Cephalic Disorders

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

AND HUMAN SERVICES

National Institutes of Health

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What are cephalic disorders?

Cephalic disorders are congenital

conditions that stem from damage to,

or abnormal development of, the budding

nervous system. Cephalic is a term that

means “head” or “head end of the body.”

Congenital means the disorder is present

at, and usually before, birth. Although

there are many congenital developmental

disorders, this fact sheet briefly describes

only cephalic conditions.

Cephalic disorders are not necessarily

caused by a single factor but may be influ-

enced by hereditary or genetic conditions

or by environmental exposures during

pregnancy such as medication taken by the

mother, maternal infection, or exposure to

radiation. Some cephalic disorders occur

when the cranial sutures (the fibrous joints

that connect the bones of the skull) join

prematurely. Most cephalic disorders are

caused by a disturbance that occurs very

early in the development of the fetal

nervous system.

The human nervous system develops from

a small, specialized plate of cells on the sur-

face of the embryo. Early in development,

this plate of cells forms the neural tube, a

narrow sheath that closes between the third

and fourth weeks of pregnancy to form the

Cephalic Disorders

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brain and spinal cord of the embryo. Four

main processes are responsible for the

development of the nervous system: cell

proliferation, the process in which nerve

cells divide to form new generations of

cells; cell migration, the process in which

nerve cells move from their place of origin

to the place where they will remain for life;

cell differentiation, the process during which

cells acquire individual characteristics; and

cell death, a natural process in which cells

die. Understanding the normal develop-

ment of the human nervous system, one

of the research priorities of the National

Institute of Neurological Disorders and

Stroke, may lead to a better understanding

of cephalic disorders.

Damage to the developing nervous system

is a major cause of chronic, disabling dis-

orders and, sometimes, death in infants,

children, and even adults. The degree to

which damage to the developing nervous

system harms the mind and body varies

enormously. Many disabilities are mild

enough to allow those afflicted to even-

tually function independently in society.

Others are not. Some infants, children, and

adults die, others remain totally disabled,

and an even larger population is partially

disabled, functioning well below normal

capacity throughout life.

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What are the different kinds of cephalic disorders?

ANENCEPHALY is a neural tube defect

that occurs when the cephalic (head)

end of the neural tube fails to close, usually

between the 23rd and 26th days of preg-

nancy, resulting in the absence of a major

portion of the brain, skull, and scalp. Infants

with this disorder are born without a fore-

brain—the largest part of the brain con-

sisting mainly of the cerebrum, which is

responsible for thinking and coordination.

The remaining brain tissue is often

exposed—not covered by bone or skin.

Infants born with anencephaly are usually

blind, deaf, unconscious, and unable to

feel pain. Although some individuals with

anencephaly may be born with a rudimen-

tary brainstem, the lack of a functioning

cerebrum permanently rules out the possi-

bility of ever gaining consciousness. Reflex

actions such as breathing and responses to

sound or touch may occur.

The disorder is one of the most common

disorders of the fetal central nervous sys-

tem. Approximately 1,000 to 2,000 American

babies are born with anencephaly each year.

The disorder affects females more often

than males.

The cause of anencephaly is unknown.

Although it is believed that the mother’s

diet and vitamin intake may play a role,

scientists agree that many other factors

are also involved.

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There is no cure or standard treatment

for anencephaly and the prognosis for

affected individuals is poor. Most infants

do not survive infancy. If the infant is not

stillborn, then he or she will usually die

within a few hours or days after birth.

Anencephaly can often be diagnosed before

birth through an ultrasound examination.

Recent studies have shown that the addition

of folic acid to the diet of women of child-

bearing age may significantly reduce the

incidence of neural tube defects. Therefore

it is recommended that all women of child-

bearing age consume 0.4 mg of folic acid daily.

COLPOCEPHALY is a disorder in which

there is an abnormal enlargement of the

occipital horns—the posterior or rear por-

tion of the lateral ventricles (cavities or

chambers) of the brain. This enlargement

occurs when there is an underdevelopment

or lack of thickening of the white matter

in the posterior cerebrum. Colpocephaly is

characterized by microcephaly (abnormally

small head) and mental retardation. Other

features may include motor abnormalities,

muscle spasms, and seizures.

