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Ilam i Lai AmericaM. David Sills and Kevin Bagget

M. D S isA. P.and Faye Stone Professor ofChristian Missions and Cultural

Anthropolog y at e SouthernBaptist eological Seminary.

Dr. Sills previously served as

a missionary in Ec uador, asa church planter and generalevangelist among the HighlandQuichua people and as Rectorand professor at the EcuadorianBaptist eological Seminary.His recent books i nclude Reachingand Teaching: A Call to Great

Commission Obedience (Moody,2010) and e Missionary Call:Find Your Place in Gods Plan for the

World (Moody, 2008).

K Bis a D.Miss.

candidate at e Southern Baptisteological Seminary.

IntRoduCtIon

I tragic events of 9/11 for Islam toregister on the radar screen of many Ameri-cans. Since then, a growing awareness of Islams

strength and inuence in our worldis causing an uneasiness among

Westerners. is grow ing aware-ness is not only fueled by the dailynews of revolts and riots in thepredominantly Muslim countries

of the world, but also by Islamsburgeoni ng global advance. Thecontemporary resurgence and rapidspread of Islam evokes words ofcaution and concern from conser-

vative Western politicians, but alsofrom theologians and missiologists.

A recent instal lment of the Kai-ros Journal, repor ting on currenttrends in world religions and world-

views states:

This new phase of Islamic resur-

gence is funded by wealthy, oil-

rich Muslim nations and is facilitated by the

movement of Islamic populations into post-

Christian Western societies. ese new Muslim

immigrant communities jostle for power with

declining European societies that have lost much

of their condence and sense of pride in their

own heritage. Western government policies on

multiculturalism facilitate the empowerment

of well-organized Muslim minorities. In turn,

these increasingly dynam ic Muslim immigrant

communities throughout the West are undergo-

ing a process of creeping militancy, increasingly

inuenced by Islamic activists seeking to gain

strategic advantage.

1

Remarkably, while the prevalence of Islam i nEurope is frequently addressed, most Westernersare unaware of the growing presence of Muslimsin Latin America. This growing population andinuence has come about through immigration as

well as conversions of Latinos to Islam. A Googlesearch of the terms Islam in Latin Americareturned over 10,000,000 results. These resultsincluded blogs, websites, organizations, and even

Wi kiped ia entries ded icated to the presence ofIslam in Latin America, all of which are divided

between th ose in favor and thos e opposed toIslams growth. Less well k nown is the commonhistory they share.

SBJT15.2 (2011): 28-41.


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MusLI Ms And LAtI n A MERICA ns

e close proximity of Spaniards and Moors inthe Iberian Peninsula for almost 800 years (A.D.711-1492) resulted in many cultural, linguistic,

worldv iew commonal it ies, and even a sh ar edancestry in some cases through physical relations,

forced and otherwise. e U.S. has an increasinginterest in and curiosity about Islam, nervouslynoting Muslim arrivals at U.S. airports. Yet, manyfail to real ize that Muslims have found a home inthe countries of our southern neighbors in Latin

America. What is the origin of the interface of theMuslim world and Latin America? What evange-listic and missiological strategies and methodolo-gies are suggested by this reality? And what are themissiological implications for engaging the U.S.,Latin America, and the world of Islam? To under-stand the current reality, one must be aware of theorigins of Islam and how it came to Latin America.

IslaM: froM the araBIa n

PenInsula to the

aMer Ica n Present

In the early seventh century, Muhammadsclaims of divine revelation formed Islam. Fromthis isolated beginning, one of evangelical mis-sions most daunting chal lenges has grown from

a regional faith to a global movement. As Islammatured, several distinct branches developed. emajor branches are well-known, such as the Sunni,Shiia, and Su. Others are lesser known but stillnd their roots in Islam, such as the Druze, Alawi,and Ismaeli. Folk Islam appeared when tribalgroups fused traditional animistic beliefs withIslamic traditions. Radical Islam and groups suchas the Nation of Islam further complicate the taskof the evangelical worlds aempt to understandthis world religion.

Hi storica l Spr ea d of Islam

Islam has historically spread in two distinctand deliberate ways: peacefully and forcefully.

J. Dudley Woodberr y emphasizes the importanceof distinguishing between either the military

or political rule of Islam and spiritual conver-sion to Islam.2 Woodberry writes, e adoptionof Islam ranged from total conversion, to alle-giance for expediency because of its advantages,to forced submission.3

A.D. 630-1258

Islam was not born in religious isolation.Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism wereall present in Meccaamong Muhammads ownpolytheistic tribewhen he began proclaiminghis revelations from Allah. ese revelations sub-sequently formed the Quran. The monotheisticteachings of Muhammad and his subsequent per-secution led him to move with his followers out-side of Mecca to Yathrib, later named Medina. InMedina, the number of followers of Muhammadgrew through spiritual conversion and the politicalsubmission of fellow tribal groups. Two key eventshappened withi n the initia l few years of Islamsexistence. In 630, with lile resistance, Muham-mad subdued the people of Mecca and integratedthe Meccan tribes into his followers. Later, aerMuhammads death in 632, his followers were leto develop a new Islamic leadership structure.4

Abu Bak r beca me the f irst cal iph, or Muslimleader, chosen in the new structure. A dissenting

group claimed Ali ibn Abu Talib, a blood relativeof Muhammad as well as Muhammads son-in-law,to be the rightful leader of Islam. is group even-tually formed the Shia division of Islam. Abu Bakrnot only sustained Islam by compiling primaryaccounts of the teachings of Muhammad, but healso used militar y force to expand Muslim terri-tory to the north and south. Abu Bakrs two-yearreign ended with his death in 634.5

Umar ibn al Khattab succeeded Abu Bakrand reigned for ten years. Umar called hi mself

the Commander of the Faithfu l. He furtherexpanded the borders of Islam through the useof military force. Umar, selected by Abu Bakron his deathbed, also changed the procedure forselecting a new caliph by entrusting the transferof power to a selection commiee.6 e commit-


