e' -d'e- 'dMesa!a ]- _9 _9'simbi #%bh' #%bh'2a!i bn

b2oni be' 1! -'e#'% 1!Mbe d- .. -ly 5 -] -#%' -#%'enyan$ b _ -x _*imbum 1dd- dd- ldd-

3dd-

"amum -s'5tone6\emba ) -"amie!e b[ ;9 u ;9w 9 u

9-[' -9

Mundani b] - _8Meta 3bc nc

A$hem _ _*amnso+ _9 v' s$.e'p.ve'om 1] 6] 6] 6y &hiIarawa 1['...-[' *n...-#1%i'5set

86, n...-#1%i'5set :6

-i' 1['

"waa c'

%n the second person pura, there seems to be a mixture of various roots, but thereconstruction is easy. An obvious one is "#be-%'ewhich is seen in both main branchesof the "antoid stoc!. %t is present in a the series and has reiabe co$nates in thestressed pronouns of the "antu an$ua$es 5oonime A b,', "aboe C b['d Su!uma P

id, Kii H b'`, etc.6. &roto#Iarawan "c' 5in "waa, Mbua, uun$, 4u$urietc.6 su$$ests a different vocaism which may fit the &roto#"antu "be-'(e with adissimiation of the vowe after the drop of the pre#fina -(-.

Porms without the -'-are seen in those "antoid an$ua$es where the nasa wasdropped in the fina position or intervocay, which is a common feature in "amie!ean$ua$es 5cf. ?five+B 7iiamson 89;>B :=6. These forms have correspondences in"antu 2orthwestern one AB cf. "asaa A bee?you p. 5ob.6+, Ma!aa A b[. 3ther ofthem, i!e in 2a!i, are mere puraisations of the :nd person sin$uar with a puraaffixB 2a!i n 5 ?you s$.+ l bn 5 b ?you p.+ This is a fre)uent case in other"enue#Con$o an$ua$es 5cf. Cross River6.

8=1

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Mbe has aso $eneraised d- for two pura persons, and the -ly 5 -] suffixfoowin$ the verb root in the :nd person pura represents a continuous or occasionaaction respectivey 5&ohi$ 89E8B 8>6.

7e can therefore reconstruct for &roto#"antoid ony one formB

58=6 "#b-%'e 5 "'(e subect N non#subect

There is no evidence aowin$ us to distin$uish between the two series ofpronouns in the pura.

*et+s now compare the "antu system su$$ested earier in this wor! with the"antoid one we ust proposed.

Tabe :.D

Bantu Other Bantoid

subject nonsubject subject nonsubject

8s$."i-

"#\%3e "3e "'- "\3#e%

:s$. _- "#\%e "! "e8p. = _- "#\%+(e "#b-%+#(%e "#b-%+#(%e:p. "3- "#\%'(e "#b-%'#(%e "#b-%'#(%e

4espite stri!in$ simiarities, here are the maor differences we see between the twosystems in the chart.

%n "antu, there is a very cear distinction between the two series of personamar!ers. %t ies in both syntax and meanin$B a ?subect+ series pronoun isoverwhemin$y used as a bound form prefixed to the verb root, whie the ?non#subect+series is independent in the sentence. %n other "antoid an$ua$es, where personapronouns are mosty free, this distinction is seen ony when reic prefixes are

preserved. 3n the other hand, "antu subect prefix roots are amost fuy absent fromother "antoid ton$ues.An obvious concusion from these two facts woud be to su$$est that the "antu

subect series of pronouns was neary ost in other "antoid an$ua$es 5morepro$ressive from the morphoo$ica standpoint6, repaced by the independent pronounswhich ac)uired the function of the verb subect. The "antu subect set mi$ht have beena chronoo$icay earier ayer of persona mar!ers than the non#subect set which$raduay repaced the former in most "antoid an$ua$es. Some of them who preservedprefixation to$ether with the independent subect mar!in$ 5i!e Mundani6 sti havetraces of the od ?subect+ series.

To hi$hi$ht the difference between the two series, an interestin$ exampe can beconsidered from 2omaande, from "antu A1 $roup. This $roup is often considered as

beon$in$ to ?7ide "antu+ rather than to "antu proper, i.e. standin$ coser to otherSouth "antoid stoc!s. %ndeed, its pronomina system is a mixture of "antu and South"antoid eements. %n 2omaande, one verba phrase uses two subect mar!ers,accordin$ to the scheme beowB

58;6 &ronoun 8 l 5TenseNAspect6 l 5&ronoun :6 l Kerb Root,

where &ronoun : is used optionay, probaby for an emphatic purpose. %t mi$ht be seenthat &ronoun 8 corresponds with the "antu prefixed subect mar!ers, whie &ronoun : lwith the "antu stressed 5emphatic6 pronouns 5two aophones of each refect the voweharmony6B

8=8

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Tabe :.=

Pronoun 1 Pronoun 2

8s$. i 5 3i 5 3

:s$. ! 5 ! 5 8p.

