5 neurobehaviour - who 5.pdf · al., 1999; sienkiewicz et al., 1993). 5.1 electrophysiological...
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5 NEUROBEHAVIOURNeurobehavioural studies encompass the effects of exposure to
ELF electromagnetic fields on the nervous system and its responses at differ-ent levels of organization. These include the direct stimulation of peripheraland central nerve tissue, perceptual effects resulting from sensory stimula-tion, and effects on central nervous system function. Effects on the latter canbe assessed both electrophysiologically by recording the electrical activity ofthe brain, and by tests of cognition, assessment of mood, and other studies.
The nervous system also has a central role in the control of otherbody systems, particularly the cardiovascular system, through direct nervouscontrol, and the endocrine system, through neural input into the pineal andpituitary glands. These glands in turn influence reproduction and develop-ment, and in a more general way, physiology and well-being.
The brain and nervous systems function by using electrical signals,and may therefore be considered particularly vulnerable to low frequencyEMFs and the resultant induced electric fields and currents. Substantial num-bers of laboratory experiments with volunteers and animals have investigatedthe possible consequences of exposure to weak EMFs on various aspects ofnervous system function, including cognitive, behavioural and neuroendo-crine responses. In addition, epidemiological studies have been carried outon the relationship between EMF exposure and both suicide and depression.
These studies have been reviewed by NRC (1997), NIEHS (1998),IARC (2002), ICNIRP (2003) and McKinlay et al. (2004). In particular,ICNIRP (2003) reviewed in detail some of the evidence summarized here.
In general, there are few effects for which the evidence is strong,and even the more robust field-induced responses seen in the laboratory stud-ies tend to be small in magnitude, subtle and transitory in nature (Crasson etal., 1999; Sienkiewicz et al., 1993).
5.1 Electrophysiological considerationsAn examination of the electrophysiological properties of the ner-
vous system, particularly the central nervous system (CNS: brain and spinalcord) gives an indication of its likely susceptibility to the electric fieldsinduced in the body by EMF exposure. Ion channels in cell membranes allowpassage of particular ionic species across the cell membrane in response tothe opening of a “gate” which is sensitive to the transmembrane voltage(Catterall, 1995; Hille & Anderson, 2001; Mathie, Kennard & Veale, 2003).It is well established that electric fields induced in the body either by directcontact with external electrodes, or by exposure to low frequency magneticfields, will, if of sufficient magnitude, excite nerve tissue through their inter-action with these voltage-gated ion channels. Sensitivity is therefore prima-rily to the transmembrane electric field and varies widely between differention channels (Hille & Anderson, 2001; Mathie, Kennard & Veale, 2003;Saunders & Jefferys, 2002). Many voltage-gated ion channels are associatedwith electrical excitability and electrical signalling. Such electrically excit-
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able cells not only comprise neurons, glial and muscle cells, but also endo-crine cells of the anterior pituitary, adrenal medulla and pancreas, gametesand, with reservations, endothelial cells (Hille & Anderson, 2001).
All these cells generally express voltage-gated sodium and calciumchannels. Both of these ion channels are involved in electrical signaling andcalcium ions activate a number of crucial cellular processes including neu-rotransmitter release, excitation-contraction coupling in muscle cells andgene expression (Catterall, 2000; Hille & Anderson, 2001). Some ion chan-nels, for example voltage-gated potassium and chloride ion channels, alsoexist in other, non-excitable tissues such as those in the kidney and liver andshow slow electric potential changes but their voltage sensitivity is likely tobe lower (Begenisich & Melvin, 1998; Cahalan, Wulff & Chandy, 2001; Cat-terall, 2000; Jan & Jan, 1989; Nilius & Droogmans, 2001). Since voltage-gated ion channels in excitable cells are steeply sensitive to the transmem-brane electric potential, electric field strength in tissue is a more relevantparameter to relate to electrically excitable cell thresholds than current den-sity (Bailey et al., 1997; Blakemore & Trombley, 2003; Reilly, 2005; Shep-pard, Kavet & Renew, 2002). In fact, the relevant parameter in determiningthe transmembrane current and hence the excitability is the linear gradient inelectric field (Tranchina & Nicholson, 1986), which in turn relates to geo-metric parameters of the neuron, including the degree of bending of the axon.
Peripheral nerves comprise neurons whose cell bodies are locatedwithin the CNS with extended processes (axons) that lie outside the CNS.They conduct action potentials (impulses) towards (sensory nerves) or from(motor nerves) the spinal cord and nerve stimulation shows an all-or-nothingthreshold behaviour. Excitation results from a membrane depolarisation ofbetween 10–20 mV, corresponding to an electric field in tissue of 5–25V m-1 (McKinlay et al., 2004). Pulsed magnetic fields, where the rate ofchange of field induces large localised electric fields, can directly stimulateperipheral nerves and nerve fibres located within the brain (see below).
Cells of the central nervous system are considered to be sensitive toelectric fields induced in the body by exposure to ELF magnetic fields at lev-els that are below threshold for impulse initiation in nerve axons (Jefferys,1995; Jefferys et al., 2003; Saunders, 2003; Saunders & Jefferys, 2002).Such weak electric field interactions have been shown in experimental stud-ies mostly using isolated animal brain tissue to have physiological relevance.These interactions result from the extracellular voltage gradients generatedby the synchronous activity of a number of neurons, or from those generatedby applying pulsed or alternating currents directly through electrodes placedon either side of the tissue. Jefferys and colleagues (Jefferys, 1995; Jefferyset al., 2003) identified in vitro electric field thresholds of around 4–5 V m-1.Essentially, the extracellular gradient alters the potential difference acrossthe neuronal membrane with opposite polarities at either end of the neuron; atime-constant of a few tens (15–60) of milliseconds results from the capaci-tance of the neuronal membrane (Jefferys et al., 2003) and indicates a limitedfrequency response. Similar arguments concerning the limited frequency
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response of weak electric field effects due to the long time-constants (25 ms)arising from cell membrane capacitance have been given by Reilly (2002)regarding phosphene data.
The CNS in vivo is likely to be more sensitive to induced low fre-quency electric fields and currents than are in vitro preparations (Saunders &Jefferys, 2002). Spontaneous activity is higher, and interacting groups or net-works of nerve cells exposed to weak electrical signals would be expected,on theoretical grounds, to show increased sensitivity through improved sig-nal-to-noise ratios compared with the response of individual cells (Adair,2001; Stering, 1998; Valberg, Kavet & Rafferty, 1997). Much of normal cog-nitive function of the brain depends on the collective activity of very largenumbers of neurons; neural networks are thought to have complex non-lineardynamics that can be very sensitive to small voltages applied diffusely acrossthe elements of the network (Adair, 2001; ICNIRP, 2003; Jefferys et al.,2003). Gluckman et al. (2001) placed the detection limit for network modula-tion in hippocampal slices by electric fields at around 100 mV m-1 . Recentexperimental work by Francis, Gluckman & Schiff (2003) confirms a neuralnetwork threshold of around 140 mV m-1, which the authors found was lowerthan single neuron thresholds, based on a limited number of measurements.A lower limit on neural network sensitivity to physiologically weak inducedelectric fields has elsewhere been considered on theoretical grounds to bearound 1 mV m-1 (Adair, Astumian & Weaver, 1998; Veyret, 2003). Thetime-course of the opening of the fastest voltage-gated ion channels can beless than 1 ms (Hille & Anderson, 2001), suggesting that effects at frequen-cies up to a few kilohertz should not be ruled out. Accommodation to aslowly changing stimulus resulting from slow inactivation of the sodiumchannels will raise thresholds at frequencies less than around 10 Hz.
Other electrically excitable tissues with the potential to show net-work behaviour include glial cells located within the CNS (e.g. Parpura etal., 1994), and the autonomic and enteric nervous systems (see Sukkar, El-Munshid & Ardawi, 2000), which comprise interconnected non-myelinatednerve cells and are distributed throughout the body and gut, respectively.These systems are involved in regulating the visceral or “housekeeping”functions of the body; for example, the autonomic nervous system isinvolved in the maintenance of blood pressure. Muscle cells also show elec-trical excitability; only cardiac muscle tissue has electrically interconnectedcells. However, Cooper, Garny & Kohl et al. (2003), in a review of cardiacion channel activity, conclude that weak internal electric fields much belowthe excitation threshold are unlikely to have any significant effect on cardiacphysiology. EMF effects on the heart could theoretically result from indirecteffects mediated via the autonomic nervous system and CNS (Sienkiewicz,2003). Effects on the endocrine system could potentially also be mediatedthis way, although the evidence from volunteer experiments indicates thatacute ELF magnetic field exposure up to 20 µT does not influence the circa-dian variation in circulating levels of the hormone melatonin (Warman et al.,2003b), nor other plasma hormone levels (ICNIRP, 2003).
