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CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Definition of Vocabulary
Learning a foreign language cannot be separated from practicing vocabulary.
Vocabulary is the central of language teaching and learning. According to
Kridalaksana (1993:127), vocabulary is a component of language that maintains
all of information about meaning and using word in language. There are some
experts who give definition of vocabulary. Furthermore, Hatch and Brown
(1995:1) define vocabulary as a list or set of words for a particular language or a
list or set of word that individual speakers of language might use. It plays an
important role in the four language skills. It gives contribution to the learners to
perform or practice their skills better. It means that by mastering the vocabulary,
the learners will be able to produce so many sentences easily either in spoken or
written one.
Basically vocabulary is a list or collection words arranged in alphabetical
order and explained a dictionary or lexicon, either of a whole language, a single
work or author-a branch of science, of the like. Vocabulary is also is a sum or
stock of words employed (McClauley, 2005: 1). It is impossible for the learners to
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perform their English well if their vocabularies are very poor. The students will
find any difficulties in expressing or mastering their language skills because of
having too limited vocabularies. Therefore, vocabulary mastery must be on the
first priority in English language teaching and learning. Without mastering the
vocabulary, the learners will be difficult to master the other language skills.
2.2 Level of Vocabulary
Notion (2008: 7) divided vocabulary into four levels on the basis of how
often it occurs in the language. They are high frequency words, academic words,
technical words, and low frequency words. These levels can be explained as
follows:
1. High Frequency Words
High frequency words are the most important group of words.
These words occur very frequently in all kinds of use of the
language. They are needed in formal and informal uses of the
language.
The high frequency words of English have the following
characteristics: 1) Each high frequency word occurs very often, so
the effort of learning it will be repaid by plenty of opportunities to
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meet and use it, 2) The high frequency words are useful no matter
what use is made of English, 3) Because of the frequency and wide
range they make up a very large proportion of the running words in
all kinds of texts and language use, and 4) They are relatively small
group of words that could be covered in a school program over
three to five years.
2. Academic Words
Academic words are words that do not appear in daily conversation
frequently, less than 25 percent of the running words in
conversation are from the academic words list, but frequent and
widely used within specialized area. These words are very
important for learners who will use English for academic study
either in upper secondary schools or technical institutes (academic
words occur in all kinds of academic subject areas like Botany,
Politics, Accounting, and Family Law)
3. Technical Words
Technical words occur in more specialized area than academic
words. These words are very important for anyone who specializes
in a particular area. There have not been many statistical studies of
technical vocabulary, but it seems that at least 20 percent of the
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running in most technical texts, such as anatomy text and
economics text, are likely to be technical words.
4. Low Frequency Words
This last words group is the biggest group among the other three.
Low frequency words are diverse group. They include 1) words
that are not quite frequent or wide range enough to be high
frequency words, 2) technical words from other areas (one persons
technical vocabulary is another persons low frequency
vocabulary), and 3) words that just occur rarely.
Low frequency words have the following characteristics: 1) Each
word does not occur very often. 2) Most low frequency words have
a very narrow range. They are not needed in every use of the
language. 3) The low frequency words make up a very small
proportion of the running words in a text. 4) They are a very large
group of words.
The usage of those kinds of vocabulary above can be shown from the table
2.1 below:
Table 2. 1
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Kinds of Vocabulary
Level Number of Words Text Coverage, %
High frequency words 2,000 87
Academic vocabulary 800 8
Technical vocabulary 2,000 3
Low frequency words 123,200 2
Total 128,000 100
English has a very large of vocabulary. No one, even native speakers, is able
to know them all. Fortunately, we do not need to know them all in order to use
English. We only need to know those that are relevant to our practical purposes.
2.3 Teaching Vocabulary in EFL Classroom
There have been a great number of different approaches to language
learning, each with a different outlook on vocabulary (Richards & Rodgers,
2001). At times, language teaching methodologies have attached great importance
to vocabulary learning, and sometimes it has been neglected (Schmitt, 2000).
English language teaching has changed its perspective on the teaching and
learning of vocabulary in foreign language classes.