*( 5 * 4( 5 4:p.

'( 5 ' '( 5 '"oth obect and possessive pronouns of 2omaande are co$nate with &ronoun : seriesand are ceary derived from them 53i 5 3?me+, -a3?my+6 5Tayor 89996. Thus, wecan witness the process of how the two systems may co#exist to$ether in one an$ua$e.This transitiona sta$e mi$ht have existed at some chronoo$ica point in&roto#"antoid, but then the &" chose the prefixed form to mar! the subect, whie other"antoid stoc!s $eneraised the syntacticay independent pronouns.

&" did not have a distinction between excusivity and incusivity. As for&roto#"antoid, we can confirm the sameB thou$h the maority of its sub#branches doshow this differentiation in some of their an$ua$es, it seems to have been deveopedinnovativey.

The reconstructed &roto#"antoid 5"antu incuded6 pronomina paradi$m can beviewed in the chart beowB

Tabe :.;

pre!i"ed #subject$ independent#nonsubject$

8s$."i- "#\%3e

:s$. _- "#\%e8p. = _- "#b-%+#(%e:p. "3- "#b-%'#(%e

After the dissoution of the &roto#"antoid community, the foowin$ processes appearto have ta!en pace in &"B

8. &refixed persona mar!ers became the basic means of mar!in$ subect in thesentence, whie the independent pronouns, which earier denoted obect, $ainedthe emphatic meanin$ and were attached to the nouns to form the possessivemar!ers.:. The new obect mar!ers appeared as suffixed forms inserted into the verba

form between the subect mar!er and the verb root 5or, in other cases, after theroot6. These new mar!ers were usuay the same as the subect mar!ers, thou$hcoud aso be borrowed from the independent pronouns.>. Amon$ the new obect mar!ers, "-- was an interna "antu innovation 5or aborrowin$ from some indi$enous an$ua$e6.

The other "antoid stoc!s, bein$ apparenty more pro$ressive 5as it is often the casewith the hi$hy diverse an$ua$es of the ?homeand+ re$ion6 have under$one differentchan$esB

8=:

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8. The prefixed series went virtuay extinct, and subse)uenty the person ismar!ed by the independent pronouns, which formery denoted the ?non#subect+.Some remnants of the od bound set of mar!ers are seen in the prefixes of the 8#:persons sin$uar, which are sti in use in a number of an$ua$es. %n )uite a few

ton$ues, they are used to$ether with the independent pronounsB enyan$ 3'-/g-g?% went+ 5Ramire 899EB 8>6, cf. aso the 2omaande exampe above. 2onihas $ot a N-prefix attached to every verb in a seriaisation chain.:. %n most an$ua$es, there remained two series of persona pronouns. 'mphaticforms are usuay buit by redupication of the non#subect pronoun, and obectforms are often made different from the subect by tona variation, because of theirposition in the verb form or the phrase.>. Most of 6 and "asaa 5Hyman, p.c.6.

. Some innovations appeared, incudin$ new pronomina roots which are yet to beexpained by historica anaysis. A of them are sub$roup innovations whichcannot be traced bac! to the &roto#"antoid eve.

*%ST 3P A""R'K%AT%32S.

exc. excusiveinc. incusivep.c. persona communication&" &roto#"antu&"C &roto#"enue#Con$o

p. puras$. sin$uar

A&&'24%J

Ba'*( Per4!'al Marer4

1st person singular

subject object possessiv

e

stressed /

independen

t

1. 3ro!o A88e _w 9 9_ 3ba:. A!oose A8D 3 5 N

>. Manen$uba A8D p_ "-3

. Mo!pwe A:: '\

D. 4uaa A: 'a

=. "en$a A> 3bi-

;. "asaa A> 3 3 3'

E. 2en A 3

8=>

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e

stressed /

independen

t

9. pa AD> 3a 5 N p_ _p p_

81. "afia AD> p_w 9_ p_ _p p_

88. 2u$unu A=: N-

8:. 'wondo A;:a 3

8>. "uu A; 3 3e

8. Ma!aa AE> p_ p_ -n3

8D. onime AE 3e 3e 3e'