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5.2 Volunteer studiesAn electric charge is induced on the surface of a human (or other
living organism) exposed to a low frequency electric field that alternates inamplitude with the frequency of the applied field. The alternation of the sur-face charge with time induces an electric field and therefore current flowwithin the body; in addition, exposure to a low frequency magnetic fieldinduces circulating eddy currents and associated electric fields. If of suffi-cient magnitude, these induced electric fields and currents can interact withelectrically excitable nerve and muscle tissue. Generally, however, the sur-face charge effects of exposure to low frequency electric fields become pro-hibitive long before the internal electric fields become large enough to elicita response in the tissue.
5.2.1 Surface electric chargeThe surface electric charge can be perceived directly through the
induced vibration of body hair and tingling sensations in areas of the body,particularly the arms, in contact with clothing, and indirectly through sparkdischarges between a person and a conducting object within the field. In sev-eral studies carried out in the 1970’s and 1980’s (summarized by Reilly,1998a; 1999), the threshold for direct perception has shown wide individualvariation; 10% of the exposed subjects had detection thresholds of around 2–5 kV m-1 at 60 Hz, whereas 50% could detect fields of 7–20 kV m-1. Theseeffects were considered annoying by 5% of the test subjects exposed underlaboratory conditions above electric field strengths of about 15–20 kV m-1.In addition to showing a wide variation in individual sensitivity, theseresponses also vary with environmental conditions, particularly humidity;the studies referred to above, however, included both wet and dry exposureconditions.
It has been estimated that spark discharges would be painful to 7%of subjects who are well-insulated and who touch a grounded object within a5 kV m-1 field (Reilly, 1998a; Reilly, 1999) whereas they would be painful toabout 50% in a 10 kV m-1 field. Unpleasant spark discharges can also occurwhen a grounded person touches a large conductive object such as a largevehicle that is “well-insulated” from ground and is situated within a strongelectric field. Here, the threshold field strength required to induce such aneffect varies inversely with the size of the conductive object. In both cases,the presence in the well-insulated person or object of a conductive pathwayto ground would tend to mitigate the intensity of any effect (Reilly, 1998a;Reilly, 1999), as would the impedance to earth of the grounded object or per-son.
People can perceive electric currents directly applied to the bodythrough touching, for example, a conductive loop in which current is inducedby exposure to environmental electromagnetic fields. Thresholds for directlyapplied currents have also been characterised. At 50 to 60 Hz, the malemedian threshold for perception was between 0.36 mA (finger contact) and1.1 mA (grip contact), while pain occurred at 1.8 mA (finger contact).
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Median thresholds for women were generally found to be two thirds of themale thresholds, while children were assumed to have median thresholds halfof male threshold values (WHO, 1993). There is also a wide variety in theindividual’s ability to detect currents, there is, for example, about one orderof magnitude difference in the perception threshold at the 0.5 percentile andthe 99.5 percentile at 50/60 Hz (Kornberg & Sagan, 1979). Generally, theability to detect fields or currents decreases with increasing frequency. Thishas been characterised for the perception of currents; the threshold is increas-ing by about two orders of magnitude at higher frequencies: 0.36 mA at 50/60 Hz, 4 mA at 10 kHz and 40 mA at 100 kHz (WHO, 1993).
A series of extensive studies on 50 Hz population thresholds inmore than 1000 people from all ages have recently been carried out by Leit-geb and colleagues. Leitgeb & Schröttner (2002) examined perceptionthresholds in 700 people aged between 16 and 60 years, approximately halfof them women. This study was recently extended to include 240 childrenaged 9–16 years, and about 20 people aged 61 years or more (Leitgeb, Schro-ettner & Cech, 2005). In both studies, electric current was applied to the fore-arm using pre-gelled electrodes, and considerable care was taken to rule outsubjective bias.
A summary of the studies on perception of electric currents directlyapplied to the body is given in Table 33.
Leitgeb, Schroettner & Cech (2005) note that the median perceptionthreshold for the population is 268 µA, almost 50% lower than the presentlimit of 500 μA recommended by the IEC (1994). They also note that whilstthe median threshold for women is approximately two thirds of the malethreshold values, children aged between 9 and 16 do not exhibit as a high asensitivity as had been assumed.
An issue with perception levels is that they really depend on the siteof application of the current (cheek and inner forearm being very sensitive)
Table 33. 50 Hz electric current perception values (Iw) for different perception probabilities (p) for men, women and the general population a
Iw (µA)
p (%) Men Women Children Population
90 602 506 453 553
50 313 242 252 268
10 137 93 112 111
5 106 68 78 78
0.5 53 24 35 32a Source: Leitgeb & Schroettner, 2002; Leitgeb, Schroettner & Cech, 2005.
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and the area of application of the current (i.e. current density). The lattermakes the comparison of current values difficult (Reilly, 1998a).
5.2.2 Nerve stimulationLarge, rapidly changing, pulsed magnetic fields used in various
specialised medical applications such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can induce electric fields largeenough to stimulate nervous tissue in humans. Minimum, orientation-depen-dent stimulus thresholds for large diameter (20 µm) myelinated nerve axonshave been estimated to be approximately 6 V m-1 at frequencies up to about1–3 kHz (Reilly, 1998a; Reilly, 1999). In addition, accommodation to aslowly changing stimulus resulting from slow inactivation of sodium chan-nels will raise thresholds at low frequencies. In MRI, nerve stimulation is anunwanted side effect of a procedure used to derive cross-sectional images ofthe body for clinical diagnosis (see Shellock, 2001). Threshold rates ofchange of the switched gradient magnetic fields used in MRI for perception,discomfort and pain resulting from peripheral nerve stimulation are exten-sively reviewed by Nyenhuis et al. (2001). Generally, median, minimumthreshold rates of change of magnetic field (during periods of < 1 ms) forperception were 15–25 µT s-1 depending on orientation and showed consid-erable individual variation (Bourland, Nyenhuis & Schaefer, 1999). Thesevalues were somewhat lower than previously estimated by Reilly (1998a;1999), possibly due to the constriction of eddy current flow by high imped-ance tissue such as bone (Nyenhuis et al., 2001). Thresholds rose as the pulsewidth of the current induced by the switched gradient field decreased; themedian pulse width (the chronaxie) corresponding to a doubling of the mini-mum threshold (the rheobase) ranged between 360 and 380 µs but againshowing considerable individual variation (Bourland, Nyenhuis & Schaefer,1999). Numerical calculations of the electric field induced by pulses in the84 subjects tested by Nyenhuis et al. (2001) have been used to estimate themedian threshold for peripheral nerve stimulation at 60 Hz as 48 mT (Bailey& Nyenhuis, 2005). Furthermore, Nyenhuis et al. (2001)using data frommeasurements on human volunteers estimated a rheobase electric field of 2.2V m-1 in tissue.
In TMS, parts of the brain are deliberately stimulated in order toproduce a transient, functional impairment for use in the study of cognitiveprocesses (see Reilly, 1998a; Ueno, 1999; Walsh, Ashbridge & Cowey,1998). Furthermore, in TMS, brief, localised, suprathreshold stimuli aregiven, typically by discharging a capacitor through a coil situated over thesurface of the head, in order to stimulate neurons in a small volume (a fewcubic centimetres) of underlying cortical tissue (Reilly, 1998a). The inducedcurrent causes the neurons within that volume to depolarise synchronously,followed by a period of inhibition (Fitzpatrick & Rothman, 2000). When thepulsed field is applied to a part of the brain thought to be necessary for theperformance of a cognitive task, the resulting depolarisation interferes withthe ability to perform the task. In principle then, TMS provides cognitiveneuroscientists with the capability to induce highly specific, temporally and
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spatially precise interruptions in cognitive processing – sometimes known as“virtual lesions”. Reilly (1998a) noted induced electric field thresholds to beof the order of 20 V m-1. However, Walsh & Cowey (1998) cited typicalrates of change of magnetic field of 30 kT s-1 over a 100 µs period transientlyinducing an electric field of 500 V m-1 in brain tissue.
People are likely to show variations in sensitivity to induced elec-tric fields. In particular, epileptic syndromes are characterised by increasedneuronal excitability and synchronicity (Engelborghs, D'Hooge & De Deyn,2000); seizures arise from an excessively synchronous and sustained dis-charge of a group of neurons (Engelborghs, D'Hooge & De Deyn, 2000; Jef-ferys, 1994). TMS is widely used, apparently without adverse effects.However, repetitive TMS has been observed to trigger epileptic seizure insome susceptible subjects (Fitzpatrick & Rothman, 2000; Wassermann,1998). These authors also reported short- to medium-term memory impair-ments and noted the possibility of long-term cognitive effects from alteredsynaptic activity or neurotransmitter balance. Contraindications for TMS useagreed at an international workshop on repetitive TMS safety (Wassermann,1998) include epilepsy, a family history of seizure, the use of tricyclic anti-depressants, neuroleptic agents and other drugs that lower seizure threshold.Serious heart disease and increased intracranial pressure have also been sug-gested as contraindications due to the potential complications that would beintroduced by seizure.