Although the cause is unknown, researchers

believe that the disorder results from an

intrauterine disturbance that occurs between

the second and sixth months of pregnancy.

Colpocephaly may be diagnosed late in preg-

nancy, although it is often misdiagnosed as

hydrocephalus (excessive accumulation of

cerebrospinal fluid in the brain). It may be

more accurately diagnosed after birth when

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signs of mental retardation, microcephaly,

and seizures are present.

There is no definitive treatment for

colpocephaly. Anticonvulsant medications

can be given to prevent seizures, and doctors

try to prevent contractures (shrinkage or

shortening of muscles).

The prognosis for individuals with

colpocephaly depends on the severity of

the associated conditions and the degree

of abnormal brain development. Some

children benefit from special education.

HOLOPROSENCEPHALY is a disorder

characterized by the failure of the prosen-

cephalon (the forebrain of the embryo) to

develop. During normal development the

forebrain is formed and the face begins

to develop in the fifth and sixth weeks of

pregnancy. Holoprosencephaly is caused by

a failure of the embryo’s forebrain to divide

to form bilateral cerebral hemispheres (the

left and right halves of the brain), causing

defects in the development of the face

and in brain structure and function.

There are three classifications of holopro-

sencephaly. Alobar holoprosencephaly, the

most serious form in which the brain fails

to separate, is usually associated with

severe facial anomalies. Semilobar holopro-

sencephaly, in which the brain’s hemispheres

have a slight tendency to separate, is an

intermediate form of the disease. Lobar

holoprosencephaly, in which there is consider-

able evidence of separate brain hemispheres,

is the least severe form. In some cases of

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lobar holoprosencephaly, the patient’s

brain may be nearly normal.

Holoprosencephaly, once called arhinen-

cephaly, consists of a spectrum of defects or

malformations of the brain and face. At the

most severe end of this spectrum are cases

involving serious malformations of the

brain, malformations so severe that they

are incompatible with life and often cause

spontaneous intrauterine death. At the

other end of the spectrum are individuals

with facial defects—which may affect the

eyes, nose, and upper lip—and normal or

near-normal brain development. Seizures

and mental retardation may occur.

The most severe of the facial defects

(or anomalies) is cyclopia, an abnormality

characterized by the development of a

single eye, located in the area normally

occupied by the root of the nose, and a

missing nose or a nose in the form of a

proboscis (a tubular appendage) located

above the eye.

Ethmocephaly is the least common facial

anomaly. It consists of a proboscis separat-

ing narrow-set eyes with an absent nose

and microphthalmia (abnormal smallness

of one or both eyes).

Cebocephaly, another facial anomaly, is

characterized by a small, flattened nose

with a single nostril situated below incom-

plete or underdeveloped closely set eyes.

The least severe in the spectrum of facial

anomalies is the median cleft lip, also

called premaxillary agenesis.

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Although the causes of most cases of holo-

prosencephaly remain unknown, researchers

know that approximately one-half of all cases

have a chromosomal cause. Such chromoso-

mal anomalies as Patau’s syndrome (trisomy

13) and Edwards’ syndrome (trisomy 18) have

been found in association with holoprosen-

cephaly. There is an increased risk for the

disorder in infants of diabetic mothers.

There is no treatment for holoprosencephaly

and the prognosis for individuals with the

disorder is poor. Most of those who survive

show no significant developmental gains.

For children who survive, treatment is

symptomatic. Although it is possible that

improved management of diabetic pregnan-

cies may help prevent holoprosencephaly,

there is no means of primary prevention.

HYDRANENCEPHALY is a rare condition

in which the cerebral hemispheres are

absent and replaced by sacs filled with

cerebrospinal fluid. Usually the cerebel-

lum and brainstem are formed normally.

An infant with hydranencephaly may

appear normal at birth. The infant’s head

size and spontaneous reflexes such as

sucking, swallowing, crying, and moving

the arms and legs may all seem normal.