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tee chose Uthman ibn Aan to be the next cal iph.Uthman reigned from 644-656 and continued thetrend of conquering territory by force. Donnerdescribes the conquered territory: By the mid-650s the Believers rul ing from Medina had loosecontrol over a vast area stretching from Yemen to

Armenia and from Egypt to eastern Iran.7Uthman died in a rebellion caused by his

appointment of his nephew, Muawiya, as gover-nor of Syria. Ali ibn Abu Talib was chosen as thefourth caliph. A li was passed over in each of theprevious three successions of power, despite hisfamilial tie to Muhammad. Following two civil

wa rs ove r the ri ghtf ul ca li ph, the fol lowers ofIslam were essentially le with A li and Muawiya.e Shia and Sunni orders of Islam were formedfrom the followers of these two men.8 After the

death of Ali and Muawiya, followers of Islamembraced their identity as Musli msthat is,as a monotheist confession following the teach-ings of Muhammad and the Quran.9 The years

between 70 0 and 950 represente d an age ofpolitical and communal expansion, great institu-tional and cultural development, and economicgrowth.10 Shariah law was developed, andMuslim territory continued to expand includ-ing North Africa, Spain, Syria, Persia, and evenblack Africa.11

By the eleventh century, the caliphss powerwas eventual ly limited to religiou s authorit y aspolitical and military power was siphoned away byregional camps. e Sus, Ismaelis, and Druzesdeveloped during this time.12 By the twelh cen-tury, Ghana and Mali contained Muslim commu-nities as well.13 e ocial caliphate era ultimatelyended when the Mongol dynasty entered Muslimterritory by force in 1258.

A.D. 1258-1453The Mongol dynasty of Genghis Khan

stormed into Muslim-held territory in 1258. Ledby Genghiss grandson, the Mongols gained con-trol of signicant portions of Iran and Iraq beforestalling in Syria. Future Muslim leaders were,

therefore, inuenced by Mongol culture. Leadersbegan clai ming descent from Gengh is K han andbelieved the ruler could form law, introducing thenotion of the rulers decree as law.14 e strengthof Islam was a lso proven during Mongol rule asthe religious beliefs and culture of Islam perse-

vered in spite of foreign control.Beginning i n 1095, Muslim nations also

defended themselves against the Christian Cru-saders. e Crusades ended in 1453 when TurkishMuslims claimed Istanbul, where the OttomanEmpires headquarters were established.

A.D. 1454-1879

Despite opposition, Islam continued to spread.e Mamluks, who had turned back the advanc-ing Mongols in France, gained power and ruled

Egypt until 1517. Several Muslim sultans regainedpower, and the Musl im world extended from

Africa to Southeast Asia, from Timbuktu to Min-danao, as Islam penetrated Africa, Central andSoutheast Asia, and Eastern Europe.15 In theirsketch of the history of Islam, Peter Riddell andPeter Coerell describe Islams spread during theOoman Empire:

e issue of conversion is key. Before the Turkish

migrations into Asia Minor, the vast majority of

the population was Christian. By the eenth

century, over 90 percent of the population was

Muslim. Lapidus comments that some of this

change was due to immigration of a large Muslim

population, but in great part it was due to the

conversion of Christ ians to Islam.16

While the Ooman Empire was the most nota-ble, it was not the only signicant Muslim empireestablished prior to the twentieth century. The

Persian Empire was primarily Shia, located inpresent-day Iran, and ruled from 1501-1722. eMughal Empire was another signicant Muslimempire, and its seat was Delhi, India. e Mughalsreigned in India until Britain colonized the terri-tory. Islam was also propagated through Indian


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trade routes to Southeast Asia until the Britishgained control.17

A.D. 1880-1905

e time period of 1880-1905 is cal led the timeof New Imperialism. e Industrial Age changed

the landscape of global power. Much of the Mus-lim world fell under the control of the indus-trial West. Many viewed the declining OomanEmpire as equal to Western rulers. Muslims feltthe loss of power was a result of spiritual negli-gence, so they began to rid themselves of foreignpowers and desired a return to Islamic traditions.18

A.D. 1906-1948

World War I ended in 1918, with the OomanEmpire being divided between its conquerors, the

French and the British. European leaders dividedup the Arab world into different countries andappointed leaders over certain terr itories. World

War II quick ly fol lowed. By the conclusion ofthe Second World War in 1946, most of the Arab

world was independent; but the world would soonchange. In 1947, the United Nations approved thedivision of Palestine into two separate states. A

year later the State of Israel was formed. e exis-tence of Israel in Palestine is stil l viewed as foreignoccupation by many in the Muslim world.19

A.D. 1949-Present

Since the end of World War II, the Musli mworld ha s not used tradit ion al mil itar y forceto broaden its territory. However, it has beenthrough the prolic violent revolutions and ter-rorism of jihadists that the aention of the West-ern world has turned in an effort to understandIslam. As it does, a key challenge is to understandits spread, inuence, and ideology while recogniz-

ing the distinctions between culture, religion, andsplinter groups. As we in the West seek to under-stand Islam beer, Islamic advancement contin-ues through immigration, religious conversion,and social, political, and economic inuence.

Reasons for Isla mic R esil ie ncy

An outsider may look at Islam and wonder howit has survived so many occupations, wars, andperiods of foreign rule. e reason is that Islam ismore than an empire or a religion. Islam is a cul-ture that does not compartmentalize the varying

areas of life, society, or religion. A Muslims alle-giance is to Allah and Shariah law. e ultimategoal of Islam is a Muslim world, and the means forachieving such a world are not limited to eitherspiritual inuence or military conquest. Religiousconversion, democratic takeover, peaceful sub-mission to Muslim inuence, and a forceful jihadare all seen as means to achieve a Muslim world

by various Musli ms. Mu slims do not env isiontwo civilizations living in harmony, but one, Islamgaining world domination.20

In troduction of Isla m i n L atin

Ame ri ca

Three waves of Muslim immigration havelanded on the shores of Latin America. Muslimscholars believe the rst wave of Muslim imm i-gration arrived in the Americas in the sixteenthcentury with Spanish and Portuguese armies. eMuslims were required to claim Catholicism astheir religion, but many secretly remained faith-ful to Islam. Those who remained faithful werereferred to as Moriscos. Researchers believe thisinitial wave of Muslim immig ration was eradi-cated during the Catholic Inquisition when theMoriscos were burned at the stake for apostasy. 21

e second wave of Muslim immigration origi-nated in Africa. Africans were brought to the New