5.2.3 Retinal functionThe effects of exposure to weak low frequency magnetic fields on
human retinal function are well established. Exposure of the head to mag-netic flux densities above about 5 mT at 20 Hz, rising to about 15 mT at 50Hz, will reliably induce faint flickering visual sensations called magneticphosphenes (Attwell, 2003; Sienkiewicz, Saunders & Kowalczuk, 1991;Taki, Suzuki & Wake, 2003). It is generally agreed that these phosphenesresult from the interaction of the induced electric current with electricallysensitive cells in the retina. Several lines of evidence suggest the productionof phosphenes by a weak induced electric field does not involve the initialtransduction of light into an electrical signal. Firstly, the amplification of theinitial signal generated by the absorption of light takes place primarilythrough an intracellular “second-messenger cascade” of metabolic reactionsprior to any change in ion channel conductivity (Hille & Anderson, 2001).Secondly, the phosphene threshold appears unaffected by “dark” adaptationto low light levels (Carpenter, 1972). In addition, phosphenes have beeninduced in a patient with retinitis pigmentosa, a degenerative illness prima-rily affecting the pigment epithelium and photoreceptors (Lövsund et al.,1980).
There is good reason to view retinal circuitry as an appropriatemodel for induced electric field effects on CNS neuronal circuitry in general(Attwell, 2003). Firstly, the retina displays all the processes present in otherCNS areas, such as graded voltage signalling and action potentials, and has asimilar biochemistry. Secondly, in contrast to more subtle cognitive effects,
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phosphenes represent a direct and reproducible perception of field interac-tion. A clear distinction can be made in this context between the detection ofa normal visual stimulus and the abnormal induction of a visual signal bynon-visual means (Saunders, 2003); the latter suggests the possibility ofdirect effects on cognitive processes elsewhere in the CNS.
Thresholds for electrically induced phosphenes have been esti-mated to be about 10–14 mA m-2 at 20 Hz (Adrian, 1977; Carstensen, 1985).A similar value (10 mA m-2 at 20 Hz), based on studies of magneticallyinduced phosphenes, has been derived by Wake et al. (1998). The equivalentelectric field threshold can be estimated as around 100–140 mV m-1 using atissue conductivity for brain tissue of about 0.1 S m-1 (Gabriel, Gabriel &Corthout, 1996). More recently, Reilly (2002) has calculated an approximate20 Hz electric field threshold in the retina of 53 mV m-1 for phosphene pro-duction. A similar value (60 mV m-1) has been reported elsewhere (see Saun-ders, 2003). Subsequently, however, Taki et al. (2003) indicated thatcalculations of phosphene thresholds suggested that electrophosphenethresholds were around 100 mV m-1, whereas magnetophosphene thresholdswere around 10 mV m-1 at 20 Hz.
More detailed calculation by Attwell (2003) based on neuroanatom-ical and physiological considerations, suggests that the phosphene electricfield threshold in the extracellular fluid of the retina is in the range 10–60mV m-1 at 20 Hz. There is however, considerable uncertainty attached tothese values. In addition, the extrapolation of values in the extracellular fluidto those appropriate for whole tissue, as used in most dosimetric models, iscomplex, depending critically on the extracellular volume and other factors.With regard to the frequency response, Reilly (2002) suggests that the nar-row frequency response is the result of relatively long membrane time con-stants of around 25 ms. However, at present, the exact mechanismunderlying phosphene induction is unknown. It is not clear whether the nar-row frequency response is due to intrinsic physiological properties of the ret-inal neurons, as suggested by Reilly (2002) above and by Attwell (2003)considering active amplification process in the retinal neuron synaptic termi-nals, or is the result of central processing of the visual signal (Saunders,2003; Saunders & Jefferys, 2002). This issue can only be resolved throughfurther investigation.
5.2.4 Brain electrical activity Since the first suggestion that occupational exposure to EMFs
resulted in clinical changes in the electroencephalogram (EEG) was pub-lished in 1966 (Asanova & Rakov, 1966; 1972), various studies have investi-gated if exposure to magnetic fields can affect the electrical activity of thebrain. Such methods can provide useful diagnostic information regarding thefunctional state of the brain, not only from recordings of the spontaneousactivity at rest but also from recording the sensory functions and subsequentcognitive processes evoked in response to specific stimuli (evoked or event-related potentials, ERPs). Nevertheless, neurophysiological studies usingmagnetic fields need to be performed with much care and attention since
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they can be prone to many potential sources of error and artefact (NIEHS,1998). Changes in arousal and attention of volunteers, in particular, can sub-stantially affect the outcome of these studies.
Various studies have investigated the effects of magnetic fields onbrain activity by analysing the spectral power of the main frequency bands ofthe EEG (Bell et al., 1992; Bell et al., 1991; Bell, Marino & Chesson, 1994a;Bell, Marino & Chesson, 1994b; Gamberale et al., 1989; Heusser, Tellschaft& Thoss, 1997; Lyskov et al., 1993b; Lyskov et al., 1993a; Marino, Bell &Chesson, 1996; Schienle et al., 1996; Silny, 1986). These studies have used awide variety of experimental designs and exposure conditions, as well ashealthy volunteers and patients with neurological conditions, and thus aredifficult to compare and evaluate. Despite some scattered field-dependentchanges, most notably in the alpha frequency band, and with intermittentexposure perhaps more effective than continuous exposure, these studieshave produced inconsistent and sometimes contradictory results.
A difficulty with interpretation of the EEG in individuals at rest isthat the intra-individual variability is very high. The variability of ERPs ismuch lower, resulting in better reproducibility, and other studies have inves-tigated the effects of magnetic fields and combined electric and magneticfields on these potentials within the EEG waveform. There are some differ-ences between studies, but generally, the early components of the evokedresponse corresponding to sensory function do not appear affected by expo-sure (Graham & Cook, 1999; Lyskov et al., 1993b). In contrast, large andsustained changes on a later component of the waveform representing stimu-lus detection may be engendered by exposure at 60 mT (Silny, 1984; 1985;1986), with lesser effects occurring using fields of 1.26 mT (Lyskov et al.,1993b), and nothing below 30 µT (Graham & Cook, 1999). Finally, exposureduring the performance of some discrimination and attention tasks mayaffect the late major components of the EEG which are believed to reflectcognitive processes involved with stimulus evaluation and decision making(Cook et al., 1992; Crasson et al., 1999; Graham et al., 1994), although Cras-son and Legros (2005) were unable to replicate the effects they reported pre-viously. There also is some evidence that task difficulty and fieldintermittency may be important experimental variables. However, all thesesubtle effects are not well defined, and some inconsistencies between studiesrequire additional investigation and explanation.
A summary of studies on changes in brain electrical activity whileawake is given in Table 34.
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Tabl
e 34
. Bra
in e
lect
rical
act
ivity
Test
a
Expo
sure
Res
pons
eC
omm
ents
Aut
hors
Dur
ing
expo
sure
to m
agne
tic fi
elds
up
to 1
0 H
z
Stan
dard
EE
G: C
3,4;
P3,
4; O
1,2
; FF
T at
10
Hz,
no
reco
rds
durin
g ex
posu
re6
fem
ale
and
4 m
ale
volu
ntee
rs
10 H
z10
0 µT
10 m
in
Imm
edia
tely
afte
r exp
osur
e th
e sp
ectra
l pow
er o
f the
bra
in a
ctiv
ity
was
low
er th
an b
efor
e ex
posu
re a
nd
10 m
in a
fterw
ards
, but
onl
y at
the
occi
pita
l ele
ctro
des
was
this
diff
er-
ence
sig
nific
ant.
Dat
a fo
r ind
ivid
ual v
olun
teer
s ar
e no
t pre
sent
ed, a
nd th
ere
is
no in
form
atio
n co
ncer
ning
the
rate
of r
espo
nder
s.
Bel
l, M
arin
o &
Che
sson
, 19
94b
Stan
dard
EE
G: C
3,4;
P3,
4; O
1,2
; FF
T at
1.5
Hz
or 1
0 H
z ba
nd
13 h
ealth
y su
bjec
ts a
nd 6
pat
ient
s
5 or
10
Hz
20, 4
0 µT
2 s
on, 5
s o
ff
In e
ach
pers
on, t
he m
agne
tic fi
eld
alte
red
the
brai
n ac
tivity
at t
he fr
e-qu
ency
of s
timul
atio
n, b
ut n
o sy
s-te
mat
ic c
hang
es o
f bra
in a
ctiv
ity.
The
stre
ngth
of t
he e
ffect
was
pr
opor
tiona
l nei
ther
to fr
e-qu
ency
nor
to fi
eld
stre
ngth
.
Bel
l, M
arin
o &
Che
sson
, 19
94a
Stan
dard
EE
G: C
3,4;
P3,
4; O
1,2
; fre
-qu
ency
spe
ctru
m a
naly
sis
exce
pt
for <
2.5
Hz
and
9-11
Hz.
13 v
olun
teer
s, 6
pat
ient
s
1.5
or 1
0 H
z80
µT
2 s
on, 5
s o
ff
ICO
S (i
ntra
-sub
ject
com
paris
on o
f st
imul
us a
nd n
on-s
timul
us s
tate
) was
al
tere
d by
ELF
exp
osur
e in
58%
of
the
subj
ects
.