However, after a few weeks the infant

usually becomes irritable and has

increased muscle tone (hypertonia).

After several months of life, seizures and

hydrocephalus may develop. Other symp-

toms may include visual impairment, lack of

growth, deafness, blindness, spastic quadri-

paresis (paralysis), and intellectual deficits.

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Hydranencephaly is an extreme form of

porencephaly (a rare disorder, discussed

later in this fact sheet, characterized by a

cyst or cavity in the cerebral hemispheres)

and may be caused by vascular insult (such

as stroke) or injuries, infections, or traumatic

disorders after the 12th week of pregnancy.

Diagnosis may be delayed for several

months because the infant’s early behavior

appears to be relatively normal. Transillu-

mination, an examination in which light is

passed through body tissues, usually con-

firms the diagnosis. Some infants may have

additional abnormalities at birth, including

seizures, myoclonus (involuntary sudden,

rapid jerks), and respiratory problems.

There is no standard treatment for hydra-

nencephaly. Treatment is symptomatic and

supportive. Hydrocephalus may be treated

with a shunt.

The outlook for children with hydranen-

cephaly is generally poor, and many children

with this disorder die before age 1. However,

in rare cases, children with hydrocephalus

may survive for several years or more.

INIENCEPHALY is a rare neural tube

defect that combines extreme retroflexion

(backward bending) of the head with severe

defects of the spine. The affected infant

tends to be short, with a disproportionately

large head. Diagnosis can be made immedi-

ately after birth because the head is so

severely retroflexed that the face looks

upward. The skin of the face is connected

directly to the skin of the chest and the

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scalp is directly connected to the skin of the

back. Generally, the neck is absent.

Most individuals with iniencephaly have other

associated anomalies such as anencephaly,

cephalocele (a disorder in which part of the

cranial contents protrudes from the skull),

hydrocephalus, cyclopia, absence of the man-

dible (lower jaw bone), cleft lip and palate,

cardiovascular disorders, diaphragmatic her-

nia, and gastrointestinal malformation. The

disorder is more common among females.

The prognosis for those with iniencephaly

is extremely poor. Newborns with inien-

cephaly seldom live more than a few hours.

The distortion of the fetal body may also

pose a danger to the mother’s life.

LISSENCEPHALY, which literally means

“smooth brain,” is a rare brain malformation

characterized by microcephaly and the lack of

normal convolutions (folds) in the brain. It is

caused by defective neuronal migration, the

process in which nerve cells move from their

place of origin to their permanent location.

The surface of a normal brain is formed

by a complex series of folds and grooves.

The folds are called gyri or convolutions,

and the grooves are called sulci. In children

with lissencephaly, the normal convolutions

are absent or only partly formed, making

the surface of the brain smooth.

Symptoms of the disorder may include unusual

facial appearance, difficulty swallowing, failure

to thrive, and severe psychomotor retarda-

tion. Anomalies of the hands, fingers, or toes,

muscle spasms, and seizures may also occur.

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Lissencephaly may be diagnosed at or soon

after birth. Diagnosis may be confirmed by

ultrasound, computed tomography (CT),

or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Lissencephaly may be caused by intrauterine

viral infections or viral infections in the fetus

during the first trimester, insufficient blood

supply to the baby’s brain early in pregnancy,

or a genetic disorder. There are two distinct

genetic causes of lissencephaly—X-linked

and chromosome 17-linked.

The spectrum of lissencephaly is only now

becoming more defined as neuroimaging

and genetics has provided more insights into

migration disorders. Other causes which have

not yet been identified are likely as well.

Lissencephaly may be associated with other

diseases including isolated lissencephaly

sequence, Miller-Dieker syndrome, and

Walker-Warburg syndrome.

Treatment for those with lissencephaly is

symptomatic and depends on the severity

and locations of the brain malformations.

Supportive care may be needed to help

with comfort and nursing needs. Seizures

may be controlled with medication and

hydrocephalus may require shunting. If

feeding becomes difficult, a gastrostomy

tube may be considered.