5emph6

-x3 33

8=. wa!um A98 i __w ] &nn3b_ ]8;. a!o A9> 3i 5 N-

8E. Mpon$wee 5Myene6

"88a

3i 5 31

89. ota ":D 3#a%-

:1. Kiya ">18 3- -\p p#'[%

:8. Himba ">1: 3a 5 3 5 3e

::. Tso$o ">8 '\- -3n- -\3[ 3

:>. &ini ">> 'a -a1i ;p_

:. &unu "> '1i

:D. &ove 5Kove6 "> '\ -'[- p p9;

:=. 2ebi "D: 3

:;. 2dumu "=> '

:E. %yaa ";>c '- 5 'i-:9. "oma "E: '- 5 'a- 5with

ob6

>1. eyani "ED 3

>8. *e!e C8 i-5pos6 5ne$6 N-

>:. "aboe C:1 ']- 5 - 5 '- p p p

>>. Mboshi C:D [- '&n '&n

>. "oban$i C>: 'a-

>D. *in$aa C>= 'a- '&n[

>=. *in$ombe C8 'a-

>;. 4o!o CD1 '\- -3bi- 3b[

>E. ee CDD 'e- 5 i- -i- -h e3e

>9. Mon$o C=8 '- 5 '0V-

1. 2!en$o C=8 '1- -'1- -'n3[ e3i

8. ea C;D '- 5 '/- 5 '/!-

:. "ushoon$ CE> la- p 33ii3

>. *en$oa 48: 'i- 5 e- -i- -a3i e3i

. Mitu!u 48> 'i- 5 'e- -'- -a'i '

8=

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e

stressed /

independen

t

D. 'nya 48 '-

=. umu 4:> ',-

;. *e$a 4:D 'i- -,''e- -n'd ''e

E. Hoohoo 4:E '- 9_ -a'd ''e

9. "ia 4>1 3#i%- -3 -3i i3D1. 2yai 4>> 3(-

D8. 2ande 4: '1i-

D:. 2yan$a 4> -'-

D>. Ruri ':D> #e%'i-

D. Cha$$a '>1 -aa

DD. . 8 '- ,'e

;8. Remi P>: '&(- 5 (- -'&(- 5 -(-

;:. 2yaturu P>: '#e%-

;>. *an$i P>> '-

;.

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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e

stressed /

independen

t

E>. Hehe

E9. *aadi 5*aari6 H8=f '- 5 '0- 5 ']- 5 3- -3 -aa'i 3'k

91. Manyan$a H8=b '&i-

98. on$o H8= '/i- 5 i- N- -N- -'/i- -\3 3k'k

9:. 2tandu H8=$ '- 5 &i-

9>. Mbundu H:8 '&i-

9. Su!u H>: N- 5 1i-9D. Hun$u H>> i- 5 N- 5 '&i-

9=. Mbaa H8 i- 5 '- 5 '&i-

9;. Haya I ':: N- ie9E. Ha I 4== '- 0e#e%

99. Rwanda I 4=8 'a- 5 '-

811. 9_ -

81:. Co!we 88 '&(- -'&(-

81>. *uimbi 8: 'i-

81. *ucai 8> '0i-81D. *uvae 8 '&(- -'&(- \3i

81=. *wena 8 '&(- -'&(-

81;. *oi :8 '#i%-

81E. *uyana >8 #4%i- 5past6,']-

9_

-'i- -N- 3e'e

819. wan$ari >> 'i- -'&e- a3e

881. 4ciri!u >9 '#i%- -N- a3

888. Mbu!ushu 1 'i- -'i- #1%a3e

88:. %!uhane : 'i-

88>. weo *8> '&c- -'&(-88. ete *:8 '-

88D. Son$e *:> '-

88=. *uba *>1 '- --

88;. anyo! *>: 'n-

88E. aonde *8 '-

889. *unda *D: '[-

8:1. *uwunda *D> 'i-

8==

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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e

