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handarkar Oriental Research Institute

SANSKRIT LITERATURE OF THE VAISNAVAS OF BENGALAuthor(s): Chintaharan ChakravartiSource: Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute , Vol. 10, No. 1/2 (1929), pp.114-126

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SANSKRIT LITERATURE OF THE VAISNAVAS

OF BENGAL

BY

Chintaharan Chakravarti, M. A.

Vaisnavism, - the worship of Krsna Visnu - it cannot be

denied, has a long history behind it in Bengal. Excavations, in Paharpur, Rajasahi, are reported to have brought to light images of Rãdhã and Krsna, of the Gupta period testifying to the prevalence of Vaisnavism in some form even in such an early date. The Susunia Rock inscription1 also points to the same conclusion. We meet with traces of Vaisnavism in the

epigraphic records of the Pala period as well. It seems to have been almost in a flourishing condition during the Sena rule, as is shown, among other things, by the celebrated work of

Jayadeva-the Gltagovinda.2 This Vaisnavism got a fresh impetus and took a new turn

from after the rise of Caitanya in the 15th century, so much so that Vaisnavism is now popularly believed to be nothing but what was preached by that great master. The new shape given to Vaisnavism by Caitanya which may as well conveniently be termed Caitanyism-had a good many important characteristics. It is not the place to deal with them at any length here. What

1 Ep . 2nd, vol. XIII. p. 133. 2 It may be noted in passing that this produotion of a Bengali poet is one

of the most popular works in the whole field of Sanskrit literature. An idea of the enviable popularity enjoyed by it may be formed not only from the unusually large number of Mss. found of the work all over the country, but also from the numerous commentaries of the work- more than forty mentioned by Aufrecht in the Catalogus Cat alo gor um - composed by scholars hailing from different parts of India. It had even acquired the sanctity of a religious work by the end of the 15th century ( S. K. Chatter ji -

Origin and Development of Beng . Lang, p. 216.). In consequence of its widespread popularity works came to be composed by poets of different parts of India in imitation of this. And about a dozen of these woaks are known.


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Sanskrit Literature of the Vaisnavas of Èengat 115

we require for our purposes to note is its proselytising spirit which found expression, among other things, in the immense literary activities of the followers of the great Vaisnava reformer. A vast amount of literature both in Bengali and Sanskrit was produced evidently with a view to popularise the teachings of Caitanya and thus strengthen the new sect with fresh converts. Quite an important place is occupied by the literature of the Vaisnavas in the history of Bengali literature as a whole, and

it has already attracted the proper attention of scholars. But the study of the Sanskrit literature of the Vaisnavas does not seem to have spread to any appreciable extent beyond the members of the sect. And scholars outside Bengal seem to have very little idea of the vast extent or the nature of this literature, partly owing to its sectarian character and partly on account of most of the works, in Mss. or print, being in the Bengali script.

The importance of this extensive literature, however, in the history of Indian literature as a whole cannot, of course,, ,be denied. For even here we occasionally meet with works that decidedly have a universal appeal and deserve to be carefully and critically studied by scholars. Looked at from the standpoint of cultural history, it represents a line of development which, whatever be its merit, should not be left out of account. And as it embodies the dogmas and rituals of a sect which had and still has an immense hold on not a negligible section of the people of Bengal a thorough study of it is expected to throw much lurid light on the obscure and chequered religious history of Bengal. And it seems to be owing to these facts that Mm. H. P. Shastri felt in the nineties the want of a systematic account of the vast Vaisnava literature of Bengal ( Notices if Sanskrit Mss -Vol. XI, Preface p. xi ).

This literature, sectarian though it was, did not consist solely of purely religious works dealing merely with philosophy and ritualism. We have got works almost in every branch of Sanskrit literature, - Kãvya, drama, grammar and even Poetics written by the followers of Caitanya and all bearing the marks of the new faith. And this fact justifies a separate treatment of those works. It is also an interesting study to see how they could utilise all these heterogenous branches of study for convey-


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116 Aiutala qf the Bhandarkar Orientai Research InatUute

ing the teaohingg of their master to the masses. This literature is thus found to possess a peculiar ' communal ' interest too, as it seems to indicate a desire on the part of the Vais nav a teachers to be self-contained from a literary stand-point by creating an independent literature for themselves, in the various branches, which preserved the peculiarities of the faith so that Vaisnava children might imbibe the spirit of the faith from their very student life.

