46 reproduction text

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

Chapter 46Chapter 46

Animal Reproduction


• Overview: Doubling Up for Sexual Reproduction

• The two earthworms in this picture are mating

• Each worm produces both sperm and eggs, which will fertilize

– And in a few weeks, new worms will hatch

Figure 46.1


• A population transcends finite life spans

– Only by reproduction


• Concept 46.1: Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom

• Asexual reproduction is the creation of new individuals

– Whose genes all come from one parent


• Sexual reproduction is the creation of offspring

– By the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote

• The female gamete is the egg

• The male gamete is the sperm


Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction

• Many invertebrates reproduce asexually by fission

– The separation of a parent into two or more individuals of approximately the same size

Figure 46.2


• Also common in invertebrates is budding

– In which two new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones

• Another type of asexual reproduction is fragmentation, which

– Is the breaking of the body into several pieces, some or all of which develop into complete adults

– Must be accompanied by regeneration, the regrowth of lost body parts


Reproductive Cycles and Patterns

• Most animals exhibit cycles in reproductive activity

– Often related to changing seasons

• Reproductive cycles

– Are controlled by hormones and environmental cues


• Animals may reproduce exclusively asexually or sexually

– Or they may alternate between the two

• Some animals reproduce by parthenogenesis

– A process in which an egg develops without being fertilized


• Among vertebrates, several genera of fishes, amphibians, and lizards, including whiptail lizards

– Reproduce exclusively by a complex form of parthenogenesis

Figure 46.3a, b

Time

Ova

rysi

zeH

orm

ones

Beh

avio

r

Ovulation OvulationProgesterone

Estrogen

Female-like

Male-like

Female-like

Male-like

(a) Both lizards in this photograph are C. uniparensfemales. The one on top is playing the role of a male. Every two or three weeks during the breeding season, individuals switch sex roles.

(b) The sexual behavior of C. uniparens is correlated with the cycle of ovulation mediated by sex hormones. As blood levels of estrogen rise, the ovaries grow, and the lizard behaves like a female. After ovulation, the estrogen level drops abruptly, and the progesterone level rises; these hormone levels correlate with male behavior.


• Sexual reproduction presents a special problem for certain organisms

– That seldom encounter a mate

• One solution to this problem is hermaphroditism

– In which each individual has both male and female reproductive systems


• Another remarkable reproductive pattern is sequential hermaphroditism

– In which an individual reverses its sex during its lifetime

Figure 46.4


• Concept 46.2: Fertilization depends on mechanisms that help sperm meet eggs of the same species

• The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of egg and sperm

– Play an important part in sexual reproduction


• Some species have external fertilization, in which

– Eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external environment

Figure 46.5

Eggs


• Other species have internal fertilization, in which

– Sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs within the tract


• In either situation, fertilization requires critical timing

– Often mediated by environmental cues, pheromones, and/or courtship behavior

• Internal fertilization

– Requires important behavioral interactions between male and female animals

– Requires compatible copulatory organs


Ensuring the Survival of Offspring

• All species produce more offspring than the environment can handle

– But the proportion that survives is quite small


• The embryos of many terrestrial animals

– Develop in eggs that can withstand harsh environments

• Instead of secreting a shell around the embryo

– Many animals retain the embryo, which develops inside the female


• Many different types of animals

– Exhibit parental care to ensure survival of offspring

Figure 46.6


Gamete Production and Delivery

• To reproduce sexually

– Animals must have systems that produce gametes


• The least complex systems

– Do not even contain distinct gonads, the organs that produce gametes in most animals


• The most complex reproductive systems

– Contain many sets of accessory tubes and glands that carry, nourish, and protect the gametes and the developing embryos


• Many animals with relatively simple body plans

– Possess highly complex reproductive systems

Figure 46.7

Male organs:Female organs:

Genitalpore

(Excretory pore)

Seminalreceptacle

(Digestive tract)

Testis1

Vas efferens2

Sperm duct(vas deferens)

3

Seminalvesicle

4

Ovary1

Oviduct2

Yolk duct

Yolk gland

3 Uterus


• Most insects

– Have separate sexes with complex reproductive systems

Figure 46.8a, b

(a) Male honeybee. Sperm form in the testes, pass through the sperm duct (vas deferens), and are stored in the seminal vesicle. The male ejaculates sperm along with fluidfrom the accessory glands. (Males of somespecies of insects and other arthropods haveappendages called claspers that grasp thefemale during copulation.)

(b) Female honeybee. Eggs develop in the ovaries and then pass through the oviducts and into the vagina. A pair of accessory glands (only one is shown)add protective secretions to the eggs in the vagina. After mating, sperm are stored in the spermatheca, a sac connected to the vagina by a short duct.

Testis1

Accessorygland

3 Seminalvesicle

Vas deferens2 Penis5

Ejaculatoryduct

4

Accessorygland

Spermatheca

Ovary1

Vagina3

Oviduct


• Concept 46.3: Reproductive organs produce and transport gametes: focus on humans


Female Reproductive Anatomy

• The female external reproductive structures include

– The clitoris

– Two sets of labia


• The internal organs are a pair of gonads

– And a system of ducts and chambers that carry gametes and house the embryo and fetus


• Reproductive anatomy of the human female

Prepuce

(Rectum)

Cervix

Vagina

Bartholin’s gland

Vaginal opening

Ovary

Oviduct

Labia majora

Labia minora

(Urinary bladder)

(Pubic bone)

Uterus

Urethra

Shaft

Glans Clitoris

Figure 46.9


Vagina

Uterus

Cervix

OvariesOviduct

Uterine wallEndometrium

Follicles

Corpus luteum


Ovaries

• The female gonads, the ovaries

– Lie in the abdominal cavity


• Each ovary

– Is enclosed in a tough protective capsule and contains many follicles

• A follicle

– Consists of one egg cell surrounded by one or more layers of follicle cells


• The process of ovulation

– Expels an egg cell from the follicle

• The remaining follicular tissue then grows within the ovary

– To form a solid mass called the corpus luteum, which secretes hormones, depending on whether or not pregnancy occurs