stressed /

independen

t

8:8. 2!oya *=: '[-

8::. &imbwe M88 '-

8:>. *un$u M8 -

8:. 2yi!a M:> '-

8:D. Safwa M:D i'-

8:=. 2dai M>18 N-

8:;. 2ya!yusa#2$onde M>8 '/i- 5 'i- -'/i- 'e

8:E. "emba M: 'a-

8:9. *amba MD '- '4i- #'e&%

8>1. *ene M=8 '/i- -'/i-

8>8. %a M=> #i%'- -'/-

8>:. 2dendeue 2818 'i-8>>. Tumbu!a 2:8 'i-

8>. 2yana 2>1 '/i-

8>D. Man$ana 2>8c '/i- -'/i-

8>=. Sena 2 '/i-

8>;. Matuumbi &8> '#%- -'- -an'&a 'ed'&a

8>E. \ao &:8 '- -'-

8>9. Mwera &:: '&(- 5 'i- 5 'a- -'&(-

81. Ma!onde &:> 'i- '&a- '&(-

88. Mabiha &:D '&(- 'i- -'&(-

8:. Ma!huwa &>8 #i%-8>. oti &>88 i-

8. Umbundu R88 '/#]%- 5 '/(- 5 '- -'/]- 5 -'/(-

5 -'-

8D. 2don$a R:: '/#i%- -'/0e- '&a3e

8=. Herero R>8 3b#]%- -'/0i- -n'/0d \3]

8;. \eyi R8 '/i- -'/i- 13d

8E. Shona S81 '/i- -'&s ]'[

89. Kenda S:1 '/]- -*h[- -N- -'&n 9_9

8D1. Tswana S>8a e- 5 ,- '- -N- 3 ''a

8D8. Sotho s. S>> Ye #]%- '- --8D:. Quu S: '&i- -3i 3]'n

8D>. Tswa SD8 -'&( 3]'n

8D. Tson$a SD> '/6]- -'/6]-

8DD. Copi S=8 -'&s \']

8D=.

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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2nd person singular


independent

1. 3ro!o A88 `- -`- !a:. A!oose A8D 5

>. Manen$uba A8D "- 7 - g. Mo#!pwe A:: `

D. 4uaa A: !-

=. "en$a A> !

;. "asaa A> (- '

E. 2en A !

9. "afia AD> ^_w _ - g g _81

.

pa AD> _ - g g _

88

.

2u$unu A=: 8:

.

'wondo A;:a !

8>

.

Ma!aa AE> _ `- kk

8

.

onime AE &a &! &! - -&'

8D

.

wa!um A98 _ __w _ & g g _

8=

.

a!o A9>

8;

.

Mpon$wee 5Myene6

"88a

`-

8E

.

ota ":D (

89

.

Kiya ">18 `- -_ g _9;

:1

.

Himba ">1: k-

:8.

Tso$o ">8 `- -2k- - g _::

.

&ini ">> !- _

:>

.

&ove 5Kove6 "> `- -2k- -_ g

:

.

&unu "> (

8=E

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

:D

.

2ebi "D: (

:=

.

%yaa ";>c c

:;

.

"oma "E: :E

.

eyani "ED 9

:9

.

"oma "E: 2- -2-

>1

.

*e!e C8 !-

>8.

Mboshi C:D ', - '>:

.

"aboe C:1 `-

>>

.

A!wa C:: !-

>

.

"oban$i C>: !-

>D

.

"oia C>Db !- -!-

>=

.

*in$aa C>=d!- -!- 1k 1

>;

.

*in$ombe C8 !-

>E

.

4o!o CD1 /`-

>9

.

ee CDD !- -- -h h1

.

Mon$o C=8 !- -!-

8

.

2!en$o C=8 (- -- -'n

:

.

ea C;D !-

>

.

"ushoon$ CE> a- -na -! '

.

*en$oa 48: !- -'d- -!1i !e

D Mitu!u 48> (- -(- -abd (e

8=9

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

=

.

'nya 48 !-

;

.

umu 4:> -

E

.

*e$a 4:D (- (&e kbd (&e

9

.

Hoohoo 4:E (- 5 !- -(- -!&d &e

D1

.

"ia 4>1 5 !5e - (eD8

.

2yai 4>> (-

D:

.

2ande 4: (-

D>

.

2yan$a 4> (- -(-

D

.

Ruri ':D> #!%(-

DD

.

Cha$$a '>1 -a!

D=

.

!5(5- (-5&(-5-

5&-

DE

.

i!uyu 'D8 o- --D9

.

Mashami '=:a (- -(- -a! #1%d

=1

.

Moahi '=:a !-5(- s- !-5(- -a)! [1`

=8

.

Hai '=:a (- -(-

=:.

7uno '=:b (-

=>

.

Rombo '=:c (- -s- 5 -(- -a! [

=

.

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

==

.

4i$o ';> - -- ee

=;

.

Taita 54awida6 ';a (- -(- -a! kh`

=E

.

Sa$aa ';b (- -(-

=9

.