It is now proposed to give a brief account of the literary out- put of the followers of Caitanya in the different branches of Sanskrit literature. The Vaisnava literature of Bengal of the Fre-Caitanya period is small and has very little distinguishing feature.

It will be noticed that this vast amount of literature covering a variety of subjects was principally the work of about half a dozen scholars. Decidedly the major portion of it belongs to the

two brothers Rüpa and Sanãtana who were the immediate disoiples of Caitanya and their worthy nephew JIva. It was primarily they that fixed the rituals and philosopby-the two most important things of a religious system-of Caitanyaism. They were all polymaths, having quite a huge number of works to the credit of each. The position occupied by them in the Vaisnava hierarchy is highly honourable. All subsequent writers are found to aooord even as much respect to them as to the great founder of the sect. Of other important writers we may refer

to the names of Krsnadãsa Kaviräja, Kavikarnapüra and Višva- nãtha Cakravartl. The founder of the school- Caitanya-does not seem to have composed any work expounding his dootrines. Two works of his-which would have been of immense value had they sur' ived-viz. a commentary on the Bhãgavata and a commentary on some work on Nyãya-are believed to have been either destroyed or concealed by the Great Master so that the fame of others may not suffer by their publication {Mãnasl O Marmawyi Vol. XIX Pt. IL p. 54 ff). There is room for legiti- mate doubt as regards the authorship of several minor works generally attributed to him.

A. peculiarity of most of the Vaisnava writers that may be


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Sanskrit Literature of the Vaisnavas of Bengal 117

noted here, is their extreme modesty1 whroh does not permit them to explicitly specify their Dames in many a work of their authorship. It seems to be on account of this that a good deal of controversy is found to have centred round the authorship . of a number of workš-specially those of Rüpa, Sanätana and Jiva. Several instances of this kind of confusion have already been noted by Dr. S. K. De in his Studies in the Hist . of Sans . Poetics ( vol. I, p. 255. f. n. 3. ) We may here point out some more

instances. Hamsadüta , generally known to be a work of Rüpa is found to have been attributed to Jiva (CS. vol. VI, No. 162) and also to one Devadäsa in a Ms. of the work and a commentary on it in the Dacca University ( which I had occasion to see ). The Vaisnavatosinï, a commentary on the tenth Book of the Bhãgavata , believed to be a work of Sanätana, is also ascribed to Jiva and Rüpa Aufrecht I, p. 4026, IF, p. 917 ). The Haň - nãmãmrta-Vyãkararia , supposed to be a work of Jiva is attributed to Rüpa ( .Descriptive catatogue of Sanskrit M ss -in the A . SsB. - Gram.

R. L. Mitra-p. 70 ). But the names of the real authors may be gathered from an elaborate account of the literary activities of Rüpa, Sanätana and Jiva given by Jiva himself at the end of his Laghutosini-o, commentary on the Vaisnava-tosini.

Every religion is found to have a philosophical system of its own, on the basis of which the doctrines

Philosophy an(j tenets peculiar to it are sought to be explained. And Neo-Vaisnavism of Bengal

was not an exception to this rule. It also evolved a full-fledged philosophy of its own which, in course of time, came to be known as the Gaudiya Vaisnava philosophy. This is properly a sub- school of Vedãnta, based primarily on the Madhva system, though it was influenced by the Nimbärka and Vallabha schools as well. But it has its points of difference from the school of Madhva. Thus, according to the latter, the object of adoration is Visnu alone, no divinity being ascribed to his consort Laksmi. But according to the Gaudiya school, Visnu together with his consort should be worshipped. Devotion in conjunction with 1 A curious instance of this is supplied by the following colophon found at

the end of an anthological work, the Kaviratnãkara ( S. S. P ) f f Í S<

1 6


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118 Annata cf the Bhandarkar Orientai Research Institute

action, assert the Madhvas, lead to salvation. Devotion, pure and unmixed, is the cause of salvation - this is the view of the followers of Caitanya. According to the school of Madhva, salvation can be attained by Brahman devotees alone, but the Gaudlya school is more liberal and asserts the equal right of all- irrespective of caste -to that supreme goal of life. The most distinguishing features of the Bengal school of Vaisnavism are 1 ) the doctrine of acintya-bhedabheda incomprehensible

difference-non-difference ) 2 ) Prominence given to the Vrndãvana-lllã of Krsna in contra-distinction to the attitude of the different Vaisnava schools of the South.