Brown (1994:7), learning is a relatively permanent change in a behavioral
tendency and is the result of reinforced practice. Similarly, teaching which is
implied in the first definition of learning, may be defined as showing or helping
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someone to learn how to do some knowledge, causing to know or understand as
mentioned by Brown (1994).
Although deliberate vocabulary teaching is only one of the least efficient
ways of developing vocabulary knowledge, it is also significantly required for a
well-balanced vocabulary program. Vocabulary teaching helps learners when they
feel it is the most needed one especially for the message-focused activities
involving listening, speaking, reading, and writing (Nation, 2005).
2.4 The Development of Teaching Vocabulary
Vocabulary development is not just learning more words but also about
expanding and deepening word knowledge. According to Cameron (2001:73),
vocabulary development is about learning more about those words and about
learning formulaic phrases or chunk, finding words inside them, and learning even
more about those words.
Nowadays, some experts and researchers who are concerned with
vocabulary teaching have invented several methods that are considered newer and
more effective methods. Based on empirical research, there are vocabulary
teaching methods that are considered to be more effective.
2.4.1 The Direct Method
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The direct methods is the method for teaching vocabulary where English
should be more like the learners first language-lots of oral interaction,
spontaneous use of the language, no translation between English and the learners
L1, and just a few or no analysis of grammatical rules (Brown, 2001:21-22). The
direct method is suggested by Thombury (2002).
In practice, the direct method stands for the following principles and
procedures as summarized by Richards and Rodgers (2001:12) below:
1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in
the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentence were taught
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully
traded progression organized around question-and-
answer exchanges between teachers and students in
small, intensive classes
4. Grammar was taught inductively
5. New teaching points were introduced orally
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught demonstration,
objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught
by association of ideas
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught
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8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized
2.4.2 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
CLT is a set of approaches which have similar beliefs that the goal of
language teaching is based on the communicative competence covering
grammatical competence, social linguistic competence, discourse competence,
and strategic competence. Richards and Rodgers (2001) said that some features of
CLT as follow: 1) Contextualization is a basic premise. 2) Language learning is
learning to communicate. 3) Effective communication is sought. 4) Drilling may
occur, but peripherally. 5) Comprehensible pronunciation is sought. 6) Any device
which helps the learners is accepted varying according to their age, interest, etc. 7)
Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning. 8)
Translation may be used where students need or benefit from it. 9) The target
linguistic system will be learned best through the process struggling to
communicate. 10) Teachers help students in any way that motivates them to work
with the language. 11) Students are expected to interact with other people, either
in the flesh, trough pair and group works, or in the writing. 12) Intrinsic
motivation will spring from an interest on what is being communicated by the
language.
2.4.3 Total Physical Response (TPR)
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Total Physical Response (TPR) is the other forms of teaching method that
offers the kinesthetic learning style. Brown (2001) noted that children, in learning
their first language, appear to do a lot listening before they speak, and that their
listening is accompanied by physical responses (reaching, grabbing, moving,
looking and so forth). In TPR classroom is often focusing of too much anxiety, so
it becomes as stress-free, where learners would not overly self-conscious and
defensive.
For instance, if the command Close your eyes is given, the correct
response is a physical action. In this case young learners may not be able to give a
linguistic response to the instruction but they can give a physical response. In
brief, TPR means that students use their whole body to learn. The basis for TPR is
seen in everyday activities, in every classroom in every country around the world
where it is based on the idea that the natural response to understand a command is
a physical respond (Musthafa. 2008:13). Young learners will be willing to
demonstrate comprehension through a physical action long before they are willing
to give linguistics response.
Additionally, TPR gives more opportunities for the students to activate
their memorized through learners response. Performing their action through
moving their bodies can show their understanding. In other words, these physical
responses are important for the childrens learning as they do not learn in
conscious intellectual way and learn by thinking. On the other hand, children learn
by doing (Musthafa, 2008).
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More specifically, the teacher also describes that TPR has several positive
aspects. First, it utilizes the auditory, visual, and tactile learning channels. The
learners listening watch as the commands are given. Last, the learners have a
chance to use all three channels: they listen, watch one another, and do the
commands themselves. Second, TPR helps to teach children to follow direction
and listen attentively. Third, in keeping with developmentally appropriate notions
or thoughts, children are allowed to listen and then choose when they feel
comfortable to start speaking. Fourth, this method can easily be adapted in many
different ways for young learners.