Ton$we P81 (-

;1

.

Su!uma P:8 - -(- eee

;8

.

2yamwei P:: - -(- eee

;:.

2iamba P>8 - -- e

;>

.

Remi P>: (- -'&(- 5 -(-

;

.

2yaturu P>: -

;D

.

*an$i P>> -

;=

.

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

E;

.

in$a

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

81

;.

wan$ari >> !- -(- !ve

81

E.

4ciri!u >9 2(- 5 (- 5 - -(- !

81

9.

Mbu!ushu 1 &h(- -(- #1%!e

88

1.

%!uhane : (-

88

8.

weo *8> c-

88

:.

ete *:8 !-

88>.

Son$e *:> !- -(-

88

.

*uba *>1 c- (-

88

D.

anyo! *>: c-

88

=.

aonde *8 (-

88

;.

*unda *D: c-

88

E.

*uwunda *D>(-

88

9.

2!oya *=: c-

8:

1.

&imbwe M88 -

8:

8.

*un$u M8 c-

8:

:.

2yi!a M:> (-

8:

>.

Safwa M:D (-

8:

.

2dai M>18 (- 5 &(-

8:

D.

2ya!yusa#2$onde

M>8

(- 5 &(- 5

&-

-&(- 5 -&- 5

-(-

(&e

8:

=.

"emba M: (- -(-

8: *amba MD (-

8;>

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

8:

E.

%a M=> (- -'/-

8:

9.

2dendeue 2818 (-

8>

1.

Tumbu!a 2:8 (-

8>

8.

2yana 2>1 (-

8>

:.

2yana 2>1 (-

8>

>.

Man$ana 2>8c (- -(-

8>

.

Sena 2 (-

8>

D.

Matuumbi &8> - -- -an! ed'&a

8>

=.

\ao &:8 (- 5 3(- -3(-

8>

;.

Mwera &:: (- -(-

8>

E.

Ma!onde &:> (- -(-

8>

9.

Mabiha &:D (- -(-

8

1.

Ma!huwa &>8 (- -['1( na n!

8

8.

oti &>88 !-

8

:.

Umbundu R88 `- -(- kv

8

>.

2don$a R:: (- -c- '&!1d

8.

Herero R>8 -s- -(- -k `v

8

D.

\eyi R8 (- -c- 1d

8

=.

Shona S81 (- -(- -` ]d

8

;.

Kenda S:1 s- 5 - -s- 5 -- s ]

8;

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

8

E.

Sotho S. S>> 5 -- 5 --

8

9.

Quu S: (- -(- -h` 'n

8D

1.

Tswa SD8 -! 'n

8D

8.

Tswana SD> `- -&!- &a&! 'a

8D

:.

Tson$a SD> s- 5 - -(- 5 -s- 5 --

8D

>.

Copi S=8 -! ae

8D.

. A!oose A8D 4 5exc6,

/ 5inc6

. Manen$uba A8D "4y- "-\[

D. Mo!pwe A:: ]

=. Su A:> li

;. 4uaa A: /i

E. "en$a A> h( 5 h!

9. "asaa A> /i 4 4

81. 2en A *c

88. "afia AD> *]- 3]'[ -[4 3]'[

8:. pa AD> *]- 3]'[ -[4 3]'[

8>. 2u$unu A=: /e

8. 'wondo A;:a bi[

8D. Ma!aa AE> _5exc6

_5inc6

_5exc6

_5inc6

4c 5exc6

4hd 5inc6

8=. oonime AE bz4 bz4 -[4

8;. wa!um A98 _ _ &c4hc _

8E. a!o A9> (4 (4

89. Mpon$we 5Myene6

"88a

6(- 5 6-

8;D

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

:1. ota ":D 3['i

:8. Kiya ">18 *s- -\*k ]*c

::. Himba ">1: *!-

:>. Tso$o ">8 *`- -*k- -\4k

:. &ini ">> *!- -a4!