Oviducts and Uterus

• The egg cell is released into the abdominal cavity

– Near the opening of the oviduct, or fallopian tube

• Cilia in the tube

– Convey the egg to the uterus


Vagina and Vulva

• The vagina is a thin-walled chamber

– That is the repository for sperm during copulation

– That serves as the birth canal through which a baby is born


• The vagina opens to the outside at the vulva

– Which includes the hymen, vestibule, labia minora, labia majora, and clitoris


Mammary Glands

• The mammary glands are not part of the reproductive system

– But are important to mammalian reproduction

• Within the glands

– Small sacs of epithelial tissue secrete milk


Male Reproductive Anatomy

• In most mammalian species

– The male’s external reproductive organs are the scrotum and penis

• The internal organs

– Consist of the gonads, which produce sperm and hormones, and accessory glands


• Reproductive anatomy of the human male

Figure 46.10

Erectile tissueof penis

Prostate gland

(Urinarybladder)

Bulbourethral gland

Vas deferensEpididymisTestis

Seminalvesicle(behind bladder)

Urethra

Scrotum

Glans penis


Seminal vesicle

(Rectum)

Vas deferens

Ejaculatory duct

Prostate gland

Bulbourethral gland

(Urinarybladder)

(Pubic bone)

Erectiletissue of

penis

Urethra

Glans penis

Prepuce

Vas deferens Epididymis

Testis

Scrotum


Testes

• The male gonads, or testes

– Consist of many highly coiled tubes surrounded by several layers of connective tissue

• The tubes are seminiferous tubules

– Where sperm form


• Production of normal sperm

– Cannot occur at the body temperatures of most mammals

• The testes of humans and many mammals

– Are held outside the abdominal cavity in the scrotum, where the temperature is lower than in the abdominal cavity


Ducts

• From the seminiferous tubules of a testis

– The sperm pass into the coiled tubules of the epididymis

• During ejaculation

– Sperm are propelled through the muscular vas deferens, the ejaculatory duct, and exit the penis through the urethra


Glands

• Three sets of accessory glands

– Add secretions to the semen, the fluid that is ejaculated

• A pair of seminal vesicles

– Contributes about 60% of the total volume of semen


• The prostate gland

– Secretes its products directly into the urethra through several small ducts

• The bulbourethral gland

– Secretes a clear mucus before ejaculation that neutralizes acidic urine remaining in the urethra


Semen in the Female Reproductive Tract

• Once in the female reproductive tract

– A number of processes, including contractions of the uterus, help move the sperm up the uterus


Penis

• The human penis

– Is composed of three cylinders of spongy erectile tissue

• During sexual arousal

– The erectile tissue fills with blood from the arteries, causing an erection


Human Sexual Response

• Two types of physiological reactions predominate in both sexes

– Vasocongestion, the filling of tissue with blood

– Myotonia, increased muscle tension


• The sexual response cycle can be divided into four phases

– Excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution


• Concept 46.4: In humans and other mammals, a complex interplay of hormones regulates gametogenesis

• The process of gametogenesis

– Is based on meiosis, but differs in females and males


Ovary

Primary germ cell in embryo

Differentiation

OogoniumOogoniumin ovary

Mitoticdivision

Primary oocyte,arrested in prophaseof meiosis I(present at birth)

Completion of meiosis Iand onset of meiosis II

Primaryoocytewithinfollicle

Secondary oocyte,arrested at meta-phase of meiosis II

Firstpolarbody

Ovulation

Entry ofsperm triggerscompletion ofmeiosis II

Ovum

Growingfollicle

Mature follicle

Rupturedfollicle

Ovulatedsecondary oocyte

Corpus luteum

Degeneratingcorpus luteum

2n

2n

nn

nn

Figure 46.11

• Oogenesis is the development of mature ova


• Spermatogenesis is the production of mature sperm

EpididymisSeminiferous tubule

Testis

Cross sectionof seminiferoustubule

Sertoli cellnucleus

Lumen ofSeminiferous tubule

Spermatogonium

Primary spermatocyte(in prophase of meiosis I)

Secondary spermatocyte

Earlyspermatids

Spermatids(at two stages ofdifferentiation)

Differentiation(Sertoli cells providenutrients)

Meiosis II

Meiosis I completed

Mitotic division,producing large numbersof spermatogonia

Sperm cells

Acrosome

Nucleus

Mitochondria

Neck

TailPlasma membrane

Head Midpiece

2n

2n

n n

nnnn

n n n n

Figure 46.12

Differentiation andonset of meiosis I


• Oogenesis differs from spermatogenesis

– In three major ways


• First, during the meiotic divisions of oogenesis

– Cytokinesis is unequal, with almost all the cytoplasm monopolized by a single daughter cell, the secondary oocyte


• Second, sperm are produced continuously throughout a male’s life

– Which is not the case in oogenesis

• Third, oogenesis has long “resting” periods

– While spermatogenesis produces sperm in uninterrupted sequence


The Reproductive Cycles of Females

• In females

– The secretion of hormones and the reproductive events they regulate are cyclic


Menstrual Versus Estrous Cycles

• Two different types of cycles occur in females


• Humans and other primates have menstrual cycles

– While other mammals have estrous cycles

• In both cases ovulation occurs at a time in the cycle

– After the endometrium has started to thicken in preparation for implantation


• In menstrual cycles

– The endometrium is shed from the uterus in a bleeding called menstruation

– Sexual receptivity is not limited to a specific timeframe

• In estrous cycles

– The endometrium is reabsorbed by the uterus

– Sexual receptivity is limited to a “heat” period


The Human Female Reproductive Cycle: A Closer Look

• The female reproductive cycle

– Is one integrated cycle involving two organs, the uterus and ovaries


• Cyclic secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus

– And of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary orchestrates the female reproductive cycle

• Five kinds of hormones

– Participate in an elaborate scheme involving both positive and negative feedback