There are many different ways that TPR can be used with young learners.
For children who are just beginning to study English, variety of simple one word
commands, such as stay, stand, wave, and wiggle can be used. Gradually, more
complied child-friendly commands can be introduced. However, when TPR is
used for five, six, or seven year olds, be sure to give only one command a time
because they will have trouble to pay attention to multi-step instruction due to
their overall development.
Since TPR is a lot of fun, students will enjoy it and it can be real stirrer in
the class. Hence, this method is very effective with young learners. TPR can be
used to teach and practice many things. They are summarized as follow:
1. Vocabulary connected with actions (smiles, cut, chop, headache,
wriggle)
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2. Tenses past/ present/ future and continuous aspects (every morning I``
clean my teeth, I make my bed)
3. Classroom language (open your books)
4. Imperative instructions (stand up, close your eyes)
5. Storytelling.
2.5 Strategies of Teaching English Vocabulary to Young Learners
Teaching strategies play a central role in the process of teaching and
learning. Strategies are specific methods of operation for achieving a particular or
planned design for controlling and manipulating certain information (Brown,
1994: 192). In order to use an appropriate strategy, the teacher needs to consider
teaching objectives in teaching learning activity. Some strategies commonly used
by the teachers are described as follows:
2.5.1 Direct Instruction
The selection of a model of learning used by teachers is strongly influenced
by the nature of the material to be taught, it is also influenced by the goal to be
achieved in teaching and student ability levels. At the same time, each model of
learning always has the stages conducted by students with teacher guidance. One
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of the models used by teacher in teaching process is direct instruction. Direct
instruction model is a teaching approach that can assist students in learning basic
skills and obtain that can be taught step by step. Teaching approaches often called
the direct teaching model (Kardi and Nur, 2000). According to Arends (2001), a
teaching model that is aimed at helping student learns basic skills and knowledge
that can be taught in a step by step fashion. For our purposes here, the model is
labeled the direct instruction model. When the teacher used direct instruction
model, teachers have a responsibility to identify goal of learning and great
responsibility to level of structure or skill, explain to students, modeling/ show,
combined with training, provide opportunities for students to practice the concepts
or skills they have learned and provide feedback. Arends (2001) also said that
direct instruction is a teacher centered model that has five steps: establishing set,
explanation and or demonstration, guided practice, feedback, and extended
practice. A direct instruction lesson requires careful orchestration by the teacher
and a learning environment that businesslike and task oriented. Later on
demonstration deal with how the teacher conveys the lesson to the children by
demonstrating the process and situation along with oral explanation this strategy
enables the children to understand the lesson easier because they can use their
sense: hearing and seeing. It enables them to imagine the explanation and have a
clearer picture regarding the process of something. This strategy makes the
instruction clearer, concrete and interesting (Lang and Evan, 2006).
2.5.2 Questioning for Comprehension Checking or QCC strategy
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Questioning for Comprehension Checking (QCC) strategy is a two way
communication between the teacher and the children in which the teacher asks the
children and the children answer the teachers questions, the children attention can
be attracted and focused, the children are stimulated to think and memorize some
things, and the children are encouraged to express their ideas (Fisher and Frey,
2007). In this strategy, the teacher asked students to answer the questions. Before
begin the lesson, the teacher asked students a question related to the material
based on their own experienced and objects around them. However, if the teacher
cannot encourage the children and create a conducive atmosphere in the
classroom, the children will be afraid when the teacher addresses them the
question.
2.5.3 Visual Scaffolding
Visual Scaffolding is support that includes images and words that can be
seen as well as heard. According to Herrel and Jordan (2004:19), visual
scaffolding is strategy in which the language used in instruction is made more
understandable by the display of drawing or photograph, maps, and video that
allows the children to hear English words and connect them to the visual images
that are being displayed. When children can see an image of what the teacher is
describing and see the key words that the teacher is explaining, this is not only to
make the input considerably more comprehensible, but also to remove the
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affective filter which results from the fear or boredom that comes of
understanding in the class.