World as slaves. A s t he Ne w World imported workers, it also imported a new religion: Islam. In1758, Muslims led an armed revolt in Haiti. Lessthan a century later, Afr ican Muslims in Brazil

formed a short-lived Muslim state in 1830.22

Around 1830, a third wave of Muslim immigra-

tion began to arrive in the Americas from Asia.Original ly, these devoted adherents of Islamarrived as indentured servants. But by the endof the century, Syrian and L ebanese followers


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of Islam were arriving as legal immigrants. Theimmigration from Greater Syria to Latin Amer-ica lasted from 1880 to 1955.23 Most immigrantsfrom Syria, Lebanon, and Palestine settled inurban areas such as Buenos Aires, Sao Paulo, Riode Janeiro, and Santiago de Chile.

ContEMpoRARy E xpAnsIon

of IsLAM

Global Spread of Islam

e increasing numbers of Muslim immigrantsto Europe, Canada, and the U.S. has caught theaention of the Western world. Additionally, Mus-lim birthrates are dwarfing those of Europeansand Americans. While some scholars try to calmthe fears of Westerners about the possibility ofterrorism, the impact of never before seen Islamic

immigration rates is changing the landscape ofthe Western world.24 Once immigration connec-tions are formed, the rate of immigration usuallyincreases exponentially, and the host country cando lile to slow immigration ow.25

Spread of Islam in Latin America

While Europe a nd the U.S. have seen signi-cant Muslim immigration in recent years, Latin

Amer ica has not pre viously ex per ienced suchsurges. Jack Goldstone points to the aging popula-tions in Europe, Canada, and the U.S. in contrastto the more youthful populations in Africa, theMiddle East, Southeast Asia, and Latin Americaas an explanation for the former being preferredimmigration destinations. In addition, Latin

America has a much younger generation of citi-zens in the job market but fewer opportunitiesthan those in Europe, Canada, and the U.S.26

In spite of fewer job opportunities, new wavesof Muslim immigrants are arriving in Latin

America today, mainly from West Africa. Africanrefugees illegally board ships bound for Argen-tina and Brazi l, unaware of the ships destination.

While the number of African immigrants to LatinAmerica is less than similar movements have beento Europe, the numbers are still signicant. ese

immigrants ee civ il war and poverty in hopes ofa beer life, and they ultimately nd strict immi-gration regulations in European countries lessinviting than those in Latin America. Currently,Brazils largest refugee population is African. Atthe turn of the twenty-first century, seeing an

Af ric an on the street in Buenos Aires w as rare,and less than y Africans existed in the country.But in 2009, the number of African immigrants in

Argentina increased to over 3,000 as they traveledfrom Senegal, Egypt, Nigeria, and Ghana. Bra-zil has experienced additional immigration from

Angola, Congo, and Ga mbia.27 Growth in thesepopulations in A rgentina has been so substan-tial that the most recent Argentine census madecounting African immigrants a priority.28

As the mi ss ion ary cons iders th e st at us of

Islam in Latin America, he should beware of

some common misconceptions. First, all Arab

immigration is not Muslim immigration. The

largest population of Palestinians outside of

the Middle East is in Santiago de Chile, but the

vast majority of these A rabs are not Muslims. 29

Second, all Muslim immigrants are not Arabs.

For instance, many Muslim immigrants to the

U.S. are from countries such as Bosnia , Herze-

govina, and Indonesia. With the status of Mus-

lim immigration to Latin America as well as

these misconceptions in mind, an exploration

of key sociopolitical factors and trends will help

to understand the missiological implications of

Islams place in Latin America.

socIoPolItIcal factors

and tr en ds

Cultural and Worldview Connections

In The Cultural Imperative: Global Trends inthe 21st Century, R icha rd D. Le wis compar es

various global cultures and categorizes each cul-ture as linear-active, multi-active, or reactive.He describes the degree to which each of thesecultures corresponds to the respective culturalcategory. Lewis identies Latin A merican, Afri-can, and Arab as three of the most representative


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cultures in the multi-active category and demon-strates their similarities.30

Lewis describes multi-active cultures as emo-

tional, loquacious and impulsive people; they

aach great importance to family, feelings, rela-

tionships and people in general.31 Lewis notes

common qualities such as a dislike for schedules,the importance of relationships both socially

and professionally, and a preference for a strong

leader.32 When one puts aside religion, the cul-

ture of Latin A merica and the Muslim world are

very similar.

Another s imilar ity between these cu ltu res isa mutual dislike for the U.S. In a Pew ResearchCenter global poll, the seven countries whoserespondents ar ticulated the least favorable viewof the U.S. were Turkey, Pakistan, Egypt, Jor-

dan, Argentina, Lebanon, and Mexico. Of those,Mexico had the highest favorable impression, with56% of those polled viewing the U.S. favorably.Turkey, Pakistan, and Eg ypt had the least favor-able opinions, with only 17% of each viewing theU.S. favorably. Argentina was the Latin Americanculture most likely to have an unfavorable aitudetoward the U.S.33

e signicance of gender within Muslim cul-ture is also well documented. Are the challengesfacing Latin A merican women similar to thoseof Muslim women? Inter-American Dialoguerecently analyzed the Gallup Latin American

Women Leadership Study. The study observedthat in many circumstances, women in Latin

America had fewer opportunities than men. eanalysis also considered presidential victories byfemale candidates in places like Chile and Argen-tina.34 e simple fact that discussions concerningopportunities for women are taking place demon-strates a general contrast between Latin America

and the Muslim world.Much has been wrien about the oppression of

Muslim women. Would women in Latin Americaembrace strict regulations on dress and male lead-ership as taught in the Quran? One Gallup pollasked Muslim women what they admired least

about the West.35 e women listed moral decay,promiscuity, and pornography.36 Is the general lib-erality of Latin America conducive to a religionthat will demand a strict cultural change? WillIslam be willing to compromise its spiritual lawto proselytize?

e question observers of Islam in Latin A mer-ica are trying to answer is whether Muslims aretrying to win individual religious converts or ifIslam is working toward the Islamization of Latin

America as a whole. Does Isl am want to propa-gate itself in the lives of Latin Americans or sim-ply control Latin America legally, politically, andeconomically?