• The reproductive cycle of the human female

Figure 46.13a–e

Control by hypothalamus Inhibited by combination of estrogen and progesterone

Stimulated by high levelsof estrogen

Inhibited by low levels ofestrogen

Hypothalamus

Anterior pituitary

GnRH

FSH LH

Pituitary gonadotropinsin blood

LH

FSHFSH and LH stimulatefollicle to grow

LH surge triggersovulation

Ovarian cycle

Growing follicle Maturefollicle

Corpusluteum

Degenerating corpus luteum

Estrogen secretedby growing follicle inincreasing amounts

Progesterone andestrogen secretedby corpus luteum

Follicular phase Luteal phaseOvulation

Ovarian hormonesin blood

Peak causes LH surge

Estrogen Progesterone

Estrogen levelvery low

Progesterone and estro-gen promote thickeningof endometrium

Uterine (menstrual) cycle

Endometrium

Menstrual flow phase Proliferative phase Secretory phase

0 5 10 14 15 20 25 28

Da

ys

1

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

3

6

7 8

4

5

2

10

9


The Ovarian Cycle

• In the ovarian cycle

– Hormones stimulate follicle growth, which results in ovulation

• Following ovulation

– The follicular tissue left behind transforms into the corpus luteum


The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

• Cycle after cycle

– The maturation and release of egg cells from the ovary are integrated with changes in the uterus

• If an embryo has not implanted in the endometrium by the end of the secretory phase

– A new menstrual flow commences


Menopause

• After about 450 cycles, human females undergo menopause

– The cessation of ovulation and menstruation


Hormonal Control of the Male Reproductive System

• Testosterone and other androgens

– Are directly responsible for the primary and secondary sex characteristics of the male


• Androgen secretion and sperm production

– Are both controlled by hypothalamic and pituitary hormones

Stimuli from otherareas in the brain

Hypothalamus

GnRH from thehypothalamus reg-ulates FSH and LH

release from theanterior pituitary.

FSH acts on theSertoli cells of the

seminiferoustubules, promotingspermatogenesis.

LH stimulates the Leydig cells to maketestosterone, whichin turn stimulatessperm production.

Anteriorpituitary

Negativefeedback

Leydig cellsmake

testosteronePrimary andsecondary sexcharacteristics

Sertoli cells

Spermatogenesis TestisFigure 46.14


• Concept 46.5: In humans and other placental mammals, an embryo grows into a newborn in the mother’s uterus


Conception, Embryonic Development, and Birth

• In humans and most other placental mammals

– Pregnancy, or gestation, is the condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus


• Fertilization of an egg by a sperm, conception

– Occurs in the oviduct

Figure 46.15a, b

Ovary

Uterus

Endometrium

From ovulation to implantationEndometrium Inner cell mass

Cavity

Blastocyst Trophoblast

(a)

Implantation of blastocyst(b)

Ovulation releases asecondary oocyte, which

enters the oviduct.

1

Fertilization occurs. A sperm enters the oocyte; meiosis of the oocyte finishes; and the

nuclei of the ovum and sperm fuse, producing a zygote.

2

Cleavage (cell division)begins in the oviduct

as the embryo is movedtoward the uterus

by peristalsis and themovements of cilia.

3 Cleavage continues. By the time the embryoreaches the uterus, it is a ball of cells.It floats in the uterus forseveral days, nourished byendometrial secretions. It becomes a blastocyst.

4

The blastocyst implants in the endometriumabout 7 days after conception.

5


• After fertilization

– The zygote undergoes cleavage and develops into a blastocyst before implantation in the endometrium


First Trimester

• Human gestation

– Can be divided into three trimesters of about three months each

• The first trimester

– Is the time of most radical change for both the mother and the embryo


• During its first 2 to 4 weeks of development

– The embryo obtains nutrients directly from the endometrium

• Meanwhile, the outer layer of the blastocyst

– Mingles with the endometrium and eventually forms the placenta


• Blood from the embryo

– Travels to the placenta through arteries of the umbilical cord and returns via the umbilical vein

Placenta

Umbilical cord

Chorionic villuscontaining fetalcapillaries

Maternal bloodpools

Uterus Fetal arterioleFetal venuleUmbilical cord

Maternal portionof placenta

Fetal portion ofplacenta (chorion)

Umbilical arteries

Umbilical vein

Maternalarteries

Maternalveins

Figure 46.16


• The first trimester is the main period of organogenesis

– The development of the body organs

Figure 46.17a–c

(a) 5 weeks. Limb buds, eyes, theheart, the liver, and rudimentsof all other organs have startedto develop in the embryo, whichis only about 1 cm long.

(b) 14 weeks. Growth anddevelopment of the offspring,now called a fetus, continueduring the second trimester.This fetus is about 6 cm long.

(c) 20 weeks. By the end of thesecond trimester (at 24 weeks),the fetus grows to about 30 cmin length.


Second Trimester

• During the second trimester

– The fetus grows and is very active

– The mother may feel fetal movements

– The uterus grows enough for the pregnancy to become obvious


Third Trimester

• During the third trimester

– The fetus continues to grow and fills the available space within the embryonic membranes


• A complex interplay of local regulators and hormones

– Induces and regulates labor, the process by which childbirth occurs

Estrogen Oxytocin

fromovaries

from fetusand mother'sposterior pituitary

Induces oxytocinreceptors on uterus

Stimulates uterusto contract

Stimulatesplacenta to make

Prostaglandins

Stimulate morecontractions

of uterus

Po

sitiv

e f

ee

db

ack

Figure 46.18


• Birth, or parturition

– Is brought about by a series of strong, rhythmic uterine contractions


• The process of labor has three stages

Figure 46.19

Placenta

Umbilicalcord

Uterus

Cervix

Dilation of the cervix

Expulsion: delivery of the infant

Uterus

Placenta(detaching)