:D. &ove 5Kove6 "> *`- -*k- -\*k ]*k

:=. &unu "> *(-

:;. 2ebi "D: l-

:E. 2dumu "=> le-

:9. %yaa ";>c /]-

>1. "oma "E: 5 li-

>8. eyani "ED b[-

>:. 2$ondi C88 *!->>. *e!e C8 *!-

>. "aboe C:1 *`- b[4d b[4d b[4d

>D. A!wa C:: le-

>=. Mboshi C:D b[4[ b[4[ b[4[

>;. "oban$i C>: l!-

>E. *in$aa C>=d *!- -l!- b[4k

>9. *in$ombe C8 l!-

1. 4o!o CD1 `-

8. ee CDD *!- -*- -4k e4c:. Mon$o C=8 *!-

>. 2!en$o C=8 *- -*- -'[4k [4k

. ea C ;D *!-

D. "ushoon$ CE> *a- -[i* b[i*

=. "oia C>Db *!-

;. *en$oa 48: *(- -*c- -a4c 0ce

E. Mitu!u 48> *(- -*c- -*c b*

9. 'nya 48 *-

D1. umu 4:> b,-

D8. *e$a 4:D *(- b[4d -[*c b[4d

D:. Hoohoo 4:E *(- -*(- -e*c bee*D>. "ia 4>1 ,- 5 i- -4c d4c

D. 2yai 4>> i- -4( (4c (4c

DD. 2ande 4: *(-

D=. 2yan$a 4> *(-

D;. Ruri ':D> #e%+i-

DE. Cha$$a '>1 -eh(

D9.

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

=1. uria '> *!-5*(-5*-

=8. i!uyu 'D8 *!-

=:. amba 'DD *i- *!-

=>. Mashami '=:a l(- -l(- -er( #e%d4

=. Moshi '=:a l(- -l(- -e( 4k

=D. Rombo '=:c (- c- -e( 4k

==. 7uno '=:b l(-

=;. . Ton$we P88 '4i-5ne$6

;. Su!uma P:8 *- ii4e

;D. 2yamwei P:: *- i4e

;=. 2iamba P>8 - i41e

;;. 2yaturu P>: -

;E. *an$i P>> *-

;9.

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

99. Mbundu H:8 *(-

811

.

Su!u H>: *(-

818

.

Hun$u H>> *(-

81:

.

Mbaa H8 /(-

81>

.

Haya I ':: le- *(- i+e

81

.

Ha I 4== *(- *e#be%

81D

.

Rwanda I 4=8 *(- 5 /(-

81=

.

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

8:1

.

Son$e *:> *(-

8:8

.

*uba *>1 *(- -*(-

8::

.

anyo! *>: *c-

8:>

.

aonde *8 *(-

8:

.

*unda *D: *(-

8:D

.

*uwunda *D> *(-

8:=.

2!oya *=: *c-

8:;

.

&imbwe M88 *-

8:E

.

*un$u M8 *c-

8:9

.

Safwa M:D *(-

8>1

.

2dai M>18 *(-

8>8

.

2ya!yusa#2$onde

M>8 *-5*- 4e

8>:

.

"emba M: *(-

8>>

.

*amba MD *(-

8>

.

%a M=> *(-

8>D

.

2dendeue 2818 *i-

8>=

.

Tumbu!a 2:8 *i-

8>;

.

2yana 2>1 *i-

8>E

.

Man$ana 2>8c *i-

8>9

.

Sena 2 *i-

81 2yun$we 2 *i-

8;9

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

88

.

Matuumbi &8> *- -*- ffg=^ *ed'&a

8:

.

\ao &:8 *(- -*(-

8>

.

Ma!onde &:> *(- -*(-

8

.

Ma!huwa &>8 '#i%- [h(

8D

.

oti &>88 'i-

8=

.

Umbundu R88 *s- -*s- d*s

8;

.

2don$a R:: *(- -*(- *4d

8E

.

\eyi R8 *i- -*i- 1e*4he

89

.

Herero R>8 *s- -*(- -d*s *

8D1

.

Shona S81 *i- -]s ]4c

8D8

.

Kenda S:1 re- 5 r#]%- r#]%- -4hc 9

8D:

.

Tswana S>8a re- -re- r!'a r!'a

8D>

.

Sotho S. S>> r#]%- r#]%-

8D

.

Quu S: 4i- -]*hs *h]'n

8DD

.

Tswa SD8 -ir( h]'n

8D=

.

Tson$a SD> h#]%-

8D;.

Copi S=8 -*hc a*h(

8DE

.