Econom ics

Besides cultural similar ity, a mutual dislike for

the U.S., and a history of Muslim immigration,why would Latin A merican countries unite w iththe Muslim world? The answer is as simple as itis obviousmoney. Venezuelan president HugoChavez has made at least nine visits to Tehran,Iran, duri ng his presidency, and Venezuela is anobserving member of the Arab League.37 PeruvianPresident Alan Garcia describes the growing alli-ances between the Muslim world and Latin Amer-ica: is is an unprecedented step toward joiningour two cultures, our two worlds, until now, wehave always dealt with the United States, Chinaand Europe. But now, we are seeing t he rise of

Arab nations that have immense resources.38 For-mer president of Brazil Luiz Inacio Lula da Silvaused similar words to describe new alliances withpredominantly Muslim countries: e wealth ofthe Arab world is now becoming a factor of devel-opment and you have to protect it.39 Currenteconomic insecurity in the Western world has ledLatin America to tur n its eyes to the Arab world

for security. e oil industry is another commonlink between these economic regions. Chavez hassuggested the formation of an alliance that woulduse petro-currency rather than the dollar oreuro.40 Is the Muslim world gaining power overLatin America with its wealth?


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Global Terrorism

Most of Latin A merica has gone untouchedby Muslim terrorism. ere have only been t woacts of Islamic terrorist aacks in Latin America.Both cases occurred in Buenos Aires, Argentina.On March 17, 1992, the Israeli embassy in Bue-

nos Aires was aacked when an assai lant drove apickup truck loaded with explosives into the frontof the embassy. e terrorist and twenty-nine oth-ers were killed in the blast, with another 242 peo-ple wounded. e second aack occurred at the

Asociacin Mutual Israelita A rgent ina bui ldingon July 18, 1994. Eighty-ve people died and morethan three hundred people were wounded whena car bomb was detonated outside the building.Both aacks have been linked to Hezbollah andIran. Unfortunately, convictions have not been

won for either of the cases. Members of the policedepartment and even former president CarlosMenem have been accused of being i nvolved inthe aacks.41

Each of the aacks operated through an areacalled Tres Fronteras, although it is believedthey were conceived in Tehran. Tres Fronteras islocated where the borders of Brazil, Paraguay, and

Argentina meet. Ciudad del Este in Paraguay wasdeveloped by President Alfredo Stroesnner to bea free trade zone. But, with the nancial declineof the 1990s, Ciudad del Este has become a city

without law.42 e city is now home to a signi-cant Muslim population with origins in Lebanon,Syria, and Egypt. Worldwide security agenciesalso believe the city is the home to HezbollahsLatin American headquarters.43 Even thoughLatin America has not seen a large number of ter-rorist aacks, the potential for terrorist activitystill exists.

IsLAM In spECIfIC LAtIn AMERICAnContExts

Arge nt in a

The first wave of Muslim i mmigration toArgentina took place between 1880 and 1955. eimmigrants were primarily of Syrian and Leba-

nese descent. Census data from the beginning ofthe twentieth century showed Syrian and Leba-nese people were the third largest ethnic group inBuenos Aires.44

The majority of Syrian and Lebanese immi-grants arriv ing in Buenos Aires originated from

Mount Lebanon, a province in Ottoman Syria.The first im migrants to arrive from the region

we re Christ ia ns of Or tho do x and Ca tho licbac kg rou nds. Relig ious per secut ion and con-stant political turmoil were the primar y reasonsfor their immigration, but financial factors alsoimpacted the decision.45 e initial immigrationof Lebanese Christians was followed by subse-quent migrations of Druze, Alawi, and Muslims.e original immigrants were male and worked asstreet salesmen. ese businessmen chose exoga-

mous marriages with Argentine women. e dif-fusion of Islam into Argentine society may have

been hampered by these multi-faith marr iagesmore than any other single factor.

The first I slamic association was founded onthe outskirts of Buenos Aires in 1917, and a yearlater an Islamic center was formed inside the city.Prior to owning their own buildings, Muslimfamilies practiced their faith in their homes withother families, but in 2000 the largest mosque inSouth America was erected in Buenos Aires. ePresident of Argentina at the time, Carlos Menem,

whose parents were Musl im im migrants fromSyria, was central to its establishment. Mememdonated the land for the mosque while Saudi Ara-

bia f unded the project and continues to prov idethe leadership for the mosque.46

No definitive statistics exist on the Muslimpopulation in Buenos Aires. One Arab group, laConfederacin de Entidades A rgentino Arabes,uses the census data gathered in the early twen-

tieth centurythe last census to ask questionsabout ethnicityto project as many as 3.5 millionpeople of Arab descent in Argentina.47 Interviews

with Musli m leaders and people who reg ularlyaend the mosques in Buenos Aires reect thatthey do not believe there are such high numbers


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of practicing Muslims. One prominent Muslimleader in the city believes the maximum numberof practicing Muslims of A rab descent is a littlemore than seven thousand.48

The majority of these Arab descent Muslimsare part of a fourth or h generation immigrant

community. These later generation immigrantsare not centrally located into a specic area of thecity. ey are dispersed throughout the city withsome modestly higher population densities in twoor three barr ios with mosques.