Umbilicalcord

Delivery of the placenta

1

2

3


The Mother’s Immune Tolerance of the Embryo and Fetus

• A woman’s acceptance of her “foreign” offspring

– Is not fully understood

– May be due to the suppression of the immune response in her uterus


Contraception and Abortion

• Contraception, the deliberate prevention of pregnancy

– Can be achieved in a number of ways


• Some contraceptive methods

– Prevent the release of mature eggs and sperm from gonads

– Prevent fertilization by keeping sperm and egg apart

– Prevent implantation of an embryo


• Mechanisms of some contraceptive methods

Figure 46.20

Male Female

Method Event Event Method

Production ofviable sperm

Production ofviable oocytes

VasectomyCombinationbirth control pill (or injection,patch, orvaginal ring)Sperm transport

down maleduct system

Ovulation

Abstinence

Condom

Coitusinterruptus(very highfailure rate)

Spermdepositedin vagina

Capture of theoocyte by the

oviduct

Abstinence

Tubal ligation

Spermicides;diaphragm;cervical cap;progestin alone(minipill, implant,or injection)

Sperm movementthrough female

reproductivetract

Transportof oocyte in

oviduct

Meeting of sperm and oocytein oviduct

Morning-after pill (MAP)Union of sperm and egg

Implantation of blastocyst in properly prepared

endometrium

Birth

Progestin alone


Modern Reproductive Technology

• Recent scientific and technological advances

– Have made it possible to deal with many reproductive problems


• Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling

– Are invasive techniques in which amniotic fluid or fetal cells are obtained for genetic analysis


• Noninvasive procedures

– Usually use ultrasound imaging to detect fetal condition

Figure 46.21

Head

Body

Head

Body


• Modern technology

– Can help infertile couples by in vitro fertilization


PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition

Neil Campbell and Jane Reece

Lectures by Chris Romero

Chapter 47Chapter 47

Animal Development


• Overview: A Body-Building Plan for Animals

• It is difficult to imagine

– That each of us began life as a single cell, a zygote


• A human embryo at approximately 6–8 weeks after conception

– Shows the development of distinctive features

Figure 47.1 1 mm


• The question of how a zygote becomes an animal

– Has been asked for centuries

• As recently as the 18th century

– The prevailing theory was a notion called preformation


• Preformation is the idea that the egg or sperm contains an embryo

– A preformed miniature infant, or “homunculus,” that simply becomes larger during development

Figure 47.2


• An organism’s development

– Is determined by the genome of the zygote and by differences that arise between early embryonic cells

• Cell differentiation

– Is the specialization of cells in their structure and function

• Morphogenesis

– Is the process by which an animal takes shape


• Concept 47.1: After fertilization, embryonic development proceeds through cleavage, gastrulation, and organogenesis

• Important events regulating development

– Occur during fertilization and each of the three successive stages that build the animal’s body


Fertilization

• The main function of fertilization

– Is to bring the haploid nuclei of sperm and egg together to form a diploid zygote

• Contact of the sperm with the egg’s surface

– Initiates metabolic reactions within the egg that trigger the onset of embryonic development


The Acrosomal Reaction

• The acrosomal reaction

– Is triggered when the sperm meets the egg

– Releases hydrolytic enzymes that digest material surrounding the egg


• The acrosomal reaction

Spermnucleus

Sperm plasmamembrane

Hydrolytic enzymes

Corticalgranule

Cortical granulemembrane

EGG CYTOPLASM

Basal body(centriole)

Spermhead

Acrosomalprocess

Actin

Acrosome

Jelly coatEgg plasmamembrane

Vitelline layer

Fused plasmamembranes

Perivitellinespace

Fertilizationenvelope

Cortical reaction. Fusion of the gamete membranes triggers an increase of Ca2+ in the egg’s cytosol, causing cortical granules in the egg to fuse with the plasma membrane and discharge their contents. This leads to swelling of the perivitelline space, hardening of thevitelline layer, and clipping of sperm-binding receptors. The resulting fertilization envelope is the slow block to polyspermy.

5 Contact and fusion of sperm and egg membranes. A hole is made in the vitelline layer, allowing contact and fusion of the gamete plasma membranes. The membrane becomes depolarized, resulting in the fast block to polyspermy.

3 Acrosomal reaction. Hydrolytic enzymes released from the acrosome make a hole in the jelly coat, while growing actin filaments form the acrosomal process. This structure protrudes from the sperm head and penetrates the jelly coat, bindingto receptors in the egg cell membrane that extend through the vitelline layer.

2 Contact. The sperm cell contacts the egg’s jelly coat, triggering exocytosis from the sperm’s acrosome.

1

Sperm-bindingreceptors

Entry of sperm nucleus.4

Figure 47.3


• Gamete contact and/or fusion

– Depolarizes the egg cell membrane and sets up a fast block to polyspermy


The Cortical Reaction

• Fusion of egg and sperm also initiates the cortical reaction

– Inducing a rise in Ca2+ that stimulates cortical granules to release their contents outside the egg

Figure 47.4

A fluorescent dye that glows when it binds free Ca2+ was injected into unfertilized sea urchin eggs. After sea urchin sperm were added, researchers observed the eggs in a fluorescence microscope.

EXPERIMENT

RESULTS

The release of Ca2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum into the cytosol at the site of sperm entry triggers the release of more and more Ca2+ in a wave that spreads to the other side of the cell. The entire process takes about 30 seconds.

CONCLUSION

30 sec20 sec10 sec afterfertilization

1 sec beforefertilization

Point ofspermentry

Spreading waveof calcium ions

500 m


• These changes cause the formation of a fertilization envelope

– That functions as a slow block to polyspermy


Activation of the Egg

• Another outcome of the sharp rise in Ca2+ in the egg’s cytosol

– Is a substantial increase in the rates of cellular respiration and protein synthesis by the egg cell

• With these rapid changes in metabolism

– The egg is said to be activated


• In a fertilized egg of a sea urchin, a model organism

– Many events occur in the activated egg

Figure 47.5

Binding of sperm to egg

Acrosomal reaction: plasma membranedepolarization (fast block to polyspermy)

Increased intracellular calcium level

Cortical reaction begins (slow block to polyspermy)

Formation of fertilization envelope complete

Increased intracellular pH

Increased protein synthesis

Fusion of egg and sperm nuclei complete

Onset of DNA synthesis

First cell division

1

2

34

6

8

10

20

30

4050

1

2

345

10

20

30

40

60

Sec

onds

Mi n

utes

90


Fertilization in Mammals

• In mammalian fertilization, the cortical reaction

– Modifies the zona pellucida as a slow block to polyspermy

Figure 47.6

Spermnucleus

Acrosomalvesicle

Egg plasmamembrane

Zonapellucida

Spermbasalbody

Corticalgranules

Folliclecell

EGG CYTOPLASM

The sperm migratesthrough the coat of follicle cells and binds to receptor molecules in the zona pellucida of the egg. (Receptor molecules are not shown here.)