Mar
ino,
Bel
l &
Che
sson
, 19
96
Stan
dard
EE
G, O
1,2
spec
tral a
naly
-si
s of
thet
a (3
.5-7
.5 H
z), a
lpha
(7.5
-12
.5H
z) a
nd b
eta
band
s (1
2.5-
25
Hz)
25 fe
mal
e an
d 36
mal
e vo
lunt
eers
3 H
z10
0 µT
pp20
min
one
expo
sure
and
one
con
trol
sess
ion
Sig
nific
ant c
hang
es in
thet
a an
d be
ta
frequ
ency
ban
ds a
fter e
xpos
ure
rela
-tiv
e to
con
trols
, int
erpr
eted
as
slig
htly
pro
noun
ced
redu
ctio
n of
al
ertn
ess
durin
g ex
posu
re.
Exp
osur
e an
d co
ntro
l ses
-si
ons
on d
iffer
ent d
ays,
the
two
sess
ion
days
wer
e no
t tre
ated
as
a d
oubl
e bl
ind
stud
y.
Heu
sser
, Te
llsch
aft &
Th
oss,
199
7
Dur
ing
expo
sure
to m
agne
tic fi
elds
bet
wee
n 45
and
60
Hz
Stan
dard
EE
G26
exp
erie
nced
pow
er u
tility
line
-m
en
50 H
z ex
posu
re d
urin
g w
ork-
day
aver
age
expo
sure
23
µTon
e da
y liv
e, o
ne d
ay s
ham
No
chan
ges
in a
lpha
EE
G, n
or e
vi-
denc
e of
EE
G a
bnor
mal
ities
.In
terv
entio
n st
udy,
not
labo
ra-
tory
.G
ambe
rale
et
al.,
198
9
-
128
Tabl
e 34
. Con
tinue
d
Stan
dard
EE
G (1
0-20
sys
tem
): C
3,4;
P3,
4; O
1,2
; FFT
at 1
-18.
5 H
z in
0.5
Hz
step
s3
fem
ale,
11
mal
e vo
lunt
eers
60 H
z25
or 5
0 µT
2 s
on, 8
s o
ff, fi
rst 2
s u
sed
as c
ontro
l
No
syst
emat
ic e
ffect
s fo
r fre
quen
cy
band
s an
d ac
tivity
-pow
er in
tens
ities
. In
50
% o
f vol
unte
ers
dim
inis
hed
EE
G p
ower
was
obs
erve
d as
a
resp
onse
to th
e fie
ld.
Bel
l et a
l.,
1991
Stan
dard
EE
G: C
3,4;
P3,
4; O
1,2
; FF
T at
1-1
8.5
Hz
in 0
.5 H
z st
eps
10 h
ealth
y vo
lunt
eers
and
10
neu-
rolo
gica
l pat
ient
s
60 H
zB
DC
: 78
µT, B
AC
: 78
µT, s
in-
gle
and
com
bine
d2
s on
, 5 s
off,
firs
t 2 s
use
d as
con
trol
19 o
ut o
f 20
pers
ons
resp
onde
d to
th
e fie
lds:
ove
rall
35%
to B
DC
; 70%
of
the
patie
nts
and
80%
of t
he v
olun
-te
ers
to B
AC
, res
pons
e to
BA
C w
as
not d
iffer
ent f
rom
the
resp
onse
s to
th
e co
mbi
natio
n B
AC
+ B
DC
. Fie
ld-
indu
ced
incr
ease
and
dec
reas
e of
br
ain
activ
ity, n
o sy
stem
atic
cha
nges
w
ere
obse
rved
for t
he h
emis
pher
es
or a
ctiv
ity lo
ci.
EE
G c
hang
es w
ere
low
er in
pa
tient
s th
an in
hea
lthy
sub-
ject
s.
Bel
l et a
l.,
1992
Stan
dard
EE
G s
pect
ral a
naly
sis
6 fe
mal
e an
d 8
mal
e vo
lunt
eers
45 H
z1.
26 m
T1s
on,
1s
off c
ycle
ove
r 15
min
, one
exp
osur
e an
d on
e co
ntro
l ses
sion
Sig
nific
ant i
ncre
ase
of th
e po
wer
val
-ue
s of
alp
ha a
nd b
eta
band
s af
ter
expo
sure
, no
chan
ges
in d
elta
- and
th
eta-
band
s.
Lysk
ov e
t al
., 19
93a
Stan
dard
EE
G s
pect
ral a
naly
sis.
be
fore
and
afte
r exp
osur
e11
fem
ale
and
9 m
ale
volu
ntee
rs
45 H
z1.
26 m
T10
per
sons
: 1 h
con
tinuo
us
field
, 10
pers
ons:
1s
on/o
ff in
term
itten
t fie
ld fo
r 1 h
One
exp
osur
e an
d on
e co
n-tro
l ses
sion
Sev
eral
sta
tistic
ally
sig
nific
ant
chan
ges;
incr
ease
of a
lpha
act
ivity
du
ring
inte
rmitt
ent e
xpos
ure
and
decr
ease
of d
elta
act
ivity
. Inc
reas
e of
be
ta w
aves
in fr
onta
l but
not
in o
ccip
-ita
l der
ivat
ions
.
Inho
mog
eneo
us re
sults
, con
-si
sten
t with
incr
ease
d re
lax-
atio
n. D
oubl
e bl
ind
stud
y.
Lysk
ov e
t al
., 19
93b
-
129
Tabl
e 34
. Con
tinue
d
Dur
ing
expo
sure
to m
agne
tic fi
elds
at h
ighe
r fre
quen
cies
Stan
dard
EE
G, F
3,4,
P3,
4,O
1,2,
trad
i-tio
nal f
requ
ency
ban
ds 0
.1 -
30 H
z,
psyc
holo
gica
l par
amet
ers
and
ques
tionn
aire
s26
fem
ale
and
26 m
ale
volu
ntee
rs
Sphe
rics
sim
ulat
ion:
10
kH
z50
0 µs
dur
atio
n, ra
ndom
in
terv
als
betw
een
50 a
nd 1
50
ms
38 A
m-1
pea
k va
lue
elec
tric
field
shi
elde
dex
posu
re 1
0 m
in a
nd c
ontro
l se
ssio
n
Sig
nific
ant r
educ
tion
of th
e po
wer
on
ly in
the
alph
a fre
quen
cy b
and
(8-
13 H
z) in
par
ieta
l and
occ
ipita
l der
i-va
tions
, whe
n an
alys
ing
sub-
grou
ps
only
in 1
0 - 1
0.75
Hz.
P /
O re
cord
-in
gs s
how
sig
nific
ant r
educ
tions
in
the
volta
ge p
ower
.
Fact
ors
such
as
phys
ical
con
-di
tion
and
neur
otic
s w
ere
con-
side
red
as m
edia
tors
of
sphe
rics
effe
ctiv
enes
s.
Sch
ienl
e et
al
., 19
96
Evok
ed p
oten
tials
afte
r exp
osur
e to
EM
F
Visu
al e
voke
d po
tent
ials
100
subj
ects
5 –
50 H
z pu
lsed
mag
netic
fie
ldup
to 1
00 m
T
Pha
se re
vers
al o
f com
pone
nts
of th
e vi
sual
evo
ked
pote
ntia
l at 6
0 m
T.
Very
inte
nse
field
s.S
ilny,
198
4;
1985
; 198
6
Aud
itory
evo
ked
pote
ntia
ls6
fem
ale
and
8 m
ale
volu
ntee
rs45
Hz
1.26
mT
1s o
n, 1
s o
ff, 1
5 m
inon
e ex
posu
re a
nd o
ne c
ontro
l se
ssio
n
N10
0 co
mpo
nent
s w
ere
shor
ter,
ampl
itude
s w
ere
redu
ced.
Ly
skov
et
al.,
1993
a
Aud
itory
evo
ked
pote
ntia
ls11
fem
ale
and
9 m
ale
volu
ntee
rs45
Hz
1.26
mT
10 p
erso
ns: 1
h c
ontin
uous
fie
ld10
per
sons
: 1 h
1 s
on/
off
inte
rmitt
ent f
ield
one
expo
sure
and
one
con
trol
sess
ion
Not
affe
cted
.Ly
skov
et
al.,
1993
b
-
130
Tabl
e 34
. Con
tinue
d
Aud
itory
, vis
ual a
nd s
omat
osen
sory
ev
oked
pot
entia
ls b
efor
e, d
urin
g an
d af
ter e
xpos
ure
36 (m
ale
and
fem
ale)
sub
ject
s
60 H
z 14
.1 o
r 28.
3 µT
45 m
in
No
effe
ct e
xcep
t a re
duce
d am
pli-
tude
of t
he s
omat
osen
sory
evo
ked
pote
ntia
l in
the
low
er e
xpos
ure
grou
p.