The recent African immigration has alsochanged the face of Islam in Buenos Aires. In2000, the average Muslim in Buenos Aires was amiddle-aged man of Syrian descent. His primarylanguage was Spanish, and he was a small busi-ness owner. Today, the average mosque aendee

in Buenos Aires is a young Senegali male. He islearning Spanish, but he speaks French and Wolof.He sells jewelry and watches from a briefcase ona busy street corner somewhere in the city. Hereturns to an area of town known as Lile Dakareach night. At the close of the meeting in themosque, a participant will hear both Arabic and

African languages.49 In spite of this recent immi-gration, religious conversion among the general

Argentine population is rare. One Muslim leader,who understands the realit y of Isl am in BuenosAires, believes the goa l of Musl im s in BuenosAires should be to color the A rgentine c ult urewith Muslim cult ura l pa int rather than expectlarge numbers of Argentines to convert to Islam. 50

e recent African Muslim immigration and theterrorist aacks in the early 1990s have impactedthe evangelical church in Buenos Aires. Prior to1990, the Muslim community in Buenos Aires

went unnoticed. Today, cross-cultural evangel ismis no longer a task le for missionaries who travel

to the far reaches of the globe. e local church inArgentina must also cross cultural barriers.

Br az il

Brazil is experiencing recent immigrationsimilar to that of Argentina, as immigrants from

Africa comprise the largest refugee group in Bra-zil. According to Henao, the largest black popula-tion outside of Africa resides in Brazil.51 Africanimmigration to Brazil is no recent phenomenon.

As early as 1538, Af rican slaves arr ived in Brazi l.e rst slaves were from Guinea. Next to arrive

wer e the Fu la ni people and Ba ntu tr ibesmen .By the end of the sixteenth century, more thantwenty thousand people of African descent livedin Brazil. New slaves arrived from the regionsof present day Senegal, Gambia, and Angola. By1822, over two-thirds of the population of Bra-zil was categorized as people of color. Researchindicates thirt y to forty percent of Brazil is cur-rently of African descent.52

Many of the original Africans to arrive in Brazilwere Musli ms. Musl ims from the Hausa, Mand-

inga, Fula, and Nago all arrived in Brazil. Historytells of Muslim rebellions that occurred in theeighteenth and nineteenth centuries.53 Amongthe Africans arriving in Brazil were Muslim intel-lectuals and religious leaders; the latter helpedmaintain literacy.54 Unfortunately, the assimila-tion rate was slowed by the short lifespan of slaves,

but new slaves were a lways arriving to rei nforcethe religion. Muslim Africans arriving today inBrazilian ports share the same destination as theirancestors years ago.

Brazil experienced the third wave of LatinAmerican Muslim immigration similar to Argen-tina. From the late nineteenth century to themiddle of the twentieth centur y, large numbersof Syrians, Lebanese, and Palestinians arrived.

W hi le si gni ficant Arab Musl im im mi gr at ioneventually stopped in A rgentina, the immigra-tion of Arabs to Brazil slowed without stopping.Sao Paulo, Rio de Janiero, and the area known asTres Fronteras still receive small but signica nt

numbers of Arab Muslim immigrants.The first Muslim charity association was

founded in 1929. The next was not establisheduntil the late 1970s. During this time, the majorityof Muslims arr iving in Tres Fronteras were fromBaloul, Lala, the Bekaa Valley, and South Lebanon.


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In 1987, aer six years of work, the rst mosque wasopened in Foz de Iguazu. The Sunnis and Shi as

were of equal number during the early 1990s.55

In light of such historical and current Islamicpresence in Brazil, one might expect Islam to bethriving in this Latin A merican country. But,

Maria Moreira, a Brazilian Muslim living inEgypt, says Islam is not succeeding in winn ingBrazilians. She quotes Khalil Saifi, sheikh andcoordinator of the Center of Divulgation of Islamto Latin America: Our main concern is to aendto the Muslims who descended from Arabs to helpthem preserve their link to their language and cul-ture. e Brazilians who come to us come throughthe contact with Muslims out there.56 She arguesthat neither the strong Catholic presence norLatin culture is the primary reason for the lack

of Brazilian converts to Islam. Instead, Muslimsin Brazil see non-Arab Muslim descent people asintruders. She points to a lack of resources inPortuguese to inform people about Islam as evi-dence of the lack of evangelistic eort.57

Venezuela

Before the largest mosque in South Americawas erected in Buenos Aires, the mosque in Cara-cas held that dist inction. e ties between Vene-zuela and Iran have already been discussed in thisarticle. Venezuela claims to be home to 100,000Muslims.58 When evaluated in light of similar pro-

jected adherent populat ions elsewhere i n Lati nAmer ica, this number most likely represents thenumber of Arab descent people in Venezuelarather than the actual number of people practic-ing Islam. But as one considers Islams historicalspread, it will be seen that Islam does not alwaysspread by religious conversion or military con-quest. Islam also spreads by gaining political con-

trol of countries. If religious maers are laid aside,the governments of Venezuela and Iran appear tohave similar goals and aspirations. e fraternalrelationship between these two nations should beconsidered when one evaluates the current impactof Islam on Latin America.

MIssIoLoGICAL I MpL ICAtIons

Eugene Nida wrote, Good missionaries havealways been good anthropologists,59 teachingthe truth that those who have the greatest impacton cultures are those who take the culture intoaccount and so reach and teach those within it in

culturally appropriate ways. To reach and teachthe Latin Americans to our south as well as those

who have i mmigrated among us, we must tailoroutreach efforts to each people group and notminister generically to Lati nos. Accordingly, torealize fruit in t his ministr y, we must take intoaccount the historic interface of Islam with Lati-nos as well as the resurgence of Islam that targetsthem specically.

Cultural Observations and

Im plications

In A.D. 711 the Moors of northwest Africainvaded the Iberian Peninsula, beginning a backand forth struggle that lasted almost 800 years.During t his time, most of the battles were notto accomplish total domination or destruction,

but rather to achieve the upper hand . W hen theMuslims ruled, the Catholic Spaniards were typi-cally allowed certain freedoms, lands, and con-tinuation of their culture. Similarly, the Spaniardstypically allowed Muslims these freedoms whenthey held the upper hand. ese cultures sharedideas in medicine, art, architecture, philosophy,mathematics, and language. Spaniards and Arabsalso share many anthropometric markers such asheight, facial features, and skin colorthe resultof relationships through the 800 years they bothlived in the Peninsula, as well as intermarriage of

Arab immigrants w ith Latin Americans in recentcenturies. In 1469, when Ferdinand and Isabelunited their powers into a common effort, they

shared the dream for a pure Catholicism. is, inturn, gave rise to the Spanish Inquisitionwhoseharsh measures sought to purify the SpanishRoman Catholic Churches from witches, Jews,and Muslims.