1 This binding induces the acrosomal reaction, in which the sperm releases hydrolytic enzymes into the zona pellucida.

2 Breakdown of the zona pellucida by these enzymes allows the spermto reach the plasma membrane of the egg. Membrane proteins of the sperm bind to receptors on the egg membrane, and the two membranes fuse.

3 The nucleus and other components of the sperm cell enter the egg.

4

Enzymes released during the cortical reaction harden the zona pellucida, which now functions as a block to polyspermy.

5


Cleavage

• Fertilization is followed by cleavage

– A period of rapid cell division without growth


• Cleavage partitions the cytoplasm of one large cell

– Into many smaller cells called blastomeres

Figure 47.7a–d

Fertilized egg. Shown here is thezygote shortly before the first cleavage division, surrounded by the fertilization envelope. The nucleus is visible in the center.

(a) Four-cell stage. Remnants of the mitotic spindle can be seen between the two cells that have just completed the second cleavage division.

(b) Morula. After further cleavage divisions, the embryo is a multicellular ball that is stillsurrounded by the fertilization envelope. The blastocoel cavityhas begun to form.

(c) Blastula. A single layer of cells surrounds a large blastocoel cavity. Although not visible here, the fertilization envelope is still present; the embryo will soon hatch from it and begin swimming.

(d)


• The eggs and zygotes of many animals, except mammals

– Have a definite polarity

• The polarity is defined by the distribution of yolk

– With the vegetal pole having the most yolk and the animal pole having the least


• The development of body axes in frogs

– Is influenced by the polarity of the egg

Figure 47.8a, b

Anterior

Ventral

Left

Posterior

Dorsal

Right

Body axes. The three axes of the fully developed embryo, thetadpole, are shown above.

(a)

Animalhemisphere

Animal polePoint ofsperm entry

Vegetalhemisphere Vegetal pole

Point ofspermentry Future

dorsalside oftadpoleGray

crescentFirstcleavage

The polarity of the egg determines the anterior-posterior axis before fertilization.

At fertilization, the pigmented cortex slides over the underlyingcytoplasm toward the point of sperm entry. This rotation (red arrow)exposes a region of lighter-colored cytoplasm, the gray crescent, which is a marker of the dorsal side.

The first cleavage division bisects the gray crescent. Once the anterior-posterior and dorsal-ventral axes are defined, so is the left-right axis.

(b) Establishing the axes. The polarity of the egg and cortical rotation are critical in setting up the body axes.

1

2

3


• Cleavage planes usually follow a specific pattern

– That is relative to the animal and vegetal poles of the zygote

Figure 47.9

Zygote

2-cellstageforming

4-cellstageforming

8-cellstage

Eight-cell stage (viewed from the animal pole). The largeamount of yolk displaces the third cleavage toward the animal pole,forming two tiers of cells. The four cells near the animal pole(closer, in this view) are smaller than the other four cells (SEM).

0.25 mm0.25 mm

Vegetal pole

Blastula(crosssection)

Animal poleBlasto-coel

Blastula (at least 128 cells). As cleavage continues, a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel, forms within the embryo. Because of unequal cell division due to the large amount of yolk in the vegetal hemisphere, the blastocoel is located in the animal hemisphere, as shown in the cross section. The SEM shows the outside of a blastula with about 4,000 cells, looking at the animal pole. Vegetal pole

Blastula(crosssection)

Animal poleBlasto-coel

0.25 mm

0.25 mm


• Meroblastic cleavage, incomplete division of the egg

– Occurs in species with yolk-rich eggs, such as reptiles and birds

Figure 47.10 Epiblast Hypoblast

BLASTODERMBlastocoel

YOLK MASS

Fertilized eggDisk ofcytoplasm

Zygote. Most of the cell’s volume is yolk, with a small disk of cytoplasm located at the animal pole.

Four-cell stage. Early cell divisions are meroblastic (incomplete). The cleavage furrow extends through the cytoplasm but not through the yolk.

Blastoderm. The many cleavage divisions produce the blastoderm, a mass of cells that rests on top of the yolk mass.

Cutaway view of the blastoderm. The cells of the blastoderm are arranged in two layers, the epiblastand hypoblast, that enclose a fluid-filled cavity, theblastocoel.

3

1

2


• Holoblastic cleavage, the complete division of the egg

– Occurs in species whose eggs have little or moderate amounts of yolk, such as sea urchins and frogs


Gastrulation

• The morphogenetic process called gastrulation

– Rearranges the cells of a blastula into a three-layered embryo, called a gastrula, that has a primitive gut


• The three layers produced by gastrulation

– Are called embryonic germ layers

• The ectoderm

– Forms the outer layer of the gastrula

• The endoderm

– Lines the embryonic digestive tract

• The mesoderm

– Partly fills the space between the endoderm and ectoderm


• Gastrulation in a sea urchin

– Produces an embryo with a primitive gut and three germ layers

Figure 47.11

Digestive tube (endoderm)

Key

Future ectodermFuture mesodermFuture endoderm

BlastocoelMesenchymecells

Vegetalplate

Animalpole

Vegetalpole

Filopodiapullingarchenterontip

Archenteron

Blastocoel

Blastopore

50 µm

Blastopore

Archenteron

Blastocoel

Mouth

Ectoderm

Mesenchyme:(mesodermforms future skeleton) Anus (from blastopore)

Mesenchymecells

The blastula consists of a single layer of ciliated cells surrounding the blastocoel. Gastrulation begins with the migration of mesenchyme cells from the vegetal pole into the blastocoel.