The prognosis for children with lissencephaly

varies depending on the degree of brain

malformation. Many individuals show no

significant development beyond a 3- to

5-month-old level. Some may have near-

normal development and intelligence.

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Many will die before the age of 2. Respira-

tory problems are the most common causes

of death.

MEGALENCEPHALY, also called macren-

cephaly, is a condition in which there is

an abnormally large, heavy, and usually

malfunctioning brain. By definition, the

brain weight is greater than average for

the age and gender of the infant or child.

Head enlargement may be evident at birth

or the head may become abnormally large

in the early years of life.

Megalencephaly is thought to be related

to a disturbance in the regulation of cell

reproduction or proliferation. In normal

development, neuron proliferation—the

process in which nerve cells divide to form

new generations of cells—is regulated so

that the correct number of cells is formed

in the proper place at the appropriate time.

Symptoms of megalencephaly may include

delayed development, convulsive disorders,

corticospinal (brain cortex and spinal cord)

dysfunction, and seizures. Megalencephaly

affects males more often than females.

The prognosis for individuals with

megalencephaly largely depends on the

underlying cause and the associated neuro-

logical disorders. Treatment is symptomatic.

Megalencephaly may lead to a condition

called macrocephaly (defined later in this

fact sheet).

Unilateral megalencephaly or hemime-

galencephaly is a rare condition characterized

by the enlargement of one-half of the brain.

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Children with this disorder may have

a large, sometimes asymmetrical head.

Often they suffer from intractable seizures

and mental retardation. The prognosis for

those with hemimegalencephaly is poor.

MICROCEPHALY is a neurological

disorder in which the circumference of

the head is smaller than average for the

age and gender of the infant or child.

Microcephaly may be congenital or it

may develop in the first few years of life.

The disorder may stem from a wide variety

of conditions that cause abnormal growth

of the brain, or from syndromes associated

with chromosomal abnormalities.

Infants with microcephaly are born with

either a normal or reduced head size.

Subsequently the head fails to grow while

the face continues to develop at a normal

rate, producing a child with a small head,

a large face, a receding forehead, and a

loose, often wrinkled scalp. As the child

grows older, the smallness of the skull

becomes more obvious, although the

entire body also is often underweight

and dwarfed. Development of motor func-

tions and speech may be delayed. Hyper-

activity and mental retardation are common

occurrences, although the degree of each

varies. Convulsions may also occur. Motor

ability varies, ranging from clumsiness in

some to spastic quadriplegia in others.

Generally there is no specific treatment

for microcephaly. Treatment is sympto-

matic and supportive.

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In general, life expectancy for individuals

with microcephaly is reduced and the prog-

nosis for normal brain function is poor. The

prognosis varies depending on the presence

of associated abnormalities.

PORENCEPHALY is an extremely rare

disorder of the central nervous system

involving a cyst or cavity in a cerebral

hemisphere. The cysts or cavities are

usually the remnants of destructive

lesions, but are sometimes the result

of abnormal development. The disorder

can occur before or after birth.

Porencephaly most likely has a number

of different, often unknown causes, includ-

ing absence of brain development and

destruction of brain tissue. The presence

of porencephalic cysts can sometimes be

detected by transillumination of the skull

in infancy. The diagnosis may be confirmed

by CT, MRI, or ultrasonography.

More severely affected infants show

symptoms of the disorder shortly after

birth, and the diagnosis is usually made

before age 1. Signs may include delayed

growth and development, spastic paresis

(slight or incomplete paralysis), hypotonia

(decreased muscle tone), seizures (often

infantile spasms), and macrocephaly

or microcephaly.

Individuals with porencephaly may

have poor or absent speech development,

epilepsy, hydrocephalus, spastic contrac-

tures (shrinkage or shortening of muscles),

and mental retardation. Treatment may

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include physical therapy, medication for

seizure disorders, and a shunt for hydro-

cephalus. The prognosis for individuals

with porencephaly varies according to

the location and extent of the lesion.

Some patients with this disorder may

develop only minor neurological problems

and have normal intelligence, while others

may be severely disabled. Others may die

before the second decade of life.