When the bale of Granada was over in 1492 ,


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the Spanish victory resulted in the expulsion ofall Muslim Moors who did not submit or convert.It was only then that the Spanish king and queencould turn their aention to the insistent would-bediscoverer of a westward route to the spice lands.Columbus was granted permission to sail, and he

carr ied with him a zealous Catholicism that waspre-Reformational and i nquisitional, but it wasalso a Spanish Catholicism that was heavily inu-enced by almost 800 years of close proximity toand interaction with another world religion: Islam.

e result of this history is that Arab Muslimsand Latin Americans share much in common.e cultural implications of this commonality aremany. In addition to the previously mentionedshared ideas in medicine, art, architecture, philos-ophy, mathematics, language, and, in some cases,

ancestry, both Latinos and Muslims share a cul-tural anity in other ways. ey both tend to haveindirect communication styles, strong multi-gen-erational family bonds, and nd their identity ingroup/collectivistic orientations. Both share theconcept of society working through the networksof family and ctive ties in social interaction, busi-ness, and government. Both cultures stress shameand honor rather than a dichotomistic guilt-inno-cence orientation, which includes a strong uncer-tainty avoidance. Latinos and Arab Muslims arenotoriously patriarchal and masculine in theirperspective of gender roles in society. All of thesefactors must be incorporated into successful mis-siological strategies and methodologies.

Strategic Development Needs

With the increasi ng spr ead of Isla m and itsconcomitant influence, missiological strategiesare needed to engage Muslims eectively. Somehave suggested blurring the lines between evan-

gelicals and Muslims, st ressing what we have incommon to relieve the gospel-hostile stance oentaken by Muslim extremists. However, what isneeded is a clear word, not a diluted common

word that would make embracing C hr istianityeasier. Some Christian missionaries have sought

to emphasize Christian and Muslim commonali-ties such as monotheism, Abraham as a religiousforefather, submission to the will of God, prayers,prophets, alms, angels, a historical Jesus (Isa), andso forth. Yet, in their eort to do so, the distinctlines between the Christian and Muslim under-

standings of these commonalities have becomeunrecognizable in some contexts.

Indeed, one strategy seeks to foment insidermovements using a controversial contextualiza-tion model that has been promoted for severaldecades.60 In this effort, Muslim converts toChristianity are encouraged to remain in Islamculturally, legally, and socially (and in someforms, even in religious identication) until a crit-ical mass of believers arises to provide protectionand support of Christianity. e controversy and

rhetoric relating to this method are exacerbatedand complicated by divergent views of the deni-tion of Christian, as well as whether proponents ofthis method are promoting syncretism.

Other methodologies within this strategygrant credibility to the Quran as they uncritical lyuse it to evangelize, whi le others refer to Jesus asthe Prince of God rather than Son of God so asto avoid oending Muslims which they maintain

would ri sk closing the door to fu rt her evange-lism efforts. The limitations of space preclude athorough explanation of the model, its risk s, dan-gers, and logical outcomes. However, it must benoted that Christian missionaries are not alonein employing such a model. Muslims intent on

winning Christians to Islam have been seen usingsimilar models in the southern cone of South

America, encouraging Catholics to remain in theChurch while turning slowly to Islam.

Many missionaries working in Muslim con-texts report that a blurring of the lines and removal

of Christianitys offense and stumbling stone isnot what is needed, but rather a clear presentationof the gospel. Some missionaries are making thecase for speaking plainly, dening very clear l ines

between those who are in Chr ist and those whoare in darkness, calling to repentance those who


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have rejected him, and oering hope to all who arewilling to repent and believe in Jesus as the Son ofGod and Savior of the world who died on the crossfor our sins and rose from the dead on the thirdday, who ascended into heaven where he reigns andintercedes for his own.

Global Missiological Implications

The global missiological implications are toonumerous to develop fully in the space of onearticle, but some must be mentioned. e cultural,linguistic, ancestry, and worldview affinity thatLatinos and Arab Musli ms share is ex ploited andstrengthened by leftist Latino governments thatpander to wealthy Arab nations who share a dis-trust and dislike for the U.S. Add to this volatilemix the fact that the oil-rich Arab nations have

vast resources which they are eager to invest to winfriends and inuence, and there is a potential pow-der keg worth watching.

However, just as the nearly 800 years of Span-

iards and Muslims sharing the Iberian Peninsula

resulted in a blending and commonality of many

aspects of their cultures that allows Arab Muslims

to pass for Latinos very easily, the reverse is also

true. Latin A merican evangelicals are very eec-

tive missionaries to Arab Muslim lands. e very

fact that they do not have U.S. passports grants

Latinos a certain freedom and a pass on the scru-

tiny that blocks many Westerners from living and

serving in A rab countries. The Latin American

church is maturing in their Christianity, and many

believers are hearing Gods missionary call. Unfor-

tunately they lack the advantages of nancial and

educational training resources that benet North

Americans.

Contemporary Western missionaries mustdevise platforms for creative access to countries

that forbid Christian missionary activity and refuseto grant Christ ian worker visas. Many missionar-ies struggle to develop and maintain platforms as

business consultants, English teachers, a nd a hostof other options in order to gain access to closedcountries. Indeed, it is oen noted that an average

of three countries per year c lose their doors toChristian missionaries.61 Sadly, many missionar-ies who nd a believable platform are frustrated inministry since they must keep a very low prole toavoid detection from government monitors. islow prole oen results in very l ile ministry, and

many do lile more than simply live in the targetcountry. e most eective creative access strat-egy may be very nearby, siing in the shadow ofthe U.S.