The work which the followers of this school regard as the most important and authoritative is the Bhãgavata- Purãvía. This Purãna, they suppose, wa« composed to elucidate the Vedanta Sütras and is regarded by them as the commentary on the said Sutras. Thus not a negligible portion of the philosophical works of this school is covered by direct commentaries on the Bhãgavata and also by independent works composed to elucidate and systematically present the views of it. Of direct commentaries on it, mention may be made of the works of Sanätana, Jíva, Visvanãtha and Baladeva Vidyäbhösana. Besides these, the Brhad-bhãgavatãmrta of Sanätana and Laghu- Bhãgavatãrnrta of Rüpa, which is an abridgement of the former, deal with the teachings of the Bhãgavata.

The most important, popular and scholarly work that sets forth in detail the philosophy of the Bhãgavata is the Bhãgavata9 or Sat - Sandarbha of Jiva Gosvãmin Ed. by Syamlal Gosvamin, Calcutta ). It consists of six books dealing with six different topics viz. Tattva-Sandarbha, Bhãgavata % Paramãtma0, Brïhrsria3, BháktC , and Prttť. The present work is stated to have been based on a work of Gopâla Bhatta, the famous disciple of Caitanya, which appears to have been fragmentary and incomplete. An abridgement of this voluminous work, presumably by Jiva himself, is the Sarasafhgraha ( CS. X. p. 96 ).

But works on the Bhãgavata alone could secure no recognition for the Bengal Vaisnavas among those of other provinces -, for a Bchool was required to have commentaries of its own on the Vedänta-Sötras,[the Bbagavad-gitã and Upaniíads to entitle itself


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to that recognition, And, it is told, that it was to win that recognition for this sohool that Balade va Vid yâbhûeaça composed a commentary on the Yed&nta- Sutras, called the Oovinda-bhãsya Purãna Kãryãlaya, Calcutta 1301 B. S.).1 This embodies the doctrines peculiar to the school. Baladeva flourished sometime in the middle of the 18th century. Thus chronologically he was about the last among the host of scholars who from time to time wrote commentaries ( bhsaya ) on that highly popular work-the

V edânta-Sûtr as. But this was not the only work composed by Baladeva. Like Rñpa and Jíva he was a polymath, writing on a variety of subjects. Other philosophical works composed by him were :

( 1 ) Commentary on the Bhagavad-glta ( published by the Gaudlya Matha, Calcutta ) 2 ) Commentary on the ten Upanisads - Isa,* Ken», Katha, Prašna, Mundaka, Mindükya, Aitareya, Taittirlya, Chãndogya, and Brhadãraryaka S ) Siddhãntaralna or Bhãsya-pltháka - ( Sarasvati Bbavan Series ) ( 4 ) Prameya-ralnavalï ( S. S. P. Series ) an elementary treatise on the Vaisnava philosophy of Bengal. This work follows the schcol of Madhva in toto as is indicated by the author in the introductory portions of his work. ( 5 ) Vedãnta-Syamantaka which seems to deal with the elements of Vedänta philosophy.

It was probably about the time of Baladeva that Anůpa- nãrãyana Širomani who was apparently a follower of the school of Caitanya, wrote a gloss entitled the SamañjasU-vrth 8 on the

Vedänta-Sütra. At the end of his work he dedicates it to Caitanya and refers to Rüpa and Svarñpa in respectful terms. But probably owing to the fact that he was not one of the recognised gesvãmins ( teachers ) held in high respect by the Vaisnavas that his work received scant appreciation and is now little known.