SCHIZENCEPHALY is a rare develop-

mental disorder characterized by abnormal

slits, or clefts, in the cerebral hemispheres.

Schizencephaly is a form of porencephaly.

Individuals with clefts in both hemispheres,

or bilateral clefts, are often development-

ally delayed and have delayed speech and

language skills and corticospinal dysfunc-

tion. Individuals with smaller, unilateral

clefts (clefts in one hemisphere) may be

weak on one side of the body and may

have average or near-average intelligence.

Patients with schizencephaly may also have

varying degrees of microcephaly, mental

retardation, hemiparesis (weakness or

paralysis affecting one side of the body),

or quadriparesis (weakness or paralysis

affecting all four extremities), and may

have reduced muscle tone (hypotonia).

Most patients have seizures and some

may have hydrocephalus.

In schizencephaly, the neurons border

the edge of the cleft implying a very early

disruption in development. There is now

a genetic origin for one type of schizen-

cephaly. Causes of this type may include

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environmental exposures during pregnancy

such as medication taken by the mother,

exposure to toxins, or a vascular insult.

Often there are associated heterotopias

(isolated islands of neurons) which indi-

cate a failure of migration of the neurons

to their final position in the brain.

Treatment for individuals with schizen-

cephaly generally consists of physical

therapy, treatment for seizures, and, in

cases that are complicated by hydroce-

phalus, a shunt.

The prognosis for individuals with schizen-

cephaly varies depending on the size of the

clefts and the degree of neurological deficit.

What are other less common cephalies?

ACEPHALY literally means absence

of the head. It is a much rarer con-

dition than anencephaly. The acephalic

fetus is a parasitic twin attached to an

otherwise intact fetus. The acephalic

fetus has a body but lacks a head and

a heart; the fetus’s neck is attached to

the normal twin. The blood circulation

of the acephalic fetus is provided by the

heart of the twin. The acephalic fetus

can not exist independently of the fetus

to which it is attached.

EXENCEPHALY is a condition in which

the brain is located outside of the skull.

This condition is usually found in embryos

as an early stage of anencephaly. As an

exencephalic pregnancy progresses, the

neural tissue gradually degenerates. It is

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unusual to find an infant carried to term

with this condition because the defect is

incompatible with survival.

MACROCEPHALY is a condition in which the

head circumference is larger than average

for the age and gender of the infant or child.

It is a descriptive rather than a diagnostic

term and is a characteristic of a variety

of disorders. Macrocephaly also may be

inherited. Although one form of macro-

cephaly may be associated with mental

retardation, in approximately one-half

of cases mental development is normal.

Macrocephaly may be caused by an enlarged

brain or hydrocephalus. It may be associated

with other disorders such as dwarfism, neu-

rofibromatosis, and tuberous sclerosis.

MICRENCEPHALY is a disorder character-

ized by a small brain and may be caused

by a disturbance in the proliferation of

nerve cells. Micrencephaly may also be

associated with maternal problems such

as alcoholism, diabetes, or rubella (German

measles). A genetic factor may play a role

in causing some cases of micrencephaly.

Affected newborns generally have striking

neurological defects and seizures. Severely

impaired intellectual development is com-

mon, but disturbances in motor functions

may not appear until later in life.

OCTOCEPHALY is a lethal condition in

which the primary feature is agnathia—

a developmental anomaly characterized

by total or virtual absence of the lower

jaw. The condition is considered lethal

because of a poorly functioning airway.

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In octocephaly, agnathia may occur alone

or together with holoprosencephaly.

Another group of less common cephalic

disorders are the craniostenoses. Cranio-

stenoses are deformities of the skull caused

by the premature fusion or joining together

of the cranial sutures. Cranial sutures are

fibrous joints that join the bones of the

skull together. The nature of these deformi-

ties depends on which sutures are affected.

BRACHYCEPHALY occurs when the

coronal suture fuses prematurely, causing

a shortened front-to-back diameter of the

skull. The coronal suture is the fibrous joint

that unites the frontal bone with the two

parietal bones of the skull. The parietal

bones form the top and sides of the skull.