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

51/60



independent

1. A!oose A8D '1 5exc6,bd

5{>p6

:. Manen$uba A8D "'1y- "-\'1[

>. Mo#!pwe A::

. 4uaa A:

D. "en$a A> !...'i

=. "asaa A> 'i ee ee

;. 2en A 'c

E. "afia AD> ]- ]4[ -[' ]4[

9. pa AD> lk- -'i ]- -l!- -[' ]4[

81. 2u$unu A=: '88. 'wondo A;:a 3i[

8:. Ma!aa AE> b[ b[ -['8>. oonime AE b,' b,'

8. wa!um A98 9_ 9_ &( /]'8D. a!o A9> (' ('

8=. *undu A -'i-

8;. 7ori A '-

8E. "uu A 3i-

89. Mpon$wee "88a '-

:1. Kiya ">18 's- -\'k ]'c

:8. Himba ">1: '!-

::. Tso$o ">8 '`- -'k- -\k \j:>. &ini ">> '!- -a! \j:. Kove "> '`- -'k- _9 ]'k

:D. &unu "> /(-

:=. 2ebi "D: l-

:;. %yaa ";>c /]-

:E. "oma "E: b- -b-:9. 2$ondi C88

>1. *e!e C8 !-

>8. "aboe C:1 b`- b['d b['d b['d

>:. Mboshi C:D b['[>>. 2$iri C>8b 3i

>. "oban$i C>: b- -b-

>D. *in$aa C>= b!-

>=. "oia C>Db l!-

>;. *in$ombe C8 b!- !-...-'i

>E. 4o!o CD1 `- 'c 'c'[ 'c 'c'[

>9. ee CDD b!- -- -'k e'c

8E8

7/27/2019 (414)JWAL

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independent

1. Mon$o C=8 l!-

8. 2!en$o C=8 l- -l- -'['1k ['1k

:. ea C;D /!-

>. "ushoon$ CE> b(- -[i' -bii'

. *en$oa 48: '(- -'d- -a'c ceD. Mitu!u 48> 3(- 5 3!- -3c- -'c 3'

=. C#enya 48 b-

;. umu 4:> b-

E. *e$a 4:D 3(- bid -[ c b[d9. Hoohoo 4:E 3(- 5 3!- -3(- -e'1c bee'1

D1. "ia 4>1 b- 5 b- -'c d'cD8. 2yai 4>> 'i-

D:. 2ande 4: 3(-D>. 2yan$a 4> 3(-

D. Ruri ':D> #!%3(-

DD. Cha$$a '>1 -a'(

D=. 3!- 5 3(- 5

3-

-ba-

DE. amba 'DD 3- -3-

D9. Mashami '=:a 3(- 3(- -a #1%d']=1. Moshi '=:a 3(- -3(- -e'( -k=8. Rombo '=:c 3(- -e'( k 5 d=:. 7uno '=:b 3#(%-

=>. 3- ee=;. Taita 54awida6

';a

3- 5 3(- -3(- -e( [s=E. &o!omo ';8 3(- -3(-

=9. Ton$we P81 3(-

;1. Su!uma P:8 3- id;8. 2yamwei P:: 3(- 3- -a- id

;:. 2iamba P>8 3- 3- ie;>. 2yaturu 5Rimi6

P>:

3- -3-

;. *an$i P>> 3-

;D.

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independent

;;. Shambaa 3(- 5 3- ii;E. Qaamo > 3(- -a- 3e3e

;9. Ru$uru D 3#(%- 3e#3e%

E1. Mwani 3(-

E8. Swahii

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independent

819

.

Mbu!ushu 1 -3(- #1%a3e

881

.

%!uhane : 3(-

888

.

weo *8> 3c-

88:

.

ete *:8 3-

88>

.

Son$e *:> '(-

88

.

*uba *>1 '(- -'(-

88D

.

Ciin#!anyo! *>: 'c-

88=

.

aonde *8 3(-

88;

.

*unda *D: 3c-

88E

.

Uru#wund *D> (-

889

.

Shi#n!oya *=: 3c-

8:1

.

&imbwe M88 3#%-

8:8

.

*un$u M8 3c-

8::

.

2yi!a M:> 3(-

8:>

.

Safwa M:D 3(-

8:

.

2dai M>18 3(-

8:D.

2ya!yusa#2$ondeM>8

3- 5 3- -ba- (3e

8:=

.

"emba M: 3(- -3(-

8:;

.

*amba MD 3(-

8:E

.

%a M=> 3(-

8E

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independent

8:9

.

2dendeue 2818 3(-

8>1

.

Tumbu!a 2:8 3(-

8>8

.

2yana 2>1 3(-

8>:

.

2yun$we 2> 3(-

8>>

.

Sena 2 3(-

8>

.

Matuumbi &8> 3- -3- -' 3ed'&a

8>D.

\ao &:8 3(- 5 3- -a- 5 -3(- vaa3e

8>=

.

Mwera &:: 3(-

8>;

.

Ma!onde &:> 3(- -3(- 3e)!

8>E

.