Dou
ble-
blin
d, c
ount
erba
l-an
ced
stud
y.G
raha
m &
C
ook,
199
9
Even
t-rel
ated
pot
entia
ls a
fter e
xpos
ure
to E
MF
Ele
ctro
des
Cz,
P3,
4 fo
r eve
nt-
rela
ted
pote
ntia
ls (P
300)
, fol
low
ing
audi
tory
or v
isua
l stim
uli i
n th
e O
dd-
ball
task
dur
ing
expo
sure
30 m
ale
volu
ntee
rs
60 H
z9
kV m
-1, 2
0 µT
18 e
xpos
ed a
nd s
ham
-ex
pose
d ov
er fo
ur 6
-h s
es-
sion
s, 1
2 ex
pose
d in
all
ses-
sion
s
Am
plitu
de o
f the
aud
itory
P30
0 w
as
incr
ease
d. V
isua
l ER
Ps
wer
e no
t af
fect
ed.
Effe
cts
on a
udito
ry E
RP
com
-po
nent
s w
ere
grea
test
soo
n af
ter a
ctiv
atio
n of
fiel
d an
d af
ter s
witc
hing
off
at th
e en
d of
th
e se
ssio
n.
Coo
k et
al.,
19
92
Eve
nt-r
elat
ed b
rain
pot
entia
ls
(N20
0-P
300)
follo
win
g au
dito
ry
stim
uli i
n th
e O
ddba
ll ta
sk d
urin
g ex
posu
re54
mal
e su
bjec
ts
3 m
atch
ed g
roup
s of
18
men
ea
ch, t
wo
6-h
sess
ions
, exp
o-su
re o
r sha
m, 6
0 H
z:a)
6 k
V m
-1, 1
0 µT
b) 9
kV
m-1
, 20
µT
c) 1
2 kV
m-1
, 30
µT
Sig
nific
ant i
ncre
ases
of P
300
late
ncy
in g
roup
b),
but d
ecre
ase
durin
g sh
am e
xpos
ure.
N20
0-P
300
com
pone
nt c
om-
plex
alte
red
in a
ll gr
oups
, ord
er
of e
xpos
ure
did
not a
ffect
re
sults
. Dou
ble
blin
d, c
oun-
terb
alan
ced
stud
y.
Gra
ham
et
al.,
1994
Eve
nt-r
elat
ed p
oten
tials
dur
ing
per-
form
ance
of t
he O
ddba
ll ta
sk, t
he
dich
otic
list
enin
g ta
sk a
nd th
e C
NV
pa
radi
gm a
fter e
xpos
ure
21 m
ale
subj
ects
50 H
z10
0 µT
30 m
in, c
ontin
uous
or i
nter
-m
itten
t he
ad o
nly
Diff
eren
ces
in E
RP
ampl
itude
s w
ere
seen
dur
ing
the
dich
otic
list
enin
g ta
sk.
Som
e ef
fect
s w
ere
inco
nsis
tent
be
twee
n tri
als.
Dou
ble-
blin
d st
udie
s.
Cra
sson
et
al.,
1999
Eve
nt-r
elat
ed p
oten
tials
dur
ing
per-
form
ance
of t
he O
ddba
ll ta
sk, t
he
dich
otic
list
enin
g ta
sk a
nd th
e C
NV
pa
radi
gm a
fter e
xpos
ure
18 m
ale
subj
ects
50 H
z10
0 µT
30 m
in, c
ontin
uous
or i
nter
-m
itten
t he
ad o
nly
No
effe
cts
in E
RP
am
plitu
des
wer
e se
en d
urin
g th
e di
chot
ic li
sten
ing
task
or i
n ot
her m
easu
res
of p
erfo
r-m
ance
.
Rep
licat
ion
and
exte
nsio
n of
ab
ove
stud
y by
the
sam
e gr
oup.
Cra
sson
&
Legr
os,
2005
a C
, F, O
& P
repr
esen
t sta
ndar
d E
EG
reco
rdin
g el
ectro
de p
ositi
ons;
FFT
= F
ast F
ourie
r Tra
nsfo
rm.
-
131
5.2.5 SleepSleep is a complex biological process controlled by the central ner-
vous system and is necessary for general health and well-being. The possibil-ity that EMFs may exert a detrimental effect on sleep has been examined intwo studies. Using the EEG to assess sleep parameters, Åkerstedt et al.(1999) reported that continuous exposure of healthy volunteers to 50 Hz at 1µT at night caused disturbances in sleep. In this study, total sleep time, sleepefficiency, slow-wave sleep (stage III and IV), and slow-wave activity weresignificantly reduced by exposure, as was subjective depth of sleep. Graham& Cook (1999) reported that intermittent, but not continuous, exposure to 60Hz, 28 µT magnetic fields at night resulted in less total sleep time, reducedsleep efficiency, increased time in stage II sleep, decreased time in rapid eyemovement (REM) sleep and increased latency to first REM period. Consis-tent with a pattern of poor and broken sleep, volunteers exposed to the inter-mittent field also reported sleeping less well and feeling less rested in themorning.
A comparison between these two studies is made difficult becauseof the differences in the exposure levels used, 1 µT (Åkerstedt et al., 1999)vs. 28 µT (Graham & Cook, 1999) and also of other differences in thedesign. As to the results, in the Åkerstedt study, results were apparentlyobtained by low-level continuous exposure, whereas the Graham study failedto elicit such results by continuous exposure, but did produce similar resultswith intermittent exposures. Further studies with similar designs are neededbefore any conclusions can be drawn.
A summary of studies on brain electrical activity during sleep isgiven in Table 35.
Table 35. Brain electrical activity during sleep
Test Exposure Response Comments Authors
Sleep EEGs, conventional recordings8 female and 10 male healthy volunteers
50 Hz1 µTone night (23:00-07:00) with field on, one night with field off
Significantly reduced slow wave activity and slow wave sleep. Also tendency for reduced total sleep time, sleep efficiency, REM sleep (not statistically signifi-cant).
Absolute values were within the normal variability; the observed changes are far from clinical sig-nificance. Blind study, balanced design.
Åkerstedt et al., 1999
Sleep EEG, 3 nights (23:00-07:00), Cz, C4, Oz 24 male volun-teers
60 Hz28.3 µT, circularly polarised8 sham-exposed controls, 7 sub-jects exposed to continuous fields, 9 to intermittent 1 h on, 1 h off, 15 s on/off cycle
Intermittent exposure to magnetic fields pro-duced significant distur-bances in nocturnal sleep EEGs in 6 of 9 per-sons: decreased sleep efficiency, altered sleep architecture, suppres-sion of REM sleep, lower well-feeling of several subjects in the morning.
No effect was seen during con-tinuous field expo-sure relative to sham-exposed controls. Double-blind, counter-balanced study.
Graham & Cook, 1999
-
132
5.2.6 Cognitive effectsDespite the potential importance of field-induced effects on atten-
tion, vigilance, memory and other information processing functions, rela-tively few studies have looked for evidence of changes in cognitive abilityduring or after exposure to low frequency EMFs. These have been reviewedby NIEHS (1998), Cook, Thomas & Prato (2002), Bailey (2001), Crasson(2003) and ICNIRP (2003). While few field-dependent changes have beenobserved, it is important to consider that this type of study may be particu-larly susceptible to various environmental and individual factors which mayincrease the variance of the experimental endpoint and decrease the power todetect a small effect. This may be particularly important, since any field-dependent effects are likely to be small with fields at environmental levels(Sienkiewicz et al., 1993; Whittington, Podd & Rapley, 1996).
The effects of acute exposure to magnetic fields on simple andchoice reaction time have been investigated in several recent studies using awide range of magnetic flux densities (20 µT – 1.26 mT) and experimentalconditions. Some studies did not find any field-dependent effects (Gam-berale et al., 1989; Kurokawa et al., 2003b; Lyskov et al., 1993b; Lyskov etal., 1993a; Podd et al., 2002; Podd et al., 1995), although modest effects onspeed (Crasson et al., 1999; Graham et al., 1994; Whittington, Podd & Rap-ley, 1996) and accuracy during task performance (Cook et al., 1992;Kazantzis, Podd & Whittington, 1998; Preece, Wesnes & Iwi, 1998) havebeen reported. However, Crasson & Legros (2005) were unable to replicatethese observations. These data also suggest that effects may depend on thedifficulty of the task (Kazantzis, Podd & Whittington, 1998; Whittington,Podd & Rapley, 1996) and that exposure may attenuate the usual improve-ment seen with practice in reaction time (Lyskov et al., 1993b; Lyskov et al.,1993a; Stollery, 1986)
A few studies have reported subtle field-dependent changes in othercognitive functions, including memory and attention. Using a battery of neu-ropsychological tests, Preece, Wesnes & Iwi (1998) found that exposure to a50 Hz magnetic field at 0.6 mT decreased accuracy in the performance ofnumerical working memory task and decreased sensitivity of the perfor-mance in a word recognition task. Similarly Keetley et al. (2001) investi-gated the effects of exposure to 28 µT, 50 Hz fields using a series ofcognitive tests. A significant decrease in performance was seen with oneworking memory task (the trail-making test, part B) that involves visual-motor tracking and information processing within the prefrontal and parietalareas of the cortex. Podd et al. (2002) reported delayed deficits in the perfor-mance of a recognition memory task following exposure to a 50 Hz field at100 µT. Trimmel & Schweiger (1998) investigated the effects of acute expo-sure to 50 Hz magnetic fields at 1 mT. The fields were produced using apower transformer, and volunteers were exposed in the presence of a 45 dBsound pressure level noise. Compared with a no-field, no-noise condition andnoise alone (generated using a tape recording) significant reductions in visualattention, perception and verbal memory performance were observed during
-
133
Tabl
e 36
. Cog
nitiv
e ef
fect
s
Test
Expo
sure
Res
pons
eC
omm
ents
Aut
hors
Rea
ctio
n tim
e, v
igila
nce,
mem
ory
and
perc
eptio
n sp
eed
test
ed b
efor
e an
d af
ter e
ach
day
26 e
xper
ienc
ed p
ower
util
ity li
nem
en.