2.5.4 Drilling
Drilling is the process of students listening to and repeating sentences,
phrases and words modeled by the teacher. Drilling is a strategy to improve
pronunciation by imitating and repeating words, phrases and even whole
utterances (Thombury, 2002:63). It means that it might be useful noticing
technique since it has been attention to the material that learners might not
otherwise have registered. The effect of repeating of bound salience, move new
items from working memory to long-term memory. It provides a mean for gaining
articular control over language of getting the tongue round it.
2.5.5 Games
Although vocabulary is considered as the most important language
component, not all English teachers give great attention in the way of teaching it.
Meanwhile, it is teachers responsibility to seek an interesting way to make
students more motivated to learn. Therefore, games can be applied in vocabulary
teaching. Generally, Elementary school students like playing something funny and
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relaxing. Children enjoy constructive activity play and games. Game is a kind of
forms of strategies in teaching English to young learners that can be funny and
relaxing. It is not only motivating and fun but also it can also provide excellent
practice for improving pronouncing, vocabulary, grammar, and the four language
skills. In addition, for young learners games also provide an important link
between home and school which helps to make them to feel more secure and
confident.
Further, Musthafa (2008:12) stated game is a potentially useful to enhance
children learning because it is really a part of day-to-day menu for children in
every culture. When a lesson consists of game, then it is not a lesson in the eyes of
young learners, therefore it is greatly appreciated. For example a lesson that gives
the teacher the opportunity to help learners acquire new forms and lexis in the
easiest and most effective with the young learners who find it difficult to
understand a long list of rules. It is a strong argument for incorporating them in
EFL of young learners classroom. Then, the teacher discusses that language
game is a healthy challenge to a childs analytical thought where the keys to a
successful language game are clear rules and well defined the ultimate goal.
In addition, Philips (1993:79) proposed that games in the language
classroom help children to see learning English as enjoyable and rewarding.
Games are one way which can develop the ability of children to cooperate, to
compete without being aggressive.
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2.5.6 Song
Most children enjoy singing songs. For the teacher, using songs in the
classroom can also be a nice break from following a set curriculum. It will give
opportunity for children to have listening and speaking experiences. In the age of
learning foreign language, children may have a few opportunities to speak English
to other people outside the classroom. A teacher must be able to balance the
serious study of English with the more entertaining activities. A good teacher is anentertainer, students enjoy being entertained and amused. However, a balance has
to be stuck between entertainments. According to Paul (2003:58), songs can add
feeling and rhythm to language practice that otherwise be felt, help children
remember things more easily, and draw them.
Most children feel that there is a barrier between the classroom world and
their world away from the classroom where they play with their friends and their
daily lives. If the teacher wants the English language plays a more central role in
the daily lives of children, the teacher must find a way to solve this barrier. One of
the ways to solve this barrier is song, because song can make children enjoy in
learning process.
2.6 English for Young Learner
Teaching language to children is different from teaching teenagers or adults.
Cameron (2001:1) proposed that children are often more enthusiastic and lively as
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learners than adults. They always have an activity to be done even when they do
not quite understand why or how.
In learning English as foreign language, children need to play with the
language. According to Mustafa (2008), try it out, test it, receive feedback, and
try again. Thus teaching materials should be appropriate with childrens need in
mastering English. There are: (1) Learning should be fun and natural for young
learners. In order for them to be successful in learning the target language, there
must be the absence of stress. It is commonly believed that the environment of
foreign language learning often causes stress and anxiety. Young learners are
believed not to learn language forms directly: commands are believed to be
helpful for children to interpret meanings. This activity is believed to liberate self-
conscious a stressful situations. (2) The language should be first presented through
sounds, not written symbols. Listening and speaking are worked on as the learners
produce meaningful utterances concerning physical object and their own
experience. After young learners can produce sounds in the target language and
connect the sounds in the truth, they may begin to read symbols in the target
language. This process can begin after the children are able to understand what
other people speak (listening) and able to produce the language (speaking). (3)
Young learners are more sensitive to anything that can be touched and sensed;
they react easily to physical objects, language is taught by having the students use
their senses, touch, listen, smell, and even taste necessary. This will help them
relate the linguistic signed to the truth that they perceive with their senses. (4)
Meaning should be made perceptible through concrete objects or by the
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presentation of experience. When language learners make mistakes or
misconception of something, teachers do not correct it through translation but they
need to show to something to make the meaning are better. (5) The idea that
teaching should start from what the students already know in order to encourage
association processes seem to favor children. By teaching through this way, young
learners are expected to know not only by saying but also by doing something
without being aware of what they are doing. In order to make them aware, the
new materials have to have relationship between previous one so that they can
easily make an association since association process is necessary part of learning.