Similar fate seems to have attended several other works as

well which appear to have been composed from time to time. Of these reference may be made to the Tattvadipika - a 'short Vaisnava treatise of great interest by Väsudeva Sarvabhauma,

1 Introduction to Prameya-ratnãvati ( S. S. P. Serie« ). 2 A Ms. of this work i« ip the Library of the Sanskrit Sahitya Pari»hM,

Çalcutt^.


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120 Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute

the well-known Naiyãyika and teacher of Caitanya ( Saraevati Bhavan Studies vol. IV. p. 68 ).

The most important ritualistic work of the V aisnavas is the Haribhakti- Vilãsa > or Bhagavad-bhakti-vilasa

Rituals ag sometimes called ( Baharampur, Radharaman Press ). The work seems to

have been composed by Sanãtana as is recorded at the end of the Laghutosini of Jîva as also in Caitanya- Caritãmrta of Krsnadãsa ( Bk. II, chapter 24 ). It is this work which still regulates the religious rites of the Vaisnavas.1 If any proof of its popularity was needed, it is supplied by an early metrical Bengali translation of the work by one Kãnãi Däsa, a Ms. of which work is reported to have recently been acquired by the Dacca University (Ind. Ant . 1928, p. 2 ). It is a very big work consisting of 20 vilãsas and is composed in verses, small prose lines occurring only as introduction to extracts quoted from other works. It lays down, among other things, rules for the defferent festivals to be observed by the Vaisnavas in honour of Krsna. It scarcely refers to any festival connected with any god beyond the pale of Vaisnavism. It is curious that of all other popular festivals belonging almost exclusively to the Saivas or Sãktas ( like Durgäpüjä etc.) it is found to prescribe Šivaratri - a festival in honour of god Siva - for the Vaisnavas. This may be owing to the immense popularity of it which rendered it impossible to be neglected.

It should here be noted that the work does make no reference

to Satyanãrãyaria or offerings ( strni ) made to him. The omission does not seem to be accidental, but might in all probability have been a significant one pointing to the fact that this god-who is generally supposed to have been the result of an amalgamation of Satyapira of the Moslems with Nãrãyana of the Hindus-had not yet found any important place in the Hindu pantheon. It does not also refer to the well-known festival of rãsa-yãtrã in honour o f Krsna 8

1 It does not, however, cover all rites, as no section is devoted to SaniBkara ( sacraments ) or Srãddha ( funeral rites ) though a section is set apart for difesa or initiation.

2 The festival ia not also found to have been referred to in the ytttrü-tattvß pf Raghunandana,


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Of minor works reference may be made to the Sarasathgraha - dipikã by Rãmaprasãda Devasarmã HPS III, 343). It deals with the worship of Krsna pointing out its excellence. It is stated to have a section on Vaisnava Šraddha. Works like Šri-Radha Krsna-Pujãpaddhoti-nibandha ( CS X. 102), Vaisnavãhnikapaddhati ( CS X. 116 ). Samksepa-Bhakti-Sãdhanapaddhati ( CS. X. 114 ) though anonymous seems to have originated in Bengal being found only in Bengali characters. But they have got very little

deserving a critical analysis. The Vaisnava Kãvyas and dramas the number of which is

almost a legion deal almost exclusively with Kãvyas ^ gj.ory 0f ^sna and his associates, while

there aie a few which seek to depict the life story of Caitanya. Very few of them, it must be admitted, have got any poetic excellence in them which can attract the attention of non- Vaisnavas. They were composed either to demonstrate the divinity of Krsna or the superiority of Caitanya to the ordinary human beings, and though some of them aim at displaying artificial beauty, they have got very little intrinsio merit in general.

Änandavrndävnacampü of Kavikarnapüra is a campii^ or a Kãvya work in prose and poetry mixed, in 22 stavakas or chapters dealing with the life story of Krsna (Pandit Baijnath Pustakalaya, Mathura ). Muktãcaritra of Raghunãthadãsa ( Brindavana Caitanyäbda 422 ) describes the amours of Rãdhã and Krsna.