50 H
z ex
posu
re d
urin
g w
orkd
ayav
erag
e ex
posu
re 2
3 µT
one
day
live,
one
day
sha
m
No
diffe
renc
e in
per
for-
man
ce b
etw
een
expo
sed
and
non-
expo
sed
days
.
Inte
rven
tion
stud
y, n
ot
labo
rato
ry.
Gam
bera
le e
t al
., 19
89
Rea
ctio
n tim
e (R
T) a
nd ta
rget
-del
e-tio
n te
st (T
DT)
6 fe
mal
e an
d 8
mal
e vo
lunt
eers
45 H
z1.
26 m
T1
s on
, 1 s
off
cycl
e, 1
5 m
inon
e ex
posu
re a
nd o
ne c
ontro
l ses
sion
No
sign
ifica
nt d
iffer
ence
s fo
r R
T, T
DT
not a
ffect
ed.
Lysk
ov e
t al.,
19
93a
Rea
ctio
n tim
e (R
T)11
fem
ale
and
9 m
ale
volu
ntee
rs45
Hz
1.26
mT
10 p
erso
ns: 1
h c
ontin
uous
fiel
d10
per
sons
: 1 h
our 1
s o
n/of
f int
erm
it-te
nt fi
eld
one
expo
sure
and
one
con
trol s
essi
on
RT
not d
irect
ly a
ffect
ed.
Lear
ning
to p
erfo
rm th
e R
T te
st (d
ecre
ase
of R
T in
re
peat
ed tr
ials
) affe
cted
by
exp
osur
e .
Lysk
ov e
t al.,
19
93b
Rea
ctio
n tim
e to
ligh
t fla
shed
at v
ari-
able
inte
rval
s du
ring
expo
-sur
e12
sub
ject
s (e
xpt 1
) and
24
subj
ects
(e
xpt 2
), m
ale
and
fem
ale
Exp
erim
ent 1
:10
.1 o
r 0.2
Hz
1.1
mT
300
sE
xper
imen
t 2:
0.2
or 4
3 H
z1.
8m
T 30
0 s
No
effe
cts
foun
d.E
xper
imen
t 2 d
esig
ned
to
test
for p
ossi
ble
para
met
-ric
reso
nanc
e th
eory
. D
oubl
e bl
ind
stud
ies.
Pod
d et
al.,
19
95
Rea
ctio
n tim
e, a
ccur
acy
and
mem
ory
reco
gniti
on60
Hz
100
µT1
s on
, 1 s
off
for 1
1 m
in
Effe
ct o
n m
emor
y, n
ot o
n re
actio
n tim
e or
acc
urac
y.R
esul
ts d
iffer
ent f
rom
pre
-vi
ous
stud
ies
(Whi
tting
ton
et a
l., 1
996)
Pod
d et
al.,
20
02
-
134
Tabl
e 36
. Con
tinue
d
Rea
ctio
n tim
e, a
ccur
acy,
tim
e pe
rcep
-tio
n an
d vi
sual
per
cept
ion
12 m
ale
and
8 fe
mal
e su
bjec
ts
50 H
z22
µT
circ
ular
ly p
olar
ised
with
har
mon
-ic
s an
d re
petit
ive
trans
ient
s up
to 1
00
µT 55 m
in
No
effe
cts.
Kur
okaw
a et
al
., 20
03b
Rea
ctio
n tim
e (R
T), a
ttent
ion,
diff
er-
entia
l rei
nfor
cem
ent o
f low
resp
onse
ra
te (D
RL)
54 m
ale
volu
ntee
rs
3 m
atch
ed g
roup
s of
18
men
eac
h, tw
o 6-
h se
ssio
ns, e
xpos
ure
or s
ham
, 60
Hz:
a) 6
kV
m-1
, 10
µTb)
9 k
V m
-1, 2
0 µT
c) 1
2 kV
m-1
, 30
µT
Slo
wer
reac
tion
time
in O
dd-
ball t
ask
and
low
er a
ccur
acy
of D
RL
in g
roup
a) o
nly.
No
effe
ct o
n ot
her m
ea-
sure
s or
in o
ther
exp
osur
e gr
oups
. Dou
ble
blin
d,
coun
terb
alan
ced
stud
y.
Gra
ham
et a
l.,
1994
A v
isua
l dur
atio
n-di
scrim
inat
ion
task
w
ith 3
leve
ls o
f diff
icul
ty10
0 m
ale
and
fem
ale
subj
ects
50 H
z 10
0 µT
inte
rmitt
ent
9 m
in
Dec
reas
ed re
actio
n tim
e fo
r th
e ha
rdes
t lev
el o
f per
for-
man
ce.
A re
laxe
d si
gnifi
canc
e le
vel (
0.15
) was
use
d.
Dou
ble-
blin
d, c
ount
er-b
al-
ance
d st
udy.
Whi
tting
ton,
P
odd
& R
ap-
ley,
199
6
Rey
Aud
itory
Ver
bal L
earn
ing
test
(w
ith d
elay
ed re
call)
and
Dig
it Sp
an
Task
21 m
ale
subj
ects
.
50 H
z10
0 µT
con
tinuo
us o
r int
erm
itten
t30
min
head
onl
y
No
effe
cts
(rep
orte
d in
dis
-cu
ssio
n).
Dou
ble-
blin
d st
udie
s.C
rass
on e
t al.,
19
99
Cho
ice
seria
l rea
ctio
n tim
e ta
sk, t
ime
estim
atio
n ta
sk, i
nter
val p
rodu
ctio
n ta
sk, v
igila
nce
task
, dig
it sp
an m
em-
ory
task
and
Wilk
inso
n A
dditi
on ta
sk
durin
g ex
posu
re54
mal
e su
bjec
ts
60 H
z9
kV m
-1 a
nd 2
0 µT
2 x
3 h
/ day
for 4
day
s
Few
er e
rror
s in
cho
ice
reac
-tio
n tim
e ta
sk. N
o ef
fect
s on
re
actio
n tim
e, m
emor
y or
vi
gila
nce.
Dou
ble-
blin
d, c
ount
erba
l-an
ced
stud
y.C
ook
et a
l.,
1992
-
135
Tabl
e 36
. Con
tinue
d
A v
isua
l dur
atio
n-di
scrim
inat
ion
task
w
ith 3
leve
ls o
f diff
icul
ty.
40 m
ale
and
59 fe
mal
e su
bjec
ts
50 H
z 10
0 µT
inte
rmitt
ent
7.9
min
Impr
oved
acc
urac
y fo
r the
ha
rdes
t lev
el o
f per
for-
man
ce.
A re
laxe
d si
gnifi
canc
e le
vel (
0.3)
was
use
d. D
ou-
ble-
blin
d, c
ount
er-b
al-
ance
d st
udy.
Kaz
antz
is,
Pod
d &
Whi
t-tin
gton
, 199
8
Imm
edia
te w
ord
reca
ll, re
actio
n tim
e,
digi
t vig
ilanc
e ta
sk, c
hoic
e re
actio
n tim
e, s
patia
l wor
king
mem
ory,
nu
mer
ic w
orki
ng m
emor
y, d
elay
ed
wor
d re
call
and
reco
gniti
on a
nd p
ic-
ture
reco
gniti
on d
urin
g ex
posu
re.
16 (m
ale
and
fem
ale)
sub
ject
s
50 H
z or
sta
tic m
agne
tic fi
elds
at 0
.6
mT
appl
ied
to th
e he
ad. D
urat
ion
not
spec
ified
. Cur
rent
den
sity
in h
ead
esti-
mat
ed a
s 2–
6 m
A m
-2
Red
uced
acc
urac
y of
wor
d an
d nu
mbe
r rec
all a
nd p
er-
form
ance
of c
hoic
e re
actio
n tim
e ta
sk.
Ran
dom
ised
blin
d cr
oss-
over
des
ign.
Pre
ece,
W
esne
s &
Iwi,
1998
Dur
atio
n D
iscr
imin
atio
n Ta
sk a
nd
Stro
op C
olou
r Wor
d te
st.