Thus language teacher should build upon the meaning process by adding new
segment of language to the previous one; he or she starts from what the language
learners already know in order to encourage association process.
According to Moneey (2000:64), there are four stages of Cognitive
Development in children. All children go through identifiable stage of cognitive
developments as follows: Sensomotoricperiod (birth +/- years), children tend to
explore the words physically and grasp things. Preoperational (2-7 years), this
staged marks the beginning language and vocabulary, and the first learning of
good and bad. Concrete Operational (7-12 years), when children used
reference to familiar actions, objects, can reason with concept relationship,
abstract properties, and theories.
Based on the cognitive development above, the fifth grade students of
Elementary School, who are involved in this research, are in the concrete
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operational stage. It means that they are in the beginning stage of learning
language and vocabulary and thinking more concrete to actions, objects, and
properties.
Teachers require plenty of object and pictures to work, and to make full use
of the school and their surroundings. Thus, the students will learn by doing things
since they learn naturally. By seeing and doing what the teacher has said, they will
understand the lesson unconsciously.
Young learners are usually full of enthusiasm and energy, and the language
lesson will be full of variety and change activity. Thus, the teachers should be
very creative in planning the lesson be considered when teaching young learners.
Many aspects deals with young learners characteristics proposed by Harmer
(2007:82) are as follow: children have their own culture and learning preference.
Children learn by way of physical activities. Children have relatively short
attention and concentration span. Children learn naturally. Children learn best
when learning is meaningful, interesting and functional. Non-verbal language is
important because children will indeed attend very sensitively to the teachers
facial features, gestures, and touches.
Further explanation about each of the characteristics is explained below.
First, young learners have their own culture and learning preference. It means that
the instruction should be child friendly. Therefore, they will find the instruction
easily.
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Second, young learners learn by way of physical activities (learning through
hand-on activities, learning by doing). It is believed that students physically can
internalize the language they are learning especially vocabulary.
Third, young learners have relatively attention and concentration span;
unless the activities are extremely engaging, they can easily get bored, losing
interest after ten minutes or so.
Forth, young learners learn naturally. As part of their development, children
are always active in exploring their environment and accumulating knowledge and
experiences. For this exploration, children construct their understanding of how
things work, including the language they use as both a system and tools for
communication. Also learning for everything around them rather than only
focusing on the precise topic they are being taught.
Fifth, young learners learn best when learning is meaningful, interesting, and
functional. Young learners will find things meaningful, interesting, and functional
when they are relate these things with their needs and personal experiences.
Sixth, non-verbal language is important because young learners will indeed
attend very sensitively to the teachers facial features, gestures, and touches.
The last one is young learners often learn indirectly rather than directly, they
take in information from all sides, learning for everything around them rather than
only focusing on the precise topic they are being taught.
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2.7 Teaching Difficulties
Teaching English vocabulary especially to very young learners is not an
easy job to do, we know that a child who cannot read even speak not fluently have
to learn foreign language. The teacher may find some difficulties when teaching
English vocabulary to young learners. The difficulties might include the
followings:
Table 2.2
Teaching difficulties by Moon (2005)
No Difficulties
Difficulties from Teachera Limited English profiency
b Time management
c Adjustment to childrens language
d Teachers feedback
Difficulties from Students
a Childrens interest
b Children limited attention span and short concentration
c Children have less awareness to learn
d Children level knowledge
e Children dealing with their memory
Teacher may have limited English or insufficient fluency in the language, so
this way may enable to give students incorrect models. It is because young
learners have special sensitivity to pronunciation though they will not be able to
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make use to this particular instinct. Thus teachers need to possess very good
English language skills since they provide the main language input for children
who may have limited exposure outside the classroom.