1

2 The vegetal plate invaginates (buckles inward). Mesenchyme cells migrate throughout the blastocoel.2

Endoderm cells form the archenteron (future digestive tube). New mesenchyme cells at the tip of the tube begin to send out thin extensions (filopodia) toward the ectoderm cells of the blastocoel wall (inset, LM).

3

Contraction of these filopodia then drags the archenteron across the blastocoel.4

Fusion of the archenteron with the blastocoel wall completes formation of the digestive tube with a mouth and an anus. The gastrula has three germ layers and is covered with cilia, which function in swimming and feeding.

5


• The mechanics of gastrulation in a frog

– Are more complicated than in a sea urchin

Figure 47.12

SURFACE VIEW CROSS SECTIONAnimal pole

Blastocoel

Dorsal lipof blastopore

Dorsal lipof blastoporeVegetal pole Blastula

Blastocoelshrinking

Archenteron

Blastocoelremnant

EctodermMesoderm

Endoderm

GastrulaYolk plugYolk plug

Key

Future ectoderm

Future mesoderm

Future endoderm

Gastrulation begins when a small indented crease, the dorsal lip of the blastopore, appears on one side of the blastula. The crease is formed by cellschanging shape and pushing inward from the surface (invagination). Additional cells then rollinward over the dorsal lip (involution) and move intothe interior, where they will form endoderm andmesoderm. Meanwhile, cells of the animal pole, the future ectoderm, change shape and begin spreading over the outer surface.

The blastopore lip grows on both sides of the embryo, as more cells invaginate. When the sides of the lip meet, the blastopore forms a circle thatbecomes smaller as ectoderm spreads downward over the surface. Internally, continued involutionexpands the endoderm and mesoderm, and the archenteron begins to form; as a result, the blastocoel becomes smaller.

1

2

3 Late in gastrulation, the endoderm-lined archenteron has completely replaced the blastocoel and the three germ layers are in place. The circular blastopore surrounds a plug of yolk-filled cells.


• Gastrulation in the chick

– Is affected by the large amounts of yolk in the egg

Figure 47.13

Epiblast

Futureectoderm

Migratingcells(mesoderm)

Endoderm

Hypoblast

YOLK

Primitivestreak


Organogenesis

• Various regions of the three embryonic germ layers

– Develop into the rudiments of organs during the process of organogenesis


• Early in vertebrate organogenesis

– The notochord forms from mesoderm and the neural plate forms from ectoderm

Figure 47.14a

Neural plate formation. By the timeshown here, the notochord has developed from dorsal mesoderm, and the dorsal ectoderm hasthickened, forming the neural plate, in response to signals from thenotochord. The neural folds arethe two ridges that form the lateral edges of the neural plate. These are visible in the light micrographof a whole embryo.

Neural folds

1 mm

Neuralfold

Neuralplate

NotochordEctoderm

MesodermEndoderm

Archenteron

(a)

LM


• The neural plate soon curves inward

– Forming the neural tube

Figure 47.14b

Formation of the neural tube. Infolding and pinching off of the neural plate generates the neural tube. Note the neural crest cells, which will migrate and give rise to numerousstructures.

Neuralfold

Neural plate

Neural crest

Outer layer of ectoderm

Neural crest

Neural tube

(b)


• Mesoderm lateral to the notochord

– Forms blocks called somites

• Lateral to the somites

– The mesoderm splits to form the coelom

Figure 47.14c

Somites. The drawing shows an embryoafter completion of the neural tube. By this time, the lateral mesoderm hasbegun to separate into the two tissuelayers that line the coelom; the somites, formed from mesoderm, flank thenotochord. In the scanning electron micrograph, a side view of a whole embryo at the tail-bud stage, part of the ectoderm has been removed, revealingthe somites, which will give rise to segmental structures such as vertebrae and skeletal muscle.

Eye Somites Tail bud

1 mmNeural tube

Notochord Neuralcrest

Somite

Archenteron(digestive cavity)

Coelom

(c)

SEM


• Organogenesis in the chick

– Is quite similar to that in the frog

Figure 47.15a, b

Neural tube

Notochord

Archenteron

Lateral fold

Form extraembryonicmembranes

YOLKYolk stalk

Somite

Coelom

EndodermMesoderm

Ectoderm

Yolk sac

Eye

Forebrain

Heart

Blood vessels

Somites

Neural tube

Early organogenesis. The archenteron forms when lateral folds pinch the embryo away from the yolk. The embryo remains opento the yolk, attached by the yolk stalk, about midway along its length,as shown in this cross section. The notochord, neural tube, and somites subsequently form much as they do in the frog.

(a) Late organogenesis. Rudiments of most major organs have already formed in this chick embryo, which is about 56 hours old and about 2–3 mm long (LM).

(b)


• Many different structures

– Are derived from the three embryonic germ layers during organogenesis

Figure 47.16

ECTODERM MESODERM ENDODERM

• Epidermis of skin and itsderivatives (including sweatglands, hair follicles)

• Epithelial lining of mouthand rectum

• Sense receptors inepidermis

• Cornea and lens of eye• Nervous system• Adrenal medulla• Tooth enamel• Epithelium or pineal and

pituitary glands

• Notochord• Skeletal system• Muscular system• Muscular layer of stomach, intestine, etc.• Excretory system• Circulatory and lymphatic

systems• Reproductive system

(except germ cells)• Dermis of skin• Lining of body cavity• Adrenal cortex

• Epithelial lining ofdigestive tract

• Epithelial lining ofrespiratory system

• Lining of urethra, urinarybladder, and reproductivesystem

• Liver• Pancreas• Thymus• Thyroid and parathyroid

glands


Developmental Adaptations of Amniotes

• The embryos of birds, other reptiles, and mammals

– Develop within a fluid-filled sac that is contained within a shell or the uterus

• Organisms with these adaptations

– Are called amniotes


• In these three types of organisms, the three germ layers

– Also give rise to the four extraembryonic membranes that surround the developing embryo

Figure 47.17

Amnion. The amnion protectsthe embryo in a fluid-filled cavity that preventsdehydration and cushions mechanical shock.