18 m
ale
subj
ects
50 H
z10
0 µT
con
tinuo
us o
r int
erm
itten
t30
min
head
onl
y
No
effe
ct o
n re
actio
n tim
e an
d pe
rform
ance
acc
urac
y.D
oubl
e bl
ind
with
cou
nter
-ba
lanc
ed e
xpos
ure
orde
r.C
rass
on &
Le
gros
, 200
5
Syn
tact
ic a
nd s
eman
tic v
erba
l rea
-so
ning
task
s, 5
-cho
ise
seria
l rea
ctio
n tim
e ta
sk, a
nd v
isua
l sea
rch
task
s du
ring
expo
sure
76 m
ale
subj
ects
50 H
z cu
rren
t50
0 µA
dire
ctly
app
lied
to h
ead
and
shou
lder
s5.
5 h
/ day
for 2
day
s
Incr
ease
d la
tenc
y in
syn
tac-
tic re
ason
ing
task
. P
ossi
ble
diffe
renc
es
betw
een
grou
ps. D
oubl
e-bl
ind
proc
edur
es w
ith
cros
s ov
er d
esig
n.
Stol
lery
, 198
6;
1987
Rey
Aud
itory
Ver
bal L
earn
ing
test
; D
igit
Span
Mem
ory
Task
; Dig
it S
ym-
bol S
ubst
itutio
n te
st; S
peed
of C
om-
preh
ensi
on T
est a
nd T
rail
Mak
ing
Test
30 s
ubje
cts,
bot
h se
xes
50 H
z28
µT
50 m
inve
rbal
and
writ
ten
test
s ad
min
iste
red
20 m
in fr
om e
xpos
ure
onse
t
Mos
t res
ults
indi
cate
d no
ef
fect
, but
dat
a su
gges
tive
of d
etrim
enta
l effe
ct o
n sh
ort-t
erm
lear
ning
and
ex
ecut
ive
func
tioni
ng.
Dou
ble-
blin
d cr
oss-
over
de
sign
.K
eetle
y et
al.,
20
01
Visu
al d
iscr
imin
atio
n, p
erce
ptio
n, v
er-
bal m
emor
y an
d m
ood
and
sym
ptom
ch
eckl
ist
66 (m
ale
and
fem
ale)
sub
ject
s
50 H
z1
mT
45dB
noi
se c
ompa
red
to n
oise
alo
ne
Sig
nific
ant r
educ
tion
in
visu
al a
ttent
ion,
per
cept
ion
and
verb
al m
emor
y pe
rfor-
man
ce.
Dou
ble
blin
d st
udie
s.Tr
imm
el &
S
chw
eige
r, 19
98
-
136
field exposure. The presence of the noise during exposure, however, compli-cates interpretation of this study.
Generally, while electrophysiological considerations suggest thatthe central nervous system is potentially susceptible to induced electricfields; cognitive studies have not revealed any clear, unambiguous finding.There is a need for a harmonisation of methodological procedures used indifferent laboratories, and for dose-response relationships to be investigated.The studies on various cognitive effects from ELF field exposure are summa-rized in Table 36.
5.2.7 HypersensitivityIt has been suggested that some individuals display increased sensi-
tivity to levels of EMFs well below recommended restrictions on exposure.People self-reporting hypersensitivity may experience a wide range of severeand debilitating symptoms, including sleep disturbances, general fatigue, dif-ficulty in concentrating, dizziness, and eyestrain. In extreme forms, everydayliving may become problematical. A number of skin problems such aseczema and sensations of itching and burning have also been reported, espe-cially on the face, and, although there may be no specific symptom profile(see Hillert et al., 2002), increased sensitivity to chemical and other factorsoften occurs (Levallois et al., 2002). The responses to EMFs are reported tooccur at field strengths orders of magnitude below those required for conven-tional perception of the field (Silny, 1999). These data have been reviewedby Bergqvist & Vogel (1997) and more recently by Levallois (2002),ICNIRP (2003) and Rubin et al. (2005).
In contrast to anecdotal reports, the evidence from double-blindprovocation studies (Andersson et al., 1996; Flodin, Seneby & Tegenfeldt,2000; Lonne-Rahm et al., 2000; Lyskov, Sandström & Hansson Mild,2001b; Swanbeck & Bleeker, 1989) indicate that neither healthy volunteersnor self-reporting hypersensitive individuals can reliably distinguish fieldexposure from sham-exposure. In addition, subjective symptoms and circu-lating levels of stress-related hormones and inflammatory mediators couldnot be related to field exposure. Similar results were reported in a survey ofoffice workers (Arnetz, 1997). In studies reported by Keisu (1996) and byToomingas (1996), the outcome of tests on an individual was used therapeu-tically in the medical handling of the patient. In none of these series wasthere any reproducible association between exposure and symptoms. Furthertest series have been performed in Sweden, the UK and in Germany, includ-ing an unsuccessful repetition of the Rea et al. (1991) study (see below), butthese have not been published in a peer reviewed form. For a review, seeBergqvist & Vogel (1997). These results are consistent with the view thathypersensitivity to EMFs is a psychosomatic syndrome, suggested by Gothe,Odoni & Nilsson (1995).
Not all studies dismiss the possibility of EMF hypersensitivity,however. Two studies have reported weak positive field discrimination(Mueller, Krueger & Schierz, 2002; Rea et al., 1991) and another two studies
-
137
reported subtle differences in heart rate, visual evoked potentials, electroret-inogram amplitudes and electrodermal activity between normal and hyper-sensitive volunteers (Lyskov, Sandström & Hansson Mild, 2001a; Sandströmet al., 1997). The study by Rea et al. (1991) has, however, been criticised onseveral methodological grounds (ICNIRP, 2003): the selection of individu-als, the exposure situation and whether the test was blind or not. There issome morphological evidence to suggest that the numbers and distribution ofmast cells in the dermis of the skin on the face may be increased in individu-als displaying hypersensitive reactions (Gangi & Johansson, 2000; Johans-son et al., 1994; Johansson, Hilliges & Han, 1996). Increased responsivenesswas attributed to changes in the expression of histamine and somatostatinand other inflammatory peptides. Similar effects in the dermis have also beenreported following provocation tests to VDU-type fields in normal, healthyvolunteers (Johansson et al., 2001).
EMF hypersensitivity was addressed by the World Health Organi-zation (WHO) at a workshop held in Prague in October 2004 (WHO, 2005).It was proposed that this hypersensitivity, which has multiple recurrentsymptoms and is associated with diverse environmental factors tolerated bythe majority of people, should be termed “idiopathic environmental intoler-ance (IEI) with attribution to EMF”. The workshop concluded that IEI incor-porates a number of disorders sharing similar nonspecific symptoms thatadversely affect people and cause disruptions in their occupational, social,and personal functioning. These symptoms are not explained by any knownmedical, psychiatric or psychological disorder, and the term IEI has no med-ical diagnostic value. IEI individuals cannot detect EMF exposure any moreaccurately than non-IEI individuals, and well-controlled and conducted dou-ble-blind studies have consistently shown that their symptoms are not relatedto EMF exposure per se. A summary of hypersensitivity studies is given inTable 37.
5.2.8 Mood and alertnessThe possible impact of EMFs on mood and arousal has also been
assessed in double-blind studies in which volunteers completed mood check-lists before and after exposure. No field-dependent effects have beenreported using a range of field conditions (Cook et al., 1992; Crasson et al.,1999; Crasson & Legros, 2005; Graham et al., 1994). However, in contrastStollery (1986) reported decreased arousal in one of two participating groupsof subjects when mild (500 µA) 50 Hz electric current was passed throughthe head, upper arms, and feet. This was done to simulate the internal electricfields generated by exposure to an external electric field strength of 36 kVm-1. Also Stevens (2001) reported that exposure to a 20 Hz, 50 µT magneticfield increased positive affective responses displayed to visual stimuli com-pared with sham-exposure. Arousal, as measured by skin conductance, gavevariable results. Table 38 summarizes the studies on effects of ELF fieldexposure on mood and alertness.
-
138
Tabl
e 37
. Hyp
erse
nsiti
vity
Test
Expo
sure
Res
pons
eC
omm
ents
Aut
hors
Ski
n sy
mpt
oms
30 p
atie
nts
VD
U:
stat
ic e
lect
ric fi
eld
0,2
and
30 k
V
m-1
ELF
mag
netic
fiel
d: 5
0 an
d 80
0 nT dB
/dt:
23 a
nd 3
35 m
T s-
1
No
resp
onse
rela
ted
to e
xpos
ure.
Hea
t, re
dden
ing,
itch
-in
g, s
tingi
ng, o
edem
a in
exp
osed
and
sha
m
expo
sed
situ
atio
ns.
Sw
anbe
ck
& B
leek
er,
1989
Per
cept
ion
and
sym
ptom
s17
pat
ient
s Fi
elds
from
VD
U, p
re-te
sted
as
caus
ing
sym
ptom
s in
ope
n pr
ov-
ocat
ion
prio
r to
doub
le b
lind
ses-
sion
s. In
shi
elde
d la
bora
tory
.
16 in
divi
dual
s fa
iled
to d
etec
t (g
uess
) pre
senc
e of
the
field
s,
sym
ptom
s w
ere
rela
ted
to g
uess
es,
not t
o th
e fie
lds.