Teacher also may have difficulties in time management. This kind of
difficulties could cause the planned activities unaccomplished well. The
incapability in classroom management becomes one of the obstacles coming from
the teacher in teaching vocabulary. It surely could affect the process of teaching
and learning where all the planned activities could not be accomplished.
Teachers need to be flexible to be able to adjust their language to the
childrens level knowledge of English. So, they can provide feedback and a rich
knowledge of the culture so as to get children interested.
Young learners were not interested in learning vocabulary. Since the
students were not interested on the vocabulary learning, they did not focus and
pay much attention during the learning process.
It is an effect of the use of English by the teacher. According to Moon
(2005), students, who are anxious to do the activity, can lose their interest and
concentration because the students have limited English.
Students have less awareness of children to learn. It is because the age of
five or earlier, as stated Moon (2005), will be less able to reflect on their learning
in a conscious way as this ability to reflect consciously and to analyze is linked to
young learners of cognitive development.
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In a review by Kim cited in Moon (2005) it is pointed out that one of the
difficulties that appears in teaching vocabularies because of the gap in word
knowledge among children. Teachers may get obstacles especially if the teacher
intends to have some exposure of English to the students without using native
language at all during the class. The gap can distract the accomplishment of
vocabulary instruction. It is as same as the use of full English during the class that
students may need too much effort to try to understand, and this situation can
make them feel low motivated.
The existence of young learners with special needs in an ordinary classroom
can create another difficulty. The problem dealing with their memory is one of
learning obstacles.
Young learners have special sensitivity to hearing or pronunciation though
they will not be able to make use to this particular instinct if their teachers lack
fluency of foreign language. Therefore, very young learners need good English
teachers with good strategies in teaching, because very young learners are in basic
level for learning, if teachers give incorrect models, they will follow it. Teachers
should facilitate vocabulary learning by teaching learners useful words and by
teaching strategies to help learners figure out meaning on their own (Nation,
2003)
From statement above, it can be concluded that there were several
difficulties appeared along the process of teaching and learning faced by the
teacher. All of the difficulties were related to the implementation and the
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preparation of strategies employed in those three observations. The difficulties
were adjustment to young learners language, the students interest in learning and
young learners limited attention span and short concentration.
2.8 Previous Study
Some studies have been conducted previously concerning teaching
vocabulary and young learners. They are the studies conducted by Schippert
(2005) and Huyen and Nga (2003).
Schippert (2005) entitled Read Aloud about Vocabulary: A New Way of
teaching. The research focused on investigating the students vocabulary by
reading aloud at first grade elementary school. The first goal is the teacher reads a
book to the children for pure enjoyment. Thus, children would acquire two or
three words in each week; teachers went back and reread the passage that
contained the vocabulary words. Further, teacher introduced and read a new story
aloud. Then, teacher reviewed vocabulary words from the story and before by
showing words written on sentence strips and asking children about their
meaning. Second goal children make a personal connection with these words.
Then, teacher posted the words on bulletin in the classroom. Teacher set up a box
for children to find new words they wanted the class to learn. Overall, children
showed a new awareness of vocabulary in the world around them.
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Another study is proposed by Huyen and Nga (2003) explained that learning
vocabulary through games. The research focused on effective in helping students
to improve their vocabulary building skills. The research used communicative
language teaching (CLT) approach, learners are required to take part in a number
of meaningful activities with different tasks. This is to improve learners'
communicative competence by encouraging them to be a part of the lessons
themselves. The research used observation and interview to find difficulties of
teaching vocabulary. After collecting data by observing CLT teachers' classes,
interviewing teachers and students, and from our reflections of applying games in
the classes we are teaching, we have some findings that will be helpful for
teaching and learning vocabulary. The results will be displayed in three
subsections, (i) students' expectations and attitudes, (ii) students' progress and (iii)
unanticipated problems. The results of this research suggest that games are used
not only for mere fun, but more importantly, for the useful practice and review of
language lessons, thus leading toward the goal of improving learners'
communicative competence.