Raghunãthadãsa was earlier than Jiva Gosvämin, who mentions him in the first verse of his Gopälacampö. It is a campu Kãvya consisting both of prose and poetry. Govindalllämrta of Krsnadãsa Kavirãja who is well-known as the author of the Bengali work Caitanya- Caritamrta, which was composed in 1503 S. E. ( Baharampur, Radharaman Press, 1308 B. S. ). The work is complete in 23 sargas . This seems to have been one of the most popular Vaisnava kãvyas • It was translated into Bengali verses by Yadunandana Dãsa as early as the year 1610 A. D. Numerous Mss., found in various places and noticed and de- scribed by various scholars, also testify to its popularity. But curiously enough there has been a confusion with regard to its authorship. It h fis bpen attribute either to Baghu&ätha Bhatta


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Sanskrit Literature of the Vacavas of Bengal 123

a commentary on these verses by one Vrndãvanacandra Tarkãl- amkãra has also come down in a fragmentary form ( CS. X, 41 ).

Of works written exclusively in Sanskrit almost all were written by men who were contemporaries of Caitanya. Thus a Caitanyacarita is said to have been composed by Gopïnâtha Kavi- kanthãbharana, son-in-law of Vísnudãsa, maternal uncle of Caitanya.1 Vãsudeva Sãrvabhauma, originally teacher and then a disciple of Caitanya is also stated to have composed a Caitanya -

Carita ( Bangìya Sãhitya Parisat- Patrika, vol. IV, p. 201 ). Krsna-Caitanya- Sarita was composed by Murari Gupta in 1425 S. E., as is expressly stated in the concluding verse of the work ( Published by Mrinal Kanti Ghosh from the Partika Press, Baghbazar-Caitanya era 426 ). This is one of the earliest available works on the life-story of the great Vaisnava teacher of Bengal. The book is a fairly long one being complete in four sections, each of which consists of several cantos. The first section contains 14 cantos, the second 18, the third 18 and the

fourth 26. From the very beginning we get a deified picture of the great master who is represented as an incarnation of Lord Visnu and as such his birth was acclaimed by all the gods who came to Sacï, his mother, just after her conception to pay their homage to her as she was to be the exalted mother of the Lord. The book is full of the description of the supernatural powers of the Master and his unparallelled devotion to Visnu. The work

is written in the epic style not improbably to give it an epic appearance and earn for it the respect which is due to an epic. It

has a good many instances of the lapsus lingua which is a charac- teristic feature of the epic literature of Sanskrit. The Caitanyacaritãmrta Mahãkãvya is another work of this

type ( Baharampur-Radharaman-Press-1332 B. S. ). The author of the work is believed to have been the well-known poet Kavi- karnapüra though nowhere in book his name is found to occur. It was composed in 1464 S. E.

The sectarian character of even some of the more well-known

grammars is clearly betrayed by the illus- Grammars trations given by the different grammati-

cal functions. Thus the Vaisuavite Mugdha • 1 An extract from this work giving the ancestry of Caitanya is quoted i u

V anger Jãftya lit'ÄSsa-H. Basu- vol. III, p. 218ff.


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1Ž4 Annata of the Êhndcirfcar Oriental Research Inehture

bodha is always found to refer to Krsna and his associates in all his examples. In the non-Brahmanic Kalapa not a single reference to any of the mythological persons or stories is found. But the spirit of sectarianism seems to have been carried to its furthest extreme. And the best known example of this is the Haririãmãmrta Vyãkarani . a grammar of some populiarity among the more orthodox Vaisnavas of Bengal. It is generally attributed to Jîvagosvâmin, nephew of the celebrated Rùpa. He

completed his Gopäla-Campü in 1514 S. E. A manuscript in the Asiatio Society of Bengal is however found to ascribe it to Rùpa ( Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit Mss. of the A . S. i?. -Gram. R. L. Mitra. Gram-p. 70 and 163 ). The peculiarity of this work lies not only in its reference to the acts of Krsna etc. in the illustrations of grammatical functions but also in indicating the various technical terms of grammar by the difft reiit names of Krsna, Rãdhã and their associates, the mere utterance of which is supposed to earn religious merit for the reader. Thus the

climax is reached here in the attempt to popularise the religious tenets through various branches of literature.