The churches in Latin America have much toteach the churches in the West (and North). eyhave numbers, youth, commitment, enthusiasm,and zeal. However, much of their zeal is w ithoutknowledge. What the Western church could bringto the equation is training and nancial resources.In most instances we have been so burdened to

reach the unreached, that when we reached onegroup, we le as soon as possible to reach the next,and so on. We have overlooked the truth that Jesussent us to reach and teach the nations of the world,making d isciples and teaching them to observeeverything he has commanded us. At the sametime, the U.S. is one of the wealthiest and mostpowerful nations in the world. We are spending vastamounts of money to get people into creative accesscountries and maintain them there, oftentimescrippled in their ministries by the need for secrecy.

A wiser strateg y might be to equip those Chris-tians whom the Lord is calling to missions, whodo not have passports from Western nations, and

who would t in culturally and linguistically muchmore quickly than most Westerners. e unfortu-nate identication of Western culture with Chris-tianity has resulted in a view of Christianity as aninferior, sinf ul, and shameful way of life. Muchof the world believes that the U.S. is a Christ iannation. With the Muslim understanding of the

intertwined relationship between religion, culture,and law, they assume that this means what they seefrom us is synonymous with Christianity. is isproblematic as our largest export is the entertain-ment industrys lms, television shows, and music;therefore, the behavior, clothing, l ifestyles, habits,


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and morals of these products are understood aswhat character izes Ch rist ianity. Ef fec tive mis-siological models wi ll be those that emphasize thetruth that we represent the Lord Jesus Christ, andnot the West in general or a specic country. Latin

American Christians are able to represent the gos-

pel without the stumbling block of this perception.Wes tern mis si onari es co uld es ta bl is h pro-

grams in Latin American seings oering inter-cultural t raining, t heological and missiologicaleducation, and pastoral preparation as their partof the eort. e nancial resources that the West

brings to bear on the challenge to reach and teachArab Muslim people groups would be more wiselyinvested in the equipping and sending of manyof these missionaries. Such a new missiologicalmodel would not have to be mutually exclusive

with traditional mode ls; Wester n mi ssionar ieswould still go as called, led, and able, but the newermodel would result in more eective missionar-ies and beer stewa rdship. ese well-equippedLatino missionaries could then establish similartraining programs in near neighbor nations for theequipping of still others in a model of 2 Timothy2:2 faithfulness.

ConCLusIon

e rapid growth of Islam and the recent revo-lutionary activity in many Arab Muslim countrieshave kept them in the news, on the hearts, and inthe prayers of Christians around the world. Manymissions-minded Christians are burdened toreach them as quickly and eectively as possible.

A natural anity exists between Latin Americansand Arab Muslims that would result in more rapidcultural adjustment and relationship building

bet ween them. The nearly 800 years that Span-iards lived in close proximity to Muslims resulted

in a blending of many aspects of t he cultures,which al lows Ar ab Musli ms to pass for Lat inosvery easily. Shortly aer 9/11, an agency of the U.S.government ran a full-page advertisement in thenational paper of Ecuador posting the pictures ofdozens of Al Qaeda operatives who were believed

to be living in hiding there. Those scanning thepictures realized that these operatives could beany one of the people they saw everyday on thestreets. These similarities are not inconsequen-tial. Western Christians could take their consider-able resources, teachers, educational programs,

and passion for missions to eager Latin A mericanbelievers. In doing so, they would assist them toreach unreached Arab Muslims, those with whomthey already share cultural, linguistic, and world-

view commonalities. While Western mission agen-cies brainstorm to nd creative access platforms toget their people in to reach the unreached in Arablands, the most effective creative access may beright next door.

ENDNOTES1Kairos Journal, Cycles of Islamic Resurgence [cited

25 May 2011]. Online: http://www.kairosjournal.

org/Document.aspx?QuadrantID=4&CategoryID=

10&TopicID=50&DocumentID=9640&L=1.2J. Dudley Woodberr y, Islam, inEvangelical Diction-

ary of World Missions (ed. A. Scott Moreau; Grand

Rapids: Baker, 2000), 504-506.3Ibid., 505.4Fred M. Donner, Muhammad and the Ca liphate:

Political History of the Islamic Empire Up to the

Mongol Conquest, in The Oxford History of Islam

(ed. John L. Esposito; New York: Oxford University

Press, 1999), 4-11.5Peter G. Riddell and Peter Coerell,Islam in Context:

Past , Pre sent and Future (Grand Rapids: Baker A ca-

demic, 2003), 32-35.6John L. Esposito, Islam: the Straight Path (New York:

Oxford University Press, 1988), 38-39.7Donner, Muhammad and the Caliphate, 12.8Riddell and Coerell,Islam in Context, 37-38.9Donner, Muhammad a nd the Cal iphate, 19.

10

Ibid.11Woodberr y, Islam, 505.12Esposito,Islam the Straight Path, 47-59.13Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam: Relig ion , History, and

Civilization, (San Francisco: Ha rperColl ins, 2 003),

137.


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14Donner, Muhammad a nd the Cal iphate, 58-59.15Esposito,Islam: the Straight Path, 62.16Riddell and Coerell,Islam in Context, 109.17Ibid. , 111-13.18Ibid., 114-15.19Ibid., 115-34.

20Uriya Shavit and Frederic W iesenbach, Muslim Strat-egies to Convert Western Christians, Middle E ast

Quarterly 16 (2009): 11.21M. Ali Keani,Muslim Minorities in the World Today

(London: Mansell, 1986), 191-92.22Ibid.23Ibid., 198.24Marti n Walker, Europes Mosque Hysteria, Wilson

Quarterly 30 (2006): 14-22.25Esther Ben-David, Europes Shift ing Imm igration

Dynamic,Middle East Quarterly 16 (2009): 15-24.26Jack A . Goldstone, e New Populat ion Bomb, For-

eign Aairs 89, no. 1 (2010): 31-43.27Luis Andres Henao, More African Immigrants Find-

ing a Home in Latin America [cited 4 April 2011].