Allantois. The allantois functions as a disposal sac for certain metabolic wastes produced by the embryo. The membrane of the allantois also functions with the chorion as a respiratory organ.

Chorion. The chorion and the membrane of the allantois exchange gases between the embryo and the surrounding air. Oxygen and carbon dioxidediffuse freely across the egg’sshell.

Yolk sac. The yolk sac expands over the yolk, a stockpile ofnutrients stored in the egg. Blood vessels in the yolk sac membrane transport nutrients from the yolk into the embryo. Other nutrients are stored in the albumen (the “egg white”).

EmbryoAmnioticcavitywithamnioticfluid

Shell

Albumen

Yolk(nutrients)


Mammalian Development

• The eggs of placental mammals

– Are small and store few nutrients

– Exhibit holoblastic cleavage

– Show no obvious polarity


• Gastrulation and organogenesis

– Resemble the processes in birds and other reptiles


• Early embryonic development in a human

– Proceeds through four stages

Figure 47.18

Endometrium(uterine lining)

Inner cell mass

Trophoblast

Blastocoel

Expandingregion oftrophoblast

Epiblast

HypoblastTrophoblast

Expandingregion oftrophoblast

Amnioticcavity

Epiblast

Hypoblast

Chorion (fromtrophoblast)

Yolk sac (fromhypoblast)

Extraembryonic mesoderm cells(from epiblast)

Amnion

Chorion

Ectoderm

Mesoderm

Endoderm

Yolk sac

Extraembryonicmesoderm

Allantois

Amnion

Maternalbloodvessel

Blastocystreaches uterus.

1

Blastocystimplants.

2

Extraembryonicmembranesstart to form andgastrulation begins.

3

Gastrulation has produced a three-layered embryo with fourextraembryonic membranes.

4


• At the completion of cleavage

– The blastocyst forms

• The trophoblast, the outer epithelium of the blastocyst

– Initiates implantation in the uterus, and the blastocyst forms a flat disk of cells


• As implantation is completed

– Gastrulation begins

– The extraembryonic membranes begin to form

• By the end of gastrulation

– The embryonic germ layers have formed


• The extraembryonic membranes in mammals

– Are homologous to those of birds and other reptiles and have similar functions


• Concept 47.2: Morphogenesis in animals involves specific changes in cell shape, position, and adhesion

• Morphogenesis is a major aspect of development in both plants and animals

– But only in animals does it involve the movement of cells


The Cytoskeleton, Cell Motility, and Convergent Extension

• Changes in the shape of a cell

– Usually involve reorganization of the cytoskeleton


• The formation of the neural tube

– Is affected by microtubules and microfilaments

Figure 47.19

Microtubules help elongatethe cells of the neural plate.1

Pinching off of the neural plate forms the neural tube.4

Ectoderm

Neuralplate

Microfilaments at the dorsal end of the cells may then contract,deforming the cells into wedge shapes.

Cell wedging in the opposite direction causes the ectoderm to form a “hinge.”

2

3


• The cytoskeleton also drives cell migration, or cell crawling

– The active movement of cells from one place to another

• In gastrulation, tissue invagination

– Is caused by changes in both cell shape and cell migration


• Cell crawling is also involved in convergent extension

– A type of morphogenetic movement in which the cells of a tissue become narrower and longer

Figure 47.20Conve

rgence

Extension


Roles of the Extracellular Matrix and Cell Adhesion Molecules

• Fibers of the extracellular matrix

– May function as tracks, directing migrating cells along particular routes


• Several kinds of glycoproteins, including fibronectin

– Promote cell migration by providing specific molecular anchorage for moving cells

Figure 47.21

EXPERIMENT Researchers placed a strip of fibronectin on an artificial underlayer. After positioning migratory neural crest cells at one end of the strip, the researchers observed the movement of the cells in a light microscope.

CONCLUSION

RESULTS In this micrograph, the dashed lines indicate the edges of the fibronectin layer. Note that cells are migrating along the strip, not off of it.

Fibronectin helps promote cell migration, possibly by providing anchorage for the migrating cells.

Direction of migration50 µm


• Cell adhesion molecules

– Also contribute to cell migration and stable tissue structure


• One important class of cell-to-cell adhesion molecule is the cadherins

– Which are important in the formation of the frog blastula

Figure 47.22 CONCLUSION

EXPERIMENT Researchers injected frog eggs with nucleic acid complementary to the mRNA encoding a cadherin known as EP cadherin. This “antisense” nucleic acid leads to destruction of the mRNA for normal EP cadherin, so no EP cadherin protein is produced. Frog sperm were then added to control (noninjected) eggs and to experimental (injected) eggs. The control and experimental embryos that developed were observed in a light microscope.

RESULTS As shown in these micrographs, fertilized control eggs developed into normal blastulas, but fertilized experimental eggs did not. In the absence of EP cadherin, the blastocoel did not form properly, and the cells were arranged in a disorganized fashion.

Control embryo

Experimental embryo

Proper blastula formation in the frog requires EP cadherin.


• Concept 47.3: The developmental fate of cells depends on their history and on inductive signals

• Coupled with morphogenetic changes

– Development also requires the timely differentiation of many kinds of cells at specific locations

• Two general principles

– Underlie differentiation during embryonic development


• First, during early cleavage divisions

– Embryonic cells must somehow become different from one another

• Second, once initial cell asymmetries are set up

– Subsequent interactions among the embryonic cells influence their fate, usually by causing changes in gene expression


Fate Mapping

• Fate maps

– Are general territorial diagrams of embryonic development


• Classic studies using frogs

– Gave indications that the lineage of cells making up the three germ layers created by gastrulation is traceable to cells in the blastula

Figure 47.23a

Fate map of a frog embryo. The fates of groups of cells in a frog blastula (left) weredetermined in part by marking different regions of the blastula surface with nontoxic dyesof various colors. The embryos were sectioned at later stages of development, such as the neural tube stage shown on the right, and the locations of the dyed cells determined.