We get mention of two other grammars of the Vaisnavas of Bengal, namely Caitanyãmrta ( Colebrooke - Miscellaneous Essays , Ed, by Cowell - 1873, vol. II, p. 44 ) and Vyãkararia-kaumudi of Baladeva Vidyäbhüsana. The former of these seems to have been a sectarian one as the name clearly shows. Sectarian grammars also seem to have been known even when Jiva wrote, as Vitthalãcãrya (1st half of the 16th century) in his commentary on the PrakriydrKaumudl is said to have often referred to a Lama- Vyãkarava ( Colebrooke - op. cit., p. 49 ), which from its name seems to have been sectarian. A sectarian grammar of the Saivas probably by a Bengalee is the Prabodha-prakãéa ( I. O. II, 911, • R. L. Mitra, op. cit., p. 70 ). The author of this work is Balarãma Pañcanana. This work is also of the type of Hari - nãmãmrta.

It is curious that though Bengal had evolved a style of her

own from a very early period her contributions to the theories of poetic composition cannot be said to be much. In fact, we

scarcely meet with any works on poetics in Bengal before the


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15th century. From after the 15th century Bengal produced several original works on poetics. Most of these are the works of Vaisnava teachers arid are sectarian in character. They have nöt therefore attained much popularity among the people in general, and their studies are confined within the Vaisnavas alone. Thus the works of Bengal could not supersede well-known standard works like the Kãvyaprakãêa of Mammata which continued to be studied here as elsewhere and this is proved by the commentaries by Bengalees on these works. But in spite of their sectarian character the rhetorical works of the Vaisnavas

of Bengal are found fo have made important contributions on the topic of rasa ( sentiment ). They count bhakti ( devotion ) as a separate rasa and deal with it in full detail. The illustrative verses of these works, again, mostly deal with the life-story of Krsna and his associates.

The earliest work of Bengal on poetics seems to have been the Vaisnavite Ujjavalanilamayi ( Kãvyamãlã and Baharampur ) of Rõpagosvãmin, an immediate disciple of Caitanya and a Vaisnava writer of much renown. In his work Rûpa describes Bhakti ( devotion ) as a separate rasa. The work has got several commentaries of which those of his nephew Jíva (Baharampur 1889 ) and Vis vanãtha CakravartI (Kãvyamãlã, 1913) are well known. An independent work was also composed by Büpa with the sole object of fuller exposition of the sentiment of Bhakti . This is his Bhaktirasãmrtasindhu (Baharam- pur ). Rüpa had also a work on dramaturgy called Nãtaka- candrikã ( Cassimbazar - 1313 B. S. ). The work is definitely stated to have been based, on the Sastra of Bharata and also on a work called Basa-sudhakara. Just at the beginning the author utters a fling against the celebrated work the SãhHya-Barpana which, he says, is full of inacurracy and gees against the view of Bharata. The work deals with only one form of Drama, namely, Nãtaka. The examples given in the work are from various Vaisnava books of which some are of his own composition. As a matter of fact most of these are taken from the

Lalita-Mãdhava so much so that it might as well be supposed to have been composed to elucidate the dramatic technique of the latter.

1 7


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One more important work on Poetics by a Vaisnava writer is Alatiikãra-kaustubha of Kavikaryapura , another famous writer (Baharampur 1899; also V. R. S. series' The use of the study and composition of a kãvya according to this author, is not fame etc. alone, as other rhetoricians have it, tut the enjoyment of that bliss which results from the absorption of the heart in the story of the amours of Krspa ( I. 8 ). He counts bhakti, vãtsalya and prema under rasa ( V. R. S. ed. p. 148 ). He finds fault with his prede-

cessors without mentioning their names as regards the definition of kavya which he defines as 1 the composition of a poet ' ( Kavi • wň-nirmitih kavyam ).

List of Abbreviations used in the above article

Ep. Ind. Epigraphia Indica.

CS Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Library of the Government Sanskrit College, Calcutta.

Ind. Ant. - Indian Antiquary.

I. O. Descriptive Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts in the India Office

Library, London. S. S. P. - Sanskrit Sahitya Pariphat, Calcutta.

V. R. S. - Varendra -Research Society, Raj- shahi, Bengal.

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