Online: hp://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/more-afri-

can-immigrants-nding-home-latin-america.28Instituto Nacional De Estadstica y Censos, Censo

2010: Afrodescendientes [cited 4 April 2011]. Onli ne:

hp://www.censo2010.indec.gob.ar/index_afro.asp.29Oscar Contardo, Historia Inmigracin Palestina: De

Turcos Solo el Pasaporte, Artes y Letras de El Mercu-

rio, (Santiago de Chile, 14 April 2002). e author also

conducted ethnographic research to determine the

number of Muslims in Santiago de Chile.30Richard D. Lewis, The Cultural Imperative: Global

Trends in the 21st Century (Finland: WS Bookwell,

2003),83.31Ibid., 71.32Ibid., 72.33Pew Research Center, Opinion of the United States:

Do you Have a Favorable or Unfavorable View of the

U.S.? [cited 25 May 2011]. Online: hp://pewglobal.org/database/?indicator=1.

34Inter-American Dialogue, Latin American Women

Leadership Study: A Look at the Changing Aitudes

of Latin Americans Toward Gender and Womens

Leadership Capabil ities [cited 4 A pril 2011]. Onli ne:

http://www.thedialogue.org/PublicationFiles/

Latin%20American%20Women%20Leadership%20

Study.pdf.35Frank Newport, The Issue of Women in Govern-

ment in Islamic Countr ies: Majorities in a Number

of Predominantly Musl im Countries Approve [cited

30 March 2006]. Online: h p://www.gal lup.com/poll/22180/issue-women-government-islamic-coun-

tries.aspx.36Helena Andrews, Muslim Women Dont See em-

selves as Oppressed, Survey Finds, The New York

Times (7 June 2006) [cited 4 April 2011]. Online:

http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/08/world/

middleeast/08women.html.37Kara Rowland, Obama Freezes Out Chavez, While

Iran Comes Cour ting: Not Even a Mention in Trip to

Region, Washington Times (27 March 2011) [cited 4

April 2011]. On line: hp://ww w.washing tontimes .

com/news/2011/mar/27/obama-freezes-out-chavez-

whi le-iran-comes-cou rti ng/?page=3.38Jim Wys s, La ti n America Ca ll s f or Boo sting Ties

with the Middle Eas t, Miami Herald (19 February

2011) [cited 4 April 2011]. Online: http://www.

miamiherald.com/2011/02/13/2074607/arab-

nations-expand-ties-in-hemisphere.html.39Al Jazeera, Arab-Lati n A merican Ties Ha iled: Sec-

ond Summit of the Two Blocs in Qatari Capital Dis-

cusses Trade and I nvestment Flows [cited 4 April

2011]. Onl ine: ht tp://english.a ljazeera .net/news/

middleeast/2009/03/2009331131144938569.html.40Ibid.41Hernan Cappiello, Acusan a Irn por el Ataque a la

AMI A [cited 31 March 2011]. Onl ine: h p://ww w.

lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=852740.42Jorge Berg man, e Secret War with Iran: e 30-Year

Clandestine Struggle Against the Worlds Most Danger-

ous Terrorist Power(New York: Free Press, 2007),

173.43

Ibid., 169-84.44A rgenti na ha s not in cluded an y ques ti ons about

ethnicity in their census until the most recent

census, 2010.45Club Libans de Buenos Aires, ed., Libro Pr pura

de los Sesenta Aos del Club Libans de Buenos Aires:


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1936-18 de Octubre 1996(Buenos Aires, 1996), 17.46Liliana Cazorla, Interview by Author, Buenos Aires,

2009.47Inmigracin Sirio Libanesa en Argentina, Fearab

Confederacin de Entidades Argentino Arabes [cited

13 May 2010]. Online: http://www.fearab.org.ar/

inmigracion_sirio_libanesa_en_argentina.php.48Daniel Attar, Interview by Author, Buenos Aires,

2009. The maximum number of practicing Arab

descent practicing Muslims (including Druzes, Ala-

wis , and other sects) was seven thousand. ese lead-

ers also claimed very few people not of Arab descent

were practicing Muslims. In 200 9, signicant i mmi-

gration from Senegal and the rest of Africa was just

begi nni ng.49Luis Andres Henao, More Afr ican Immigrants Find-

ing a Home in Latin America [cited 25 May 2011].

Onli ne: http://yaleglobal.ya le.edu/content/more-

african-immigrants-nding-home-latin-america.50Aar, Inter view w ith Aut hor.51Henao, More African Immigrants Finding a Home

in Latin America [cited 25 May 2011]. Online:

http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/more-african-

immigrants-nding-home-latin-america.52John Gei pel , Bra zi li ans A fr ica n L egacy, History

Today 47 (1997): 19.53Ibid., 21.54 Paul Tiyambe Zeleza, Africa and Its Diasporas:

Remembering South America, Research in Aican

Literatures 40 (Winter 2009): 156-58.55John Tok Karam, (Un)covering Islam and Its Fiy-

Year Hi story in South Amer ica n F ront ier Regio n

[cited 5 Apri l 2011]. Online: hp://casgroup.u.edu/

lacc/pages.php?id=1409.56 Maria Moreira, Islam in Brazil: Convert Maria

Moreira Examines the History and Current State of

the Muslim Community in Latin Americas Larg-

est Country, Isl am f or Today [cited 5 April 2011].

Online: hp://islamfortoday.com/brazil.htm.57Ibid.58James Bro oke, Ca raca s Get ti ng Conti nents Big-

gest Mosque, e New York Times (3 January 1993)

[cited 5 April 2011]. Onl ine: htt p://www.ny times.

com/1993/01/03/world/caracas-geing-conti nent-

s-biggest-mosque.html.59Eugene A. Nida, Customs and Cultures: Anthropology

for Christ ian Missions (New York: Harper, 1954), xi.60Rebecca Lewis, Promoting Movements to Christ

within Natural Commu nities,International Journal

of Frontier Missions 24, no. 2 (2007): 75. An insider

movement is any movement to faith in Chr ist where(a) the gospel flows through pre-existing commu-

nities and social net works, and where (b) believing

families, as valid expressions of the body of Christ,

remain inside t heir socioreligious communities,

retaining their identity as members of that commu-

nity while l iving under the Lordship of Jesus Christ

and the authority of the Bible.61Center for Great Commission Studies, An Inter view

with Dr. Jerry R ankin [cited 25 May 2011]. Online:

hp://cgcs.sebts.edu/?p=748.

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