Neural tube stage(transverse section)Blastula

Epidermis

Epidermis

Centralnervoussystem

Notochord

Mesoderm

Endoderm

(a)


• Later studies developed techniques

– That marked an individual blastomere during cleavage and then followed it through development

Figure 47.23b

Cell lineage analysis in a tunicate. In lineage analysis, an individual cell is injected with a dye during cleavage, as indicated in the drawings of 64-cell embryos of a tunicate, an invertebrate chordate. The dark regions in the light micrographs of larvae correspond to the cells that developed from the two different blastomeres indicated in the drawings.

(b)


Establishing Cellular Asymmetries

• To understand at the molecular level how embryonic cells acquire their fates

– It is helpful to think first about how the basic axes of the embryo are established


The Axes of the Basic Body Plan

• In nonamniotic vertebrates

– Basic instructions for establishing the body axes are set down early, during oogenesis or fertilization


• In amniotes, local environmental differences

– Play the major role in establishing initial differences between cells and, later, the body axes


Restriction of Cellular Potency

• In many species that have cytoplasmic determinants

– Only the zygote is totipotent, capable of developing into all the cell types found in the adult


• Unevenly distributed cytoplasmic determinants in the egg cell

– Are important in establishing the body axes

– Set up differences in blastomeres resulting from cleavage


Blastomeres that receive half or all of the gray crescent develop into normal embryos, but a blastomere that receives none of the gray crescent gives rise to an abnormal embryo without dorsal structures. Spemann called it a “belly piece.”

EXPERIMENT

RESULTS

CONCLUSION The totipotency of the two blastomeres normally formed during the first cleavage division depends on cytoplasmic determinants localized in the gray crescent.

Left (control):Fertilizedsalamander eggswere allowed todivide normally,resulting in thegray crescent beingevenly dividedbetween the twoblastomeres.

Right (experimental):Fertilized eggs wereconstricted by athread so that thefirst cleavage planerestricted the graycrescent to oneblastomere.

Graycrescent

The two blastomeres werethen separated andallowed to develop.

Graycrescent

Normal

Bellypiece Normal

1

2

Figure 47.24


• As embryonic development proceeds

– The potency of cells becomes progressively more limited in all species


Cell Fate Determination and Pattern Formation by Inductive Signals

• Once embryonic cell division creates cells that differ from each other

– The cells begin to influence each other’s fates by induction


The “Organizer” of Spemann and Mangold

• Based on the results of their most famous experiment

– Spemann and Mangold concluded that the dorsal lip of the blastopore functions as an organizer of the embryo


• The organizer initiates a chain of inductions

– That results in the formation of the notochord, the neural tube, and other organs

Figure 47.25

EXPERIMENT

RESULTS

CONCLUSION

Spemann and Mangold transplanted a piece of the dorsal lip of a pigmented newt gastrula to the ventral side of the early gastrula of a nonpigmented newt.

During subsequent development, the recipient embryo formed a second notochord and neural tube in the region of the transplant, and eventually most of a second embryo. Examination of the interior of the double embryorevealed that the secondary structures were formed in part from host tissue.

The transplanted dorsal lip was able to induce cells in a different region of the recipient to form structures different from their normal fate. In effect, the dorsal lip “organized” the later development of an entire embryo.

Pigmented gastrula(donor embryo)

Dorsal lip ofblastopore

Nonpigmented gastrula(recipient embryo)

Primary embryo

Secondary (induced) embryoPrimarystructures:

Neural tubeNotochord

Secondarystructures:

Notochord (pigmented cells)Neural tube (mostly nonpigmented cells)


Formation of the Vertebrate Limb

• Inductive signals play a major role in pattern formation

– The development of an animal’s spatial organization


• The molecular cues that control pattern formation, called positional information

– Tell a cell where it is with respect to the animal’s body axes

– Determine how the cell and its descendents respond to future molecular signals


• The wings and legs of chicks, like all vertebrate limbs

– Begin as bumps of tissue called limb buds

Figure 47.26a

Limb bud

Anterior

AER

ZPAPosterior

Organizer regions. Vertebrate limbs develop fromprotrusions called limb buds, each consisting of mesoderm cells covered by a layer of ectoderm. Two regions, termed the apical ectodermal ridge (AER, shown in this SEM) and the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA), play key organizer roles in limb pattern formation.

(a)

Apicalectodermal

ridge

50 µm


• The embryonic cells within a limb bud

– Respond to positional information indicating location along three axes

Figure 47.26b

Digits

Anterior

Ventral

DistalProximal

DorsalPosterior

Wing of chick embryo. As the bud develops into alimb, a specific pattern of tissues emerges. In the chick wing, for example, the three digits are always present in the arrangement shown here. Pattern formation requires each embryonic cell to receive some kind of positional information indicating location along the three axes of the limb. The AERand ZPA secrete molecules that help provide thisinformation.

(b)


• One limb-bud organizer region is the apical ectodermal ridge (AER)

– A thickened area of ectoderm at the tip of the bud

• The second major limb-bud organizer region is the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA)

– A block of mesodermal tissue located underneath the ectoderm where the posterior side of the bud is attached to the body


• Tissue transplantation experiments

– Support the hypothesis that the ZPA produces some sort of inductive signal that conveys positional information indicating “posterior”

Figure 47.27

EXPERIMENT

RESULTS

CONCLUSION

ZPA tissue from a donor chick embryo was transplanted under the ectoderm in the anterior margin of a recipient chick limb bud.

Anterior

Donorlimbbud

Hostlimbbud

Posterior

ZPA

The mirror-image duplication observed in this experiment suggests that ZPA cells secrete a signal that diffuses from its source and conveys positional information indicating “posterior.” As the distance from the ZPA increases, the signal concentration decreases and hence more anterior digits develop.

New ZPA

In the grafted host limb bud, extra digits developed from host tissue in a mirror-image arrangement to the normal digits, which also formed (see Figure 47.26b for a diagram of a normal chick wing).


• Signal molecules produced by inducing cells

– Influence gene expression in the cells that receive them

– Lead to differentiation and the development of particular structures

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