Mabiha &:D 3(- -3(-

8>9

.

oti &>88 3(-

81

.

Ma!huwa &>83(- -3(-

88

.

Umbundu R88 b(- 5 vs- -(- d'

8:

.

2don$a R:: 3(- -3(- 'd

8>

.

Herero R>8 3s- -3(- 9 9

8

.

\eyi R8 'i- -'i- 1'd

8D

.

Shona S81 3(- -]s ]3[ 8=

.

Kenda S:1 '#]%- '#]%- -]'[

8;

.

Tswana S>8a l!- -l!- l!'a l!'a

8E

.

Sotho S. S>> l#]%- -l#]%-

89 Quu S: 3(- -'i- -]'s ']'n

8ED

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independent

8D1

.

Tswa SD8 -i'( ]'n

8D8

.

Tson$a SD> 3#i%- 3]-

8D:

.

Copi S=8 -'( a'(

8D>

.

. The 3!u 2oun Cass System. \aound-B S%* Cameroon."oyd, Raymond. 89E9. Adamawa#Uban$i. %nB "endor#Samue, Iohn 5ed.6 2i$er#Con$o *an$ua$es.

2\ l *ondonB *anham, 89E9. &p. 8;E#:8D."oyd, Raymond. 899. Historica perspectives on Chamba 4a!a. |nB Rjdi$er |ppe."uter, *indsay . :11E. *o$ophoric 'ffects and C "indin$. Manuscript.Campbe, *ye. 899E. Historica *in$uistisB an %ntroduction. 'dinbur$hB 'dinbur$h University &ress.Campbe, *ye L &oser, 7iiam. :11E. *an$ua$e CassificationB History and Method. Cambrid$eB

Cambrid$e University &ress.Coeman, A. 'simbi 4ictionary. Manuscript YhttpBNNwww.ro$erbench.infoZ.Coo!, T.*. 89;8. Report of the "enue#Con$o 7or!in$ . 4escription des an$ues n-$ro#africaines et th-orie syntaxi)ue.

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in African in$uistics. *os An$eesB African Studies Center L 4ept. of *in$uistics, Univ. ofCaifornia at *os An$ees 5UC*A6.

4emuth, atherine Aison Paracas, 2ichoas #;8. 'd. by Coette .#8=>.

Hyman, *arry. 89;9. A$hem

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Hyman, *arry. :11;. 2i$er#Con$o Kerb 'xtensionsB 3verview and 4iscussion. %nB Seected&roceedin$s of the >;th Annua Conference on African *in$uistics, ed. 4oris &ayne L Iaime&ea, pp. 89#8=>. SomervieB Cascadia &roceedin$s &roect.

Iohnston, Harry. 8989#89::. A Comparative Study of the "antu and Semi#"antu *an$ua$es. Kos8#:. 3xfordB Carendon &ress.

Iones, Randy. :118. &rovisiona om#'n$ish *exicon. \aound-B S%* Cameroon.rause, . 2oni &rovisiona *exicon. \aound-B S%* Cameroun.Maho, Iouni. :11>. A Cassification of the "antu *an$ua$esB an Update of #>1=.

Mu!arovs!y, Hans. 89;=#89;;. A Study of 7estern 2i$ritic. Kos 8#:. KiennaB %nstitut fjrAe$iptoo$ie und Afri!anisti!.

2urse, 4ere!. :11;. Tense and Aspect in "antu. 3xfordB 3xford University &ress. Appendices 8#:BhttpBNNwww.ucs.mun.caNdnurseNtabantu.htm

2urse, 4ere! L &hiipson, . Towards a Historica Cassification of the "antu*an$ua$es. %nB 2urse, 4. L &hiipson,

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Se$erer,

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WX .. L gWWWX .. YA!senova, %.S. L Toporova, %.2.Z 8991. X XVV. WXB ?+. Y%ntroduction to the "antu Studies. MoscowB 2au!a.Z

.. VW X . NN g VVVXV WX. g. :, . :. B ?+, :11=. . >:;#8>. YKydrin K.P.:11=. &ersona &ronouns in South Mande *an$ua$es. %nB 7or!s by the %nstitute of *in$uistic

Research. Ko. :, no. :. Saint#&etersbur$B 2au!a. &p. >:;#8>.ZVWX .. YQhetov, A.\.Z :11E. #WWB VVW# VWW.B VVXW V#VWW XVV. YThe 2i$er#Con$o *an$ua$esBStructura and 4ynamic Typoo$y. Saint#&etersbur$B Saint#&etersbur$ University.Z

891

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