And
erss
on
et a
l., 1
996
Per
cept
ion
and
sym
ptom
s15
pat
ient
s an
d 26
con
trols
Fiel
ds fr
om V
DU
s an
d ot
her
obje
cts.
Sub
ject
s te
sted
in th
eir
norm
al h
ome
envi
ronm
ent,
usin
g a
varie
ty o
f dev
ices
.
15 in
divi
dual
s fa
iled
to d
etec
t pre
s-en
ce o
f the
fiel
ds, s
ympt
oms
wer
e no
t rel
ated
to th
e fie
lds.
Flod
in,
Sen
eby
&
Tege
nfel
dt,
2000
Pro
voca
tion
stud
y of
stre
ss h
orm
one
lev-
els,
ski
n bi
opsi
es a
nd fa
cial
ski
n se
nsa-
tions
24 p
atie
nts
and
12 c
ontro
ls
VD
Us:
5 H
z–2
kHz:
12
V m
-1
198
nT
2 kH
z–40
0 kH
z: 1
0 V
m-1
18
nT30
min
/ w
eek
for 4
wee
ks
Non
e of
the
test
par
amet
ers
diffe
red
betw
een
expo
sed
and
sham
ex
pose
d co
nditi
ons,
but
ski
n sy
mp-
tom
s ap
pear
ed in
the
open
pro
voca
-tio
n te
sts.
Dou
ble-
blin
d st
udy.
Lonn
e-R
ahm
et a
l.,
2000
-
139
Tabl
e 37
. Con
tinue
d
EE
G, v
isua
l evo
ked
pote
ntia
ls, e
lect
ro-
derm
al a
ctiv
ity, E
CG
and
blo
od p
ress
ure.
20 p
atie
nts
and
20 c
ontro
l sub
ject
s
60 H
zin
term
itten
t 15
sec
on/o
ff cy
cle
at
10 T
mag
netic
fiel
d ex
posu
re a
nd
sham
exp
osur
e ap
plie
d ra
ndom
ly
durin
g a
40 m
in p
erio
d
Mag
netic
fiel
d ex
posu
re h
ad n
o ef
fect
on
any
of th
e pa
ram
eter
s ex
amin
ed.
Pat
ient
s re
porti
ng E
HS
di
ffere
d fro
m c
ontro
l su
bjec
ts in
bas
elin
e va
lues
.
Lysk
ov,
San
dströ
m
& H
anss
on
Mild
, 200
1b
Gen
eral
hea
lth s
urve
y of
133
offi
ce
empl
oyee
s. E
xplo
rato
ry s
tudy
of s
kin
dise
ase,
offi
ce e
rgon
omic
s an
d ai
r qua
l-ity
in 3
offi
ce w
orke
rs re
porti
ng E
MF
hype
rsen
titiv
ity c
ompa
red
to 5
con
trols
VD
Us:
5 H
z–2
kHz
~ 10
–15
V m
-1
100–
150
nT
10%
(13)
of g
ener
al s
taff
repo
rted
EM
F hy
pers
ensi
tivity
; no
diffe
r-en
ces
in s
kin
sym
ptom
s be
twee
n E
MF
hype
rsen
sitiv
es a
nd c
ontro
ls
in e
xplo
rato
ry s
tudy
.
The
auth
ors
wer
e no
t ab
le to
attr
ibut
e E
MF
hype
rsen
sitiv
ity to
any
pa
rticu
lar e
nviro
nmen
-ta
l fac
tor.
Arn
etz,
19
97
Per
cept
ion
and
sym
ptom
s in
one
fem
ale
patie
nt10
dou
ble-
blin
d te
sts
Fiel
ds fr
om V
DU
Th
e di
scom
fort
the
patie
nt e
xper
i-en
ced
had
no c
orre
latio
n to
whe
ther
or
not
the
mon
itor a
ctua
lly w
as o
n.
The
patie
nt re
cons
id-
ered
her
ow
n pe
rcep
-tio
n of
the
illne
ss, a
nd
in ti
me
the
sym
ptom
s re
cede
d co
mpl
etel
y.
Kei
su, 1
996
Per
cept
ion
and
sym
ptom
s in
one
pat
ient
50 H
z 34
or 1
00 µ
T1
or 1
0 s
repe
ated
Pos
itive
resp
onse
whe
n hu
mm
ing
of th
e co
ils a
udib
le, d
isap
pear
ed
whe
n “c
amou
flage
d” b
y m
aski
ng
nois
e.
. To
omin
gas,
19
96
Sym
ptom
s an
d ph
ysio
logi
cal r
eact
ions
100
subj
ects
Low
leve
l mag
netic
fiel
ds (<
1
µT) a
t var
ying
freq
uenc
ies
(0.1
H
z–5
MH
z), i
n sh
ield
ed la
bora
-to
ry.
16 o
ut o
f 100
indi
vidu
als
reac
ted
repe
ated
ly to
fiel
ds b
y se
vera
l pa
ram
eter
s (s
ympt
oms,
pup
il di
am-
eter
cha
nges
etc
.).
Not
sur
e w
heth
er fu
lly
blin
d st
udy.
Rea
et a
l.,
1991
-
140
Tabl
e 37
. Con
tinue
d
EM
F pe
rcep
tion
49 s
ubje
cts
with
EH
S a
nd 1
4 co
ntro
ls50
Hz
100
V m
-1
6 µ
Tra
ndom
ly p
rese
nted
as
2 m
in
bloc
k of
exp
osur
e / s
ham
exp
o-su
re
Per
cept
ion
by 7
sub
ject
s, b
ut n
o di
f-fe
renc
e in
per
cept
ion
betw
een
sub-
ject
s w
ith o
r with
out s
elf-r
epor
ted
EH
S.
Mue
ller,
Kru
eger
&
Sch
ierz
, 20
02
Ele
ctro
card
iogr
am, v
isua
l evo
ked
pote
n-tia
ls (V
EP)
and
ele
ctro
retin
ogra
ms
10 s
ubje
cts
repo
rting
EM
F hy
pers
ensi
v-ity
and
10
cont
rols
Exp
osur
e to
flic
kerin
g lig
ht a
t be
twee
n 25
and
75
flash
es p
er
seco
nd. N
o E
MF
expo
sure
Hig
her V
EP
ampl
itude
s in
EM
F hy
pers
ensi
tive
patie
nts.
Diff
eren
ces
betw
een
mea
n ag
e of
pat
ient
s an
d co
ntro
ls (3
7 vs
47
year
).
San
d-st
röm
et
al.,
199
7
Sel
f-rep
orte
d sy
mpt
oms,
blo
od p
ress
ure,
he
art r
ate,
(ski
n) e
lect
rode
rmal
act
ivity
, E
EG
s an
d vi
sual
evo
ked
pote
ntia
ls10
sub
ject
s re
porti
ng h
yper
sens
itivi
ty
and
10 c
ontro
ls
No
EM
F ex
posu
reD
iffer
ence
s be
twee
n pa
tient
s an
d co
ntro
ls re
gard
ing
self-
repo
rted
sym
ptom
s, h
eart
rate
, ele
ctric
al
activ
ity o
f the
ski
n, a
nd v
isua
l ev
oked
pot
entia
l am
plitu
des.
Lysk
ov,
San
d-st
röm
&
Han
sson
M
ild, 2
001a
Imm
uno-
fluor
esce
nt s
tain
ing
of m
ast
cells
from
ski
n bi
opsi
es13
hea
lthy
subj
ects
VD
U (T
V o
r PC
) exp
osur
e fo
r 2
or 4
hIn
crea
se in
num
ber o
f mas
t cel
ls in
pa
pilla
ry a
nd re
ticul
ar d
erm
is in
5
subj
ects
.
Joha
nsso
n et
al.,
200
1
-
141
Tabl
e 38
. Moo
d an
d al
ertn
ess
Test
Expo
sure
Res
pons
eC
omm
ents
Aut
hors
Moo
d A
djec
tive
Che
cklis
t bef
ore
and
afte
r ex
posu
re; S
tanf
ord
Sle
epin
ess
Sca
le
befo
re d
urin
g an
d af
ter e
xpos
ure
30 m
ale
subj
ects
60 H
z9
kV m
-1 a
nd 2
0 µT
2 x
3 h
/ day
for 4
day
s
No
effe
ct.
Dou
ble-
blin
d, c
ount
erba
lanc
ed
stud
y.C
ook
et
al.,
1992
Ale
rtnes
s R
atin
g S
cale
, Moo
d A
djec
tive
Che
cklis
t bef
ore
and
afte
r exp
osur
e54
mal
e su
bjec
ts
60 H
z6
kV m
-1 a
nd 1
0 µT
9 kV
m-1
and
20
µT12
kV
m-1
and
30
µT2
x 3
h / d
ay fo
r 4 d
ays
No
effe
ct.
Dou
ble-
blin
d, c
ount
erba
lanc
ed
stud
y.G
raha
m e
t al
., 19
94
Stat
e