OXYCEPHALY is a term sometimes used

to describe the premature closure of the

coronal suture plus any other suture, or it

may be used to describe the premature

fusing of all sutures. Oxycephaly is the

most severe of the craniostenoses.

PLAGIOCEPHALY results from the pre-

mature unilateral fusion (joining of one

side) of the coronal or lambdoid sutures.

The lambdoid suture unites the occipital

bone with the parietal bones of the skull.

Plagiocephaly is a condition characterized

by an asymmetrical distortion (flattening

of one side) of the skull. It is a common

finding at birth and may be the result

of brain malformation, a restrictive

intrauterine environment, or torticollis

(a spasm or tightening of neck muscles).

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SCAPHOCEPHALY applies to premature

fusion of the sagittal suture. The sagittal

suture joins together the two parietal bones

of the skull. Scaphocephaly is the most

common of the craniostenoses and is

characterized by a long, narrow head.

TRIGONOCEPHALY is the premature

fusion of the metopic suture (part of the

frontal suture which joins the two halves

of the frontal bone of the skull) in which

a V-shaped abnormality occurs at the front

of the skull. It is characterized by the

triangular prominence of the forehead

and closely set eyes.

What research is being done?

W ithin the Federal Government, the

National Institute of Neurological

Disorders and Stroke (NINDS), one of the

National Institutes of Health (NIH), has

primary responsibility for conducting

and supporting research on normal and

abnormal brain and nervous system devel-

opment, including congenital anomalies.

The National Institute of Child Health

and Human Development, the National

Institute of Mental Health, the National

Institute of Environmental Health Sciences,

the National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and

Alcoholism, and the National Institute on

Drug Abuse also support research related

to disorders of the developing nervous sys-

tem. Gaining basic knowledge about how

the nervous system develops and under-

standing the role of genetics in fetal

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development are major goals of scientists

studying congenital neurological disorders.

Scientists are rapidly learning how harmful

insults at various stages of pregnancy can

lead to developmental disorders. For exam-

ple, a critical nutritional deficiency or expo-

sure to an environmental insult during the

first month of pregnancy (when the neural

tube is formed) can produce neural tube

defects such as anencephaly.

Scientists are also concentrating their

efforts on understanding the complex

processes responsible for normal early

development of the brain and nervous

system and how the disruption of any

of these processes results in congenital

anomalies such as cephalic disorders.

Understanding how genes control brain

cell migration, proliferation, differenti-

ation, and death, and how radiation, drugs,

toxins, infections, and other factors disrupt

these processes will aid in preventing

many congenital neurological disorders.

Currently, researchers are examining the

mechanisms involved in neurulation—the

process of forming the neural tube. These

studies will improve our understanding of

this process and give insight into how the

process can go awry and cause devastating

congenital disorders.

Investigators are also analyzing genes and

gene products necessary for human brain

development to achieve a better understand-

ing of normal brain development in humans.

Where can I go for more information?

F or more information about disorders of

the developing nervous system, cephalic

disorders, or birth defects in general, you

may wish to contact:

National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD)P.O. Box 1968(55 Kenosia Avenue)Danbury, Connecticut 06813-1968(203) 744-0100(800) 999-6673www.rarediseases.org

The Lissencephaly Network716 Autumn Ridge LaneFort Wayne, Indiana 46804-6402(219) 432-4310www.lissencephaly.org

March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation1275 Mamaroneck AvenueWhite Plains, New York 10605(914) 428-7100(888) MODIMES (663-4637)www.marchofdimes.com

Birth Defect Research for Children930 Woodcock Road, Suite 225Orlando, Florida 32803(407) 895-0802www.birthdefects.org

For more information on research on thecephalic disorders, you may wish to contactthe NINDS Brain Resources and InformationNetwork at:

BRAINP.O. Box 5801Bethesda, Maryland 20824(301) 496-5751(800) 352-9424www.ninds.nih.gov

NIH Publication No. 03-4339 August 2003

Prepared by:Office of Communications and Public LiaisonNational Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke

National Institutes of HealthDepartment of Health and Human ServicesBethesda, Maryland